Experiments on the role of water in petroleum formation

Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta

Volumn 61, Issue 17, 1997, Pages 3691-3723

  Lewan, M D ^a  

^a DENVER FEDERAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

PETROLEUM FORMATION; WATER;

EID: 0031400675     PISSN: 00167037     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0016-7037(97)00176-2     Document Type: Article

References (163)

1. Arca M., Area E., Yildiz A., and Guveti O. (1987) Thermal stability of poly (pyrrole). J. Mater. Sci. Lett. 6, 1013-1015.
2. Barth T., Borgund A. E., Hopland A. L., and Grave A. (1987) Volatile organic acids produced during kerogen maturation-amounts, composition and role in migration of oil. Org. Geochem. 13, 461-465.
3. Barth T., Borgund A. E., and Hopland A. L. (1989) Generation of organic compounds by hydrous pyrolysis of Kimmeridge oil shale-bulk results and activation energy calculations. Org. Geochem. 14, 69-76.
4. Baskin D. K. and Peters K. E. (1992) Early generation characteristics of a sulfur-rich Monterey kerogen. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 76, 1-13.
5. Behar F. and Vandenbroucke M. (1987) Chemical modelling of kerogens. Org. Geochem. 11, 15-24.
6. Beltrame P. L., Carniti P., Audisio G., and Bertini F. (1989) Catalytic degradation of polymers: Part II - Degradation of polyethylene. Poly. Degrad. Stabil. 26, 209-220.
7. Benson S. W. (1976) Thermochemical Kinetics. Wiley.
8. Bockrath B. C., Illig E. G., and Wassell-Bridger W. D. (1987) Solvent swelling of liquefaction residues. Energy & Fuels 1, 226-227.
9. Boles J. R. and Ramseyer K. (1987) Diagenetic carbonate in Miocene sandstone reservoir, San Joaquin Basin, California. AAPG Bull. 71, 1475-1487.
10. Brady C. J., Cunningham J. R., and Wilson G. M. (1982) Water-hydrocarbon liquid-liquid-vapor equilibrium measurements to 500°F. Gas Processors Association Res. Rept. 62, 66 pp.
11. Braun R. L. and Rothman A. J. (1975) Oil-shale pyrolysis: Kinetics and mechanism of oil production. Fuel 54, 129-131.
12. Braun R. L., Burnham A. K., Reynolds J. G., and Clarkson J. E. (1991) Pyrolysis kinetics for lacustrine and marine source rocks by programmed micropyrolysis. Energy & Fuels 5, 192-204.
13. de la Breteque P. (1978) Gallium and gallium compounds. In Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 3d ed., vol. 2., pp. 604-620. Wiley.
14. Brooks B. T. (1952) Evidence of catalytic action in petroleum formation. Indust. Eng. Chem. 44, 2570-2577.
15. Brooks J. D. and Smith J. W. (1969) The diagenesis of plant lipids during the formation of coal, petroleum and natural gas-II. Coalification and the formation of oil and gas in the Gippsland Basin. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 33, 1183-1194.
16. Buchardt B. and Lewan M. D. (1990) Reflectance of vitrinite-like macerals as a thermal maturity index for Cambrian-Ordovician Alum Shale, southern Scandinavia. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 74, 394-406.
17. Burnham A. K. and Happe J. A. (1984) On the mechanism of kerogen pyrolysis. Fuel 63, 1353-1356.
18. Butler J. N. (1982) Carbon Dioxide Equilibria and their Applications. Addison-Wesley.
19. Cabrera A. L., Heinemann H., and Somorjai G. A. (1982) Methane production from the catalyzed reaction of graphite and water vapor at low temperatures (500-600K). J. Catal. 75, 7-22.
20. Campbell J. H., Koskinas G. H., Stout N. D., and Coburn T. T. (1978) Oil shale retorting: Effects of partical size and heating rate on oil evolution and intrapartical oil degradation. In Situ 2, 1-47.
21. Carroll J. J. and Mather A. E. (1989) Phase equilibrium in the system water-hydrogen sulfide: Modelling the phase behavior with an equation of state. Canadian J. Chem. Eng. 67, 999-1003.
22. Chapiro A. (1962) Radiation Chemistry of Polymeric Systems. Interscience.
23. Charlesby A. (1954) The cross-linking and degradation of paraffin chains by high-energy radiation. Proc. Roy. Soc. London 222, 60-74.
24. Charlesby A. (1960) Atomic Radiation and Polymers. Pergamon.
25. Chiantore O., Camino G., Costa L., and Grassie N. (1981) "Weak Links" in polystyrene. Poly. Degrad. Stabil. 3, 209-219.
26. Chiantore O., Guaita M., and Grassie N. (1985) Evidence of random chian scissions at low temperatures in the thermal degradation of anionic polystyrenes. Poly. Degrad. Stabil. 12, 141-148.
27. Clifford C. W. (1921) The solubility of water in gasoline and in certain other organic liquids, determined by the calcium chloride method. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 13, 631-632.
28. Coburn T. T., Oh M. S., Crawford R. W., and Foster K. G. (1989) Water generation during pyrolysis of oil shales. 1. Sources. Energy & Fuels 3, 216-223.
29. Combaz A. and de Matharel M. (1978) Organic sedimentation and genesis of petroleum in Mahakam delta, Borneo. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 62, 1684-1695.
30. Comet P. A., McEvoy J., Giger W., and Douglas A. G. (1986) Hydrous and anhydrous pyrolysis of DSDP Leg 75 kerogens - A comparative study using a biological marker approach. Org. Geochem. 9, 171-182.
31. Comley E. A. and Reed R. M. (1963) Catalytic processes for hydrogen manufacturing. Sixth World Petrol. Congr. 4, 361-372.
32. Connan J. (1974) Time-temperature relation in oil genesis: Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 58, 2516-2521.
33. Cooles G. P., Mackenzie A. S., and Quigley T. M. (1986) Calculation of petroleum masses generated and expelled from source rocks. Org. Geochem. 10, 325-245.
34. Cooles G. P., Mackenzie A. S., and Parkes R. J. (1987) Non-hydrocarbons of significance in petroleum exploration: Volatile fatty acids and non-hydrocarbon gases. Mineral. Mag. 51, 483-493.
35. Cummins J. J. and Robinson W. E. (1972) Thermal degradation of Green River kerogen at 150° to 350°C. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Investigation Report 7620.
36. Deroo G. (1971) Correlations of crude oils and source rocks in some sedimentary basins. Bull. Centre Rech. Pau-SNPA 10, 317-335.
37. Dixon S. A., Summers D. M., and Surdam R. C. (1989) Diagenesis and preservation of porosity in Norphlet Formation (Upper Jurassic), southern Alabama. AAPG Bull. 73, 707-728.
38. Drever J. I. (1984) The Chemistry of Weathering. D. Reidel.
39. Drummond S. E. (1981) Boiling and mixing of hydrothermal fluids: Chemical effects on mineral precipitation. Ph.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State Univ.
40. Eglinton T. I., Curtis C. D., and Rowland S. R. (1987) Generation of water-soluble organic acids from kerogen during hydrous pyrolysis: Implications for porosity development. Mineral. Mag. 51, 495-503.
41. Engler K. O. V. (1913) Die Chemie Und Physik Des Erdols., vol. I. S. Hirzel.
42. Espitalie J., Madec M., and Tissot B. (1980) Role of mineral matrix in kerogen pyrolysis: Influence on petroleum generation and migration. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol Bull. 64, 59-66.
43. Espitalie J., Makadi K. S., and Trichet J. (1984) Role of mineral matrix during kerogen pyrolysis. Org. Geochem. 6, 365-382.
44. Ferry J. M. (1983) Regional metamorphism of the Vassalboro Formation, south-central Maine, USA: A case study of the role of fluid in metaporphic petrogenesis. J. Geol. Soc. London 140, 551-576.
45. Fischer F. (1925) The Conversion of Coal into Oil. Ernest Benn Ltd.
46. Franks S. G. and Forester R. W. (1984) Relationships among secondary porosity, pore-fluid chemistry and carbon dioxide, Texas Gulf Coast. In Clastic Diagenesis (ed. D. A. McDonald and R. C. Surdam), pp. 63-79. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 37.
47. Gavin M. J. (1922) Oil-shale - an historical, technical, and economic study. U.S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin 210, pp. 179-189.
48. Garven G., Person M. A., and Sverjensky D. A. (1993) Genesis of stratabound ore deposits in the midcontinent basins of North America. 1. The role of regional groundwater flow. Amer. J. Sci. 293, 497-568.
49. Goldstein T. P. (1983) Geocatalytic reactions in formation and maturation of petroleum. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 67, 152-159.
50. Greensfelder B. S. and Voge H. H. (1945) Catalytic cracking of pure hydrocarbons. Indust. Eng. Chem. 37, 514-520.
51. Griswold J. and Kasch J. E. (1942) Hydrocarbon-water solubilities at elevated temperatures and pressures. Ind. Eng. Chem. 34, 804-806.
52. Groschuff E. (1911) The solubility of water in benzene, petroleum, and paraffin oil. Zeit. Elektrochem. 17, 348-354.
53. Guerrant R. P. (1964) Hydrocarbon-water solubilities at high temperatures under vapor-liquid-liquid equilibrium conditions. Ph.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State Univ.
54. Gurvich L. V., Iorish V. S., Yungman V. S., and Dorofeeva O. V. (1994) Thermodynamic properties as a function of temperature. In CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 75th ed. (ed. D. R. Lide), pp. 48-71. CRC Press.
55. 2O component in boiling NaCl solutions. USGS Bulletin 1421-A.
56. Heidman J. L., Tsonopoulos C., Brady C. J., and Wilson G. M. (1985) High-temperature mutual solubilities of hydrocarbons and water. Part II: Ethylbenzene, ethylcyclohexane, and n-octane. AIChE J. 31, 376-384.
57. Helgeson H. C., Knox A. M., Owens C. E., and Shock E. L. (1993) Petroleum, oil field waters, and authigenic mineral assemblages: Are they in metastable equilibrium in hydrocarbon reservoirs? Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 57, 3295-3339.
58. Hershey J. P., Plese T., and Millero F. J. (1988) The pK*, for the dissociation of H2S in various ionic media. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 52, 2047-2051.
59. Hershkowitz F., Olmstead W. N., Rhodes R. P., and Rose K. D. (1983) Molecular mechanism of oil shale pyrolysis in nitrogen and hydrogen atmospheres. In American Chemical Society Symposium Series 230 (ed. F. P. Miknis and J. F. McKay), pp. 301-316.
60. Hesp W. and Rigby D. (1973) The geochemical alteration of hydrocarbons in the presence of water. Erdol Kohle-Erdgas-Petrochem. Brennstoff-Chemie 26, 70-76.
61. Hilder M. H. (1968) The solubility of water in edible oils and fats. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. 45, 703-707.
62. Hilder M. H. (1971) The solubility of water in edible oils and fats above 100°C. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. 48, 296-298.
63. Ho T. Y., Rogers M. A., Drushel H. V., and Koons C. B. (1974) Evolution of sulfur compounds in crude oils. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 58, 2338-2348.
64. Hoering T. C. (1984) Thermal reactions of kerogen with added water, heavy water and pure organic substances. Org. Geochem. 5, 267-278.
65. Horsfield B. and Douglas A. G. (1980) The influence of minerals on the pyrolysis of kerogens. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 44, 1119-1131.
66. Horsfield B., Schenk H. J., Mills N., and Weite D. H. (1991) An investigation of the in-reservoir conversion of oil to gas: Compositional and kinetic findings from closed-system programmed-temperature pyrolysis. Org. Geochem. 19, 191-204.
67. Hostettler J. D. (1984) Electrode electrons, aqueous electrons, and redox potentials in natural waters. Amer. J. Sci. 284, 734-759.
68. Huizinga B. J., Tannenbaum E., and Kaplan I. R. (1987) The role of minerals in the thermal alteration of organic matter - III. Generation of bitumen in laboratory experiments. Org. Geochem. 11, 591-604.
69. Huizinga B. J., Aizenshtat Z. A., and Peters K. E. (1988) Programmed pyrolysis-gas chromatography of artificially matured Green River kerogen. Energy & Fuel 2, 74-81.
70. Hunt J. M. (1979) Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology. W. H. Freeman.
71. Hunt J. M. (1996) Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology, 2nd ed. W. H. Freeman.
72. Hunt J. M., Lewan M. D., and Hennet R. J-C. (1991) Modeling oil generation with time-temperature index graphs based on the Arrhenius equation. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 75, 795-807.
73. Jandacek R. J., Webb M. R., and Mattson F. H. (1977) Effect of an aqueous phase on the solubility of cholesterol in an oil phase. J. Lipid Res. 8, 203-210.
74. Jurg J. W. and Eisma E. (1964) Petroleum hydrocarbons: Generation from fatty acids. Science 144, 1451-1452.
75. Kawamura K. and Ishiwatari R. (1985) Behavior of lipid compounds on laboratory heating of a recent sediment. Geochem. J. 19, 113-126.
76. Kerr R. A. (1994) German super-deep hole hits bottom. Science 266, 545.
77. Kirchko A. A. and Gagarin S. G. (1990) New ideas of coal organic matter chemical structure and mechanism of hydrogenation processes. Fuel 69, 885-891.
78. Kuangzong Q., Qiushui Y., Shaohui G., Qinghua L., and Wei S. (1994) Chemical structure and hydrocarbon formation of the Huanxian brown coal, China. Org. Geochem. 21, 333-341.
79. Kuo Lung-Chuan and Michael G. E. (1994) A multicomponent oil-cracking kinetics model for modeling preservation and composition of reservoir oils. Org. Geochem. 21, 911-925.
80. Lafargue E., Espitalie J., Jacobsen T., and Eggen S. (1989) Experimental simulation of hydrocarbon expulsion. Org. Geochem. 16, 121-131.
81. Lewan M. D. (1983) Effects of thermal maturation on stable organic carbon isotopes as determined by hydrous pyrolysis of Woodford Shale. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 47, 1471-1479.
82. Lewan M. D. (1985) Evaluation of petroleum generation by hydrous pyrolysis exerimentation. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London 315, 123-134.
83. Lewan M. D. (1986) Stable carbon isotopes of amorphous kerogens from Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 50, 1583-1591.
84. Lewan M. D. (1987) Petrographic study of primary petroleum migration in the Woodford shale and related rock units. In Migration of Hydrocarbons in Sedimentary Basins (ed. B. Doligez), pp. 113-130. Editions Technip.
85. Lewan M. D. (1989) Hydrous pyrolysis study of oil and tar generation from Monterey Shale containing high sulfur kerogen. Amer. Chem. Soc. Natl. Mtg. Abstr., April 9-14. Dallas.
86. Lewan M. D. (1993a) Laboratory simulation of petroleum formation: Hydrous pyrolysis. In Organic Geochemistry (ed. M. H. Engel and S. A. Macko), pp. 419-442. Plenum.
87. Lewan M. D. (1993b) Identifying and understanding suppressed vitrinite reflectance through hydrous pyrolysis experiments. 10th Ann. Mtg. Soc. Org. Petrol. Abstr. Prog. 10, pp. 1-3.
88. Lewan M. D. (1994) Assessing natural oil expulsion from source rocks by laboratory pyrolysis. In Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Mem. 60 (ed. L. B. Magoon and W. G. Dow), pp. 201-210.
89. Lewan M. D. and Buchardt B. (1989) Irradiation of organic matter by uranium decay in the Alum Shale, Sweden. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 53, 1307-1322.
90. Lewan M. D. and Fisher J. B. (1994) Organic acids from petroleum source rocks. In Organic Acids in Geological Processes (ed. E. D. Pittman and M. D. Lewan), pp. 70-114. Springer Verlag.
91. Lewan M. D., Winters J. C., and McDonald J. H. (1979) Generation of oil-like pyrolyzates from organic-rich shales. Science 203, 897-899.
92. Lewan M. D., Bjoroy M., and Dolcater D. L. (1986) Effects of thermal maturation on steroid hydrocarbons as determined by hydrous pyrolysis of phosphoria retort shale. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 50, 1977-1987.
93. 60Co-irrediation of organic matter in the Phosphoria Retort Shale. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 55, 1051-1063.
94. Lewan M. D. et al. (1995) Feasibility study of material balance assessment of petroleum from the New Albany Shale in the Illinois basin. USGS Bull. 2137.
95. Leythaeuser D. and Poelchau H. S. (1991) Expulsion of petroleum from type III kerogen source rocks in gaseous solution: Modelling of solubility fractionation. In Petroleum Migration (ed. W. A. England and A. J. Fleet); Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ. 59, pp. 33-46.
96. Loucks R. G., Richmann D. L., and Milliken K. L. (1981) Factors controlling reservoir quality in Tertiary sandstones and their significance to geopressured geothermal production. Texas Bureau of Economic Geology Report of Investigation No. 111, 41 pp.
97. Loucks R. G., Dodge M. M., and Galloway W. E. (1984) Regional controls on diagenesis and reservoir quality in lower Tertiary sandstones along the Texas Gulf Coast. In Clastic Diagenesis (ed. D. A. McDonald and R. C. Surdam); AAPG Memoir 37, pp. 15-45.
98. Louis M. and Tissot B. (1967) Influence de la temperature et de la pression sur la formation des hydrocarbures dans les argiles a kerogene. Seventh World Petroleum Congress 2, 47-60.
99. Lundegard P. D. and Senftle J. T. (1987) Hydrous pyrolysis: A tool for the study of organic acid synthesis. Appl. Geochem. 2, 605-612.
100. Lundegard P. D., Land L. S., and Galloway W. E. (1984) Problem of secondary porosity: Frio Formation (Oligocene), Texas Gulf Coast. Geology 12, 399-402.
101. Machel H. G. and Mountjoy E. W. (1987) General constraints on extensive pervasive dolomitization - and their application to the Devonian carbonates of western Canada. Bull. Canadian Petrol. Geol. 35, 143-158.
102. Madorsky S. L. (1953) Rates and activation energies of thermal degradation of styrene and acrylate polymers in a vacuum. J. Poly. Sci. 11, 491-506.
103. Madorsky S. L. (1964) Thermal Degradation of Organic Polymers. Interscience.
104. Madorsky S. L. and Straus S. (1954) Thermal degradation of polymers as a function of molecular structure. J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stds. 53, 361-370.
105. Malhotra S. L., Hess J., and Blanchard L. P. (1975) Thermal decomposition of polystyrene. Polymer 16, 81-93.
106. March J. (1985) Advanced Organic Chemistry, 3rd. ed. Wiley.
107. Minkova V., Razvigorova M., Goranova M., Ljutzkanov L., and Angelova G. (1991) Effect of water vapor on the pyrolysis of solid fuels 1. Effects of water vapor during pyrolysis of solid fuels on yield and composition of the liquid products. Fuel 70, 713-719.
108. Monthioux M., Landais P., and Monin J. C. (1985) Comparison between natural and artificial maturation series of humic coals from the Makhakam Delta, Indonesia. Org. Geochem. 8, 275-292.
109. Moore C. H. and Heydari E. (1993) Burial diagenesis and hydrocarbon migration in Platform limestones: A conceptual model based on the upper Jurassic of the Gulf Coast of the USA. In Diagenesis and Basin Development (ed. A. D. Horbury and A. G. Robinson); AAPG Studies in Geology 36, 213-229.
110. Mukdeeprom P. and Edwards J. G. (1987) The isomolecular exchange reaction GA2S(g) + IN2S(g) = 2InGaS(g). Thermochim. Acta 112, 141-149.
111. Peitt J. C. (1991) A comprehensive study of the water vapour/coal system: Application to the role of water in the weathering of coal. Fuel 70, 1053-1058.
112. Peng D. Y. and Robinson D. B. (1976) A new two-constant equation of state. Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund. 15, 59-64.
113. Peters K. E. and Moldowan J. M. (1993) The Biomarker Guide. Prentice Hall.
114. Peters K. E., Moldowan J. M., and Sundaraman P. (1990) Effects of hydrous pyrolysis on biomarker thermal maturity parameters: Monterey phosphatic and siliceous members. Org. Geochem. 15, 249-265.
115. Pittman E. D. and Hathon L. A. (1994) Material balance considerations for the generation of secondary porosity by organic acids and carbonic acid derived from kerogen, Denver basin, Colorado, USA. In Organic Acids in Geological Processes (ed. E. D. Pittman and M. D. Lewan), pp. 115-137. Springer-Verlag.
116. Poltorak V. A. and Voevodsky V. V. (1969) On the single chain mechanism for the thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons. In Selected Readings in Chemical Kinetics (ed. M. H. Back and K. J. Laidler), pp. 171-175. Pergamon.
117. Price L. C. (1976) Aqueous solubility of petroleum as applied to its origin and primary migration. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 60, 213-244.
118. Price L. C. (1981) Aqueous solubility of crude oil to 400°C and 2,000 bars pressure in the presence of gas. J. Petrol. Geol. 4, 195-223.
119. Price L. C. (1993) Thermal stability of hydrocarbons in nature: Limits, evidence, characteristics, and possible controls. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 57, 3261-3280.
120. Price L. C., Wenger L. M., Ging T., and Blount C. W. (1983) Solubility of crude oil in methane as a function of pressure and temperature. Org. Geochem. 4, 201-221.
121. Rettich T. R., Handa Y. P., Battino R., and Wilhelm E. (1981) Solubility of gases in liquids. 13. High-precision determination of Henry's constants for methane and ethane in liquid water at 275 to 328 K. J. Phys. Chem. 85, 3230-3237.
122. Rieke H. H., III and Chilingarian G. V. (1974) Compaction of Argillaceous Sediments. Elsevier.
123. Robin P. L. and Rouxhet P. G. (1978) Characterization of kerogens and study of their evolution by infrared spectroscopy: Carbonyl and carboxyl groups. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 42, 1341-1349.
124. Ross D. S. (1992) Comments on the source of petroleum hydrocarbons in hydrous pyrolysis. Org. Geochem. 18, 79-81.
125. Rouxhet P. G. and Robin P. L. (1978) Infrared study of the evolution of kerogens of different origins during catagenesis and pyrolysis. Fuel 57, 533-540.
126. 2O. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 74, 719-722.
127. Ruble T. (1996) Geochemical investigation of the mechanisms of hydrocarbon generation and accumulation in the Uinta basin, Utah. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Oklahoma.
128. Sanderson R. T. (1976) Chemical Bonds and Bond Energy. Academic.
129. Sandvik E. I., Young W. A., and Curry D. J. (1991) Expulsion from hydrocarbon sources: The role of organic absorption. Org. Geochem. 19, 77-87.
130. Schmidt V. and McDonald D. A. (1979) The role of secondary porosity in the course of sandstone diagenesis. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral. Spec. Pub. 26, 175-207.
131. 2S. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2, 649-654.
132. Seewald J. S. (1994) Evidence for metastable equilibrium between hydrocarbons under hydrothermal conditions. Nature 370, 285-287.
133. Siskin M., Brons G., Katritzky A. R., and Balasubramanian M. (1990) Aqueous organic chemistry. 1. Aquathermolysis; Comparison with thermolysis in the reactivity of aliphatic compounds. Energy & Fuels 4, 475-482.
134. Skripka V. G. and Boksha O. A. (1976) Solubility of water in individual n-alkanes and their mixtures at elevated temperatures and pressures. Tr. Vses. Neftegazov. Nauchno-Issled. Inst. 61, 96-110.
135. Solomon P. R., Serio M. A., Despande G. V., and Kroo E. (1990) Cross-linking reactions during coal conversion. Energy & Fuels 4, 42-54.
136. Song C., Saini A. K., and Schobert H. H. (1994) Effects of drying and oxidation of Wyodak subbituminous coal on its thermal and catalytic liquefaction. Spectroscopic characterization and product distribution. Energy & Fuels 8, 301-312.
137. 2O-NaCl at elevated temperatures and pressures. Amer. J. Sci. 260, 115-141.
138. Spiro B. (1984) Effects of the mineral matrix on the distribution of geochemical markers in thermally affected sedimentary sequences. Org. Geochem. 6, 543-559.
139. Srivastava R. D. and Farber M. (1978) Thermodynamic properties of group 3 oxides. Chem. Rev. 78, 627-638.
140. 2) in sedimentary basins. Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. Newcastle upon Tyne.
141. 2 presursors) during kerogen maturation. Org. Geochem. 22, 477-486.
142. Stout N. D., Koskinas G. J., Raley J. H., Santor S. D., Opila R. L., and Rothman A. J. (1976) Pyrolysis of oil shale: Effects of thermal history on oil yield. Quarter. Color. Sch. Mines 71, 153-172.
143. Sutton C. and Calder J. A. (1974) Solubility of high-molecular-weight n-paraffins in distilled water and seawater. Environ. Sci. Technol. 8, 654-657.
144. Sunberg E. M., Unger P. E., and Larsen J. W. (1987) Relation between tar and extractables formation and cross-linking during coal pyrolysis. Energy & Fuels 1, 305-308.
145. Tannenbaum E. and Kaplan I. R. (1985) Low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons generated during hydrous and dry pyrolysis of kerogen. Nature 317, 708-709.
146. Tannenbaum E., Huizinga B. J., and Kaplan I. R. (1986) Role of minerals in thermal alteration of organic matter - II: A material balance. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull 70, 1156-1165.
147. Teerman S. C. and Hwang R. J. (1991) Evaluation of liquid hydrocarbon potential of coal by artifical maturation techniques. Org. Geochem. 17, 749-764.
148. Tissot B. (1969) Premieres donnees sur les mechanismes et la cinetique de la formation du petrole dans les sediments simulation d'un schema reactionnel sur ordinateur. Rev. Inst. Franc. du Petrole 24, 470-501.
149. Tissot B. P. and Weite D. H. (1984) Petroleum Formation and Occurrence. Springer-Verlag.
150. Townsend S. H., Abraham M. A., Huppert G. L., Klein M. T., and Paspek S. C. (1988) Solvent effects during reactions in supercritical water. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 27, 143-149.
151. Tsonopoulos C. and Wilson G. M. (1983) High-temperature mutual solubilities of hydrocarbons and water. Part 1: Benzene cyclohexane and n-hexane: AIChE J. 29, 990-999.
152. Ungerer P. (1993) Modelling of petroleum generation and expulsion - an update to recent reviews. In Basin Modelling: Advances and Applications (ed. A. G. Dore), pp. 219-232. Elsevier.
153. Ungerer P. and Pelet R. (1987) Extrapolation of the kinetics of oil and gas formation from laboratory experiments to sedimentary basins. Nature 327, 52-54.
154. Ungerer P., Behar E., and Discamps D. (1983) Tentative calculations of the overall volume expansion of organic matter during hydrocarbon genesis from geochemistry data: Implications for primary migration. In Advances in Organic Geochemistry 1981, pp. 129-135. Wiley.
155. Vernon L. W. (1980) Free radical chemistry of coal liquefaction: Role of molecular hydrogen. Fuel 59, 102-106.
156. 4. J. Res. Natl. Bureau Stand. 34, 143-161.
157. Weitkamp A. W. and Gutberlet L. C. (1970) Application of a microretort to problems in shale pyrolysis. Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Develop. 9, 386-395.
158. Wen C. S. and Kobylinski T. P. (1983) Low-temperature oil shale conversion. Fuel 62, 1269-1273.
159. Whitehouse B. G. (1984) The effects of temperature and salinity of the aqueous solubility of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. Mar. Chem. 14, 319-332.
160. Whitney G. (1990) Role of water in the smectite-to-illite reaction. Clays Clay Mineral. 38, 343-350.
161. Williams L. A. and Crerar D. A. (1985) Silica diagenesis, II. General mechanisms. J. Sediment. Petrol. 55, 312-321.
162. 2 on magma generation in the crust and mantle. J. Geol. Soc. London 134, 215-234.
163. 2O). J. Chem. Phys. 75, 2711-2714.