Computational mechanisms of sensorimotor control

Neuron

Volumn 72, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 425-442

  Franklin, David W ^a   Wolpert, Daniel M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BAYES THEOREM; BRAIN NERVE CELL; DELAY; FEEDBACK SYSTEM; HUMAN; LEARNING; MATHEMATICAL COMPUTING; MULTISENSORY INTEGRATION; NOISE; NONLINEAR SYSTEM; NONSTATIONARY; PERCEPTION; PREDICTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REDUNDANCY; REVIEW; SENSORIMOTOR CONTROL; SENSORIMOTOR FUNCTION; STATISTICAL CONCEPTS; TASK PERFORMANCE; UNCERTAINTY;

ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL; ANIMALS; BAYES THEOREM; BRAIN; COMPUTER SIMULATION; FEEDBACK; HUMANS; LEARNING; MODELS, NEUROLOGICAL; MOVEMENT; NONLINEAR DYNAMICS; PERCEPTION; PSYCHOMOTOR PERFORMANCE;

EID: 83455172803     PISSN: 08966273     EISSN: 10974199     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2011.10.006     Document Type: Review

References (200)

1. Adams W.J., Graf E.W., Ernst M.O. Experience can change the 'light-from-above' prior. Nat. Neurosci. 2004, 7:1057-1058.
2. Adelson E.H. Perceptual organization and the judgment of brightness. Science 1993, 262:2042-2044.
3. Ahmed A.A., Wolpert D.M., Flanagan J.R. Flexible representations of dynamics are used in object manipulation. Curr. Biol. 2008, 18:763-768.
4. Akazawa K., Milner T.E., Stein R.B. Modulation of reflex EMG and stiffness in response to stretch of human finger muscle. J. Neurophysiol. 1983, 49:16-27.
5. Alais D., Burr D. The ventriloquist effect results from near-optimal bimodal integration. Curr. Biol. 2004, 14:257-262.
6. Andersen R.A., Buneo C.A. Intentional maps in posterior parietal cortex. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2002, 25:189-220.
7. Ariff G., Donchin O., Nanayakkara T., Shadmehr R. A real-time state predictor in motor control: study of saccadic eye movements during unseen reaching movements. J. Neurosci. 2002, 22:7721-7729.
8. Atkeson C.G., Hollerbach J.M. Kinematic features of unrestrained vertical arm movements. J. Neurosci. 1985, 5:2318-2330.
9. Aw S.T., Todd M.J., Halmagyi G.M. Latency and initiation of the human vestibuloocular reflex to pulsed galvanic stimulation. J. Neurophysiol. 2006, 96:925-930.
10. Bastian A.J. Learning to predict the future: the cerebellum adapts feedforward movement control. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2006, 16:645-649.
11. Bernier P.M., Chua R., Bard C., Franks I.M. Updating of an internal model without proprioception: a deafferentation study. Neuroreport 2006, 17:1421-1425.
12. Berniker M., Kording K. Estimating the sources of motor errors for adaptation and generalization. Nat. Neurosci. 2008, 11:1454-1461.
13. Bizzi E., Cheung V.C., d'Avella A., Saltiel P., Tresch M. Combining modules for movement. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 2008, 57:125-133.
14. Blakemore S.J., Frith C.D., Wolpert D.M. Spatio-temporal prediction modulates the perception of self-produced stimuli. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 1999, 11:551-559.
15. Blakemore S.J., Frith C.D., Wolpert D.M. The cerebellum is involved in predicting the sensory consequences of action. Neuroreport 2001, 12:1879-1884.
16. Boecker H., Lee A., Mühlau M., Ceballos-Baumann A., Ritzl A., Spilker M.E., Marquart C., Hermsdörfer J. Force level independent representations of predictive grip force-load force coupling: a PET activation study. Neuroimage 2005, 25:243-252.
17. Brashers-Krug T., Shadmehr R., Bizzi E. Consolidation in human motor memory. Nature 1996, 382:252-255.
18. Braun D.A., Aertsen A., Wolpert D.M., Mehring C. Learning optimal adaptation strategies in unpredictable motor tasks. J. Neurosci. 2009, 29:6472-6478.
19. Brooks S.V., Faulkner J.A. Skeletal muscle weakness in old age: underlying mechanisms. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1994, 26:432-439.
20. Burdet E., Osu R., Franklin D.W., Milner T.E., Kawato M. The central nervous system stabilizes unstable dynamics by learning optimal impedance. Nature 2001, 414:446-449.
21. Burdet E., Tee K.P., Mareels I., Milner T.E., Chew C.M., Franklin D.W., Osu R., Kawato M. Stability and motor adaptation in human arm movements. Biol. Cybern. 2006, 94:20-32.
22. Caithness G., Osu R., Bays P., Chase H., Klassen J., Kawato M., Wolpert D.M., Flanagan J.R. Failure to consolidate the consolidation theory of learning for sensorimotor adaptation tasks. J. Neurosci. 2004, 24:8662-8671.
23. Carter R.R., Crago P.E., Gorman P.H. Nonlinear stretch reflex interaction during cocontraction. J. Neurophysiol. 1993, 69:943-952.
24. Chen C., Thompson R.F. Temporal specificity of long-term depression in parallel fiber-Purkinje synapses in rat cerebellar slice. Learn. Mem. 1995, 2:185-198.
25. Chen-Harris H., Joiner W.M., Ethier V., Zee D.S., Shadmehr R. Adaptive control of saccades via internal feedback. J. Neurosci. 2008, 28:2804-2813.
26. Chib V.S., Patton J.L., Lynch K.M., Mussa-Ivaldi F.A. Haptic identification of surfaces as fields of force. J. Neurophysiol. 2006, 95:1068-1077.
27. Churchland M.M., Afshar A., Shenoy K.V. A central source of movement variability. Neuron 2006, 52:1085-1096.
28. Conditt M.A., Gandolfo F., Mussa-Ivaldi F.A. The motor system does not learn the dynamics of the arm by rote memorization of past experience. J. Neurophysiol. 1997, 78:554-560.
29. Cothros N., Wong J.D., Gribble P.L. Are there distinct neural representations of object and limb dynamics?. Exp. Brain Res. 2006, 173:689-697.
30. Day B.L., Lyon I.N. Voluntary modification of automatic arm movements evoked by motion of a visual target. Exp. Brain Res. 2000, 130:159-168.
31. Dayan P., Balleine B.W. Reward, motivation, and reinforcement learning. Neuron 2002, 36:285-298.
32. Desmurget M., Grafton S. Forward modeling allows feedback control for fast reaching movements. Trends Cogn. Sci. (Regul. Ed.) 2000, 4:423-431.
33. Desmurget M., Gréa H., Grethe J.S., Prablanc C., Alexander G.E., Grafton S.T. Functional anatomy of nonvisual feedback loops during reaching: a positron emission tomography study. J. Neurosci. 2001, 21:2919-2928.
34. Diedrichsen J. Optimal task-dependent changes of bimanual feedback control and adaptation. Curr. Biol. 2007, 17:1675-1679.
35. Diedrichsen J., Verstynen T., Lehman S.L., Ivry R.B. Cerebellar involvement in anticipating the consequences of self-produced actions during bimanual movements. J. Neurophysiol. 2005, 93:801-812.
36. Dimitriou M., Edin B.B. Human muscle spindles act as forward sensory models. Curr. Biol. 2010, 20:1763-1767.
37. DiZio P., Lackner J.R. Congenitally blind individuals rapidly adapt to coriolis force perturbations of their reaching movements. J. Neurophysiol. 2000, 84:2175-2180.
38. Dorfman L.J., Bosley T.M. Age-related changes in peripheral and central nerve conduction in man. Neurology 1979, 29:38-44.
39. Duhamel J.R., Colby C.L., Goldberg M.E. The updating of the representation of visual space in parietal cortex by intended eye movements. Science 1992, 255:90-92.
40. Ebner T.J., Pasalar S. Cerebellum predicts the future motor state. Cerebellum 2008, 7:583-588.
41. Emken J.L., Benitez R., Sideris A., Bobrow J.E., Reinkensmeyer D.J. Motor adaptation as a greedy optimization of error and effort. J. Neurophysiol. 2007, 97:3997-4006.
42. Ernst M.O., Banks M.S. Humans integrate visual and haptic information in a statistically optimal fashion. Nature 2002, 415:429-433.
43. Eyre J.A., Miller S., Ramesh V. Constancy of central conduction delays during development in man: investigation of motor and somatosensory pathways. J. Physiol. 1991, 434:441-452.
44. Faisal A.A., Selen L.P., Wolpert D.M. Noise in the nervous system. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2008, 9:292-303.
45. Feldman A.G. Superposition of motor programs-II. Rapid forearm flexion in man. Neuroscience 1980, 5:91-95.
46. Fine M.S., Thoroughman K.A. Motor adaptation to single force pulses: sensitive to direction but insensitive to within-movement pulse placement and magnitude. J. Neurophysiol. 2006, 96:710-720.
47. Fine M.S., Thoroughman K.A. Trial-by-trial transformation of error into sensorimotor adaptation changes with environmental dynamics. J. Neurophysiol. 2007, 98:1392-1404.
48. Flash T., Hogan N. The coordination of arm movements: an experimentally confirmed mathematical model. J. Neurosci. 1985, 5:1688-1703.
49. Franklin D.W., Milner T.E. Adaptive control of stiffness to stabilize hand position with large loads. Exp. Brain Res. 2003, 152:211-220.
50. Franklin D.W., Wolpert D.M. Specificity of reflex adaptation for task-relevant variability. J. Neurosci. 2008, 28:14165-14175.
51. Franklin D.W., Osu R., Burdet E., Kawato M., Milner T.E. Adaptation to stable and unstable dynamics achieved by combined impedance control and inverse dynamics model. J. Neurophysiol. 2003, 90:3270-3282.
52. Franklin D.W., So U., Kawato M., Milner T.E. Impedance control balances stability with metabolically costly muscle activation. J. Neurophysiol. 2004, 92:3097-3105.
53. Franklin D.W., So U., Burdet E., Kawato M. Visual feedback is not necessary for the learning of novel dynamics. PLoS One 2007, 2:e1336.
54. Franklin D.W., Liaw G., Milner T.E., Osu R., Burdet E., Kawato M. Endpoint stiffness of the arm is directionally tuned to instability in the environment. J. Neurosci. 2007, 27:7705-7716.
55. Franklin D.W., Burdet E., Tee K.P., Osu R., Chew C.M., Milner T.E., Kawato M. CNS learns stable, accurate, and efficient movements using a simple algorithm. J. Neurosci. 2008, 28:11165-11173.
56. Frysinger R.C., Bourbonnais D., Kalaska J.F., Smith A.M. Cerebellar cortical activity during antagonist cocontraction and reciprocal inhibition of forearm muscles. J. Neurophysiol. 1984, 51:32-49.
57. Ghez C., Gordon J., Ghilardi M.F. Impairments of reaching movements in patients without proprioception. II. Effects of visual information on accuracy. J. Neurophysiol. 1995, 73:361-372.
58. Gomi H., Osu R. Task-dependent viscoelasticity of human multijoint arm and its spatial characteristics for interaction with environments. J. Neurosci. 1998, 18:8965-8978.
59. Goodbody S.J., Wolpert D.M. Temporal and amplitude generalization in motor learning. J. Neurophysiol. 1998, 79:1825-1838.
60. Gordon A.M., Westling G., Cole K.J., Johansson R.S. Memory representations underlying motor commands used during manipulation of common and novel objects. J. Neurophysiol. 1993, 69:1789-1796.
61. Gordon J., Ghilardi M.F., Ghez C. Accuracy of planar reaching movements. I. Independence of direction and extent variability. Exp. Brain Res. 1994, 99:97-111.
62. Gordon J., Ghilardi M.F., Ghez C. Impairments of reaching movements in patients without proprioception. I. Spatial errors. J. Neurophysiol. 1995, 73:347-360.
63. Gribble P.L., Mullin L.I., Cothros N., Mattar A. Role of cocontraction in arm movement accuracy. J. Neurophysiol. 2003, 89:2396-2405.
64. Guigon E., Baraduc P., Desmurget M. Computational motor control: redundancy and invariance. J. Neurophysiol. 2007, 97:331-347.
65. Harris C.M., Wolpert D.M. Signal-dependent noise determines motor planning. Nature 1998, 394:780-784.
66. Harris C.M., Wolpert D.M. The main sequence of saccades optimizes speed-accuracy trade-off. Biol. Cybern. 2006, 95:21-29.
67. Haruno M., Wolpert D.M. Optimal control of redundant muscles in step-tracking wrist movements. J. Neurophysiol. 2005, 94:4244-4255.
68. Hogan N. Adaptive control of mechanical impedance by coactivation of antagonist muscles. IEEE Trans. Automat. Contr. 1984, 29:681-690.
69. Hogan N. The mechanics of multi-joint posture and movement control. Biol. Cybern. 1985, 52:315-331.
70. Hollerbach M.J., Flash T. Dynamic interactions between limb segments during planar arm movement. Biol. Cybern. 1982, 44:67-77.
71. Howard I.S., Ingram J.N., Wolpert D.M. Composition and decomposition in bimanual dynamic learning. J. Neurosci. 2008, 28:10531-10540.
72. Howard I.S., Ingram J.N., Körding K.P., Wolpert D.M. Statistics of natural movements are reflected in motor errors. J. Neurophysiol. 2009, 102:1902-1910.
73. Humphrey D.R., Reed D.J. Separate cortical systems for control of joint movement and joint stiffness: reciprocal activation and coactivation of antagonist muscles. Adv. Neurol. 1983, 39:347-372.
74. Ito T., Murano E.Z., Gomi H. Fast force-generation dynamics of human articulatory muscles. J. Appl. Physiol. 2004, 96:2318-2324.
75. Izawa J., Rane T., Donchin O., Shadmehr R. Motor adaptation as a process of reoptimization. J. Neurosci. 2008, 28:2883-2891.
76. Jacobs R.A. Optimal integration of texture and motion cues to depth. Vision Res. 1999, 39:3621-3629.
77. Jazayeri M., Shadlen M.N. Temporal context calibrates interval timing. Nat. Neurosci. 2010, 13:1020-1026.
78. Johansson R.S., Westling G. Programmed and triggered actions to rapid load changes during precision grip. Exp. Brain Res. 1988, 71:72-86.
79. Jones K.E., Hamilton A.F., Wolpert D.M. Sources of signal-dependent noise during isometric force production. J. Neurophysiol. 2002, 88:1533-1544.
80. Jordan M.I., Rumelhart D.E. Forward models: supervised learning with a distal teacher. Cogn. Sci. 1992, 16:307-354.
81. Jubrias S.A., Odderson I.R., Esselman P.C., Conley K.E. Decline in isokinetic force with age: muscle cross-sectional area and specific force. Pflugers Arch. 1997, 434:246-253.
82. Kalman R.E. A new approach to linear filtering and prediction problems. J. Basic Eng. 1960, 35-45.
83. Kawato M. Internal models for motor control and trajectory planning. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 1999, 9:718-727.
84. Kawato M., Furukawa K., Suzuki R. A hierarchical neural-network model for control and learning of voluntary movement. Biol. Cybern. 1987, 57:169-185.
85. Kawato M., Kuroda T., Imamizu H., Nakano E., Miyauchi S., Yoshioka T. Internal forward models in the cerebellum: fMRI study on grip force and load force coupling. Prog. Brain Res. 2003, 142:171-188.
86. Kersten D., Yuille A. Bayesian models of object perception. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2003, 13:150-158.
87. Kimura T., Haggard P., Gomi H. Transcranial magnetic stimulation over sensorimotor cortex disrupts anticipatory reflex gain modulation for skilled action. J. Neurosci. 2006, 26:9272-9281.
88. Kluzik J., Diedrichsen J., Shadmehr R., Bastian A.J. Reach adaptation: what determines whether we learn an internal model of the tool or adapt the model of our arm?. J. Neurophysiol. 2008, 100:1455-1464.
89. Knill D.C., Saunders J.A. Do humans optimally integrate stereo and texture information for judgments of surface slant?. Vision Res. 2003, 43:2539-2558.
90. Knill D.C., Bondada A., Chhabra M. Flexible, task-dependent use of sensory feedback to control hand movements. J. Neurosci. 2011, 31:1219-1237.
91. Körding K.P., Wolpert D.M. Bayesian integration in sensorimotor learning. Nature 2004, 427:244-247.
92. Körding K.P., Wolpert D.M. Bayesian decision theory in sensorimotor control. Trends Cogn. Sci. (Regul. Ed.) 2006, 10:319-326.
93. Körding K.P., Ku S.P., Wolpert D.M. Bayesian integration in force estimation. J. Neurophysiol. 2004, 92:3161-3165.
94. Kording K.P., Tenenbaum J.B., Shadmehr R. The dynamics of memory as a consequence of optimal adaptation to a changing body. Nat. Neurosci. 2007, 10:779-786.
95. Körding K.P., Beierholm U., Ma W.J., Quartz S., Tenenbaum J.B., Shams L. Causal inference in multisensory perception. PLoS One 2007, 2:e943.
96. Krakauer J.W., Ghilardi M.F., Ghez C. Independent learning of internal models for kinematic and dynamic control of reaching. Nat. Neurosci. 1999, 2:1026-1031.
97. Krutky M.A., Ravichandran V.J., Trumbower R.D., Perreault E.J. Interactions between limb and environmental mechanics influence stretch reflex sensitivity in the human arm. J. Neurophysiol. 2010, 103:429-440.
98. Kuo A.D. An optimal state estimation model of sensory integration in human postural balance. J. Neural Eng. 2005, 2:S235-S249.
99. Kurtzer I., Pruszynski J.A., Scott S.H. Long-latency responses during reaching account for the mechanical interaction between the shoulder and elbow joints. J. Neurophysiol. 2009, 102:3004-3015.
100. Kurtzer I.L., Pruszynski J.A., Scott S.H. Long-latency reflexes of the human arm reflect an internal model of limb dynamics. Curr. Biol. 2008, 18:449-453.
101. Kutch J.J., Kuo A.D., Rymer W.Z. Extraction of individual muscle mechanical action from endpoint force. J. Neurophysiol. 2010, 103:3535-3546.
102. Lackner J.R., Dizio P. Rapid adaptation to Coriolis force perturbations of arm trajectory. J. Neurophysiol. 1994, 72:299-313.
103. Lacquaniti F., Soechting J.F. EMG responses to load perturbations of the upper limb: effect of dynamic coupling between shoulder and elbow motion. Exp. Brain Res. 1986, 61:482-496.
104. Lacquaniti F., Maioli C. Anticipatory and reflex coactivation of antagonist muscles in catching. Brain Res. 1987, 406:373-378.
105. Lametti D.R., Houle G., Ostry D.J. Control of movement variability and the regulation of limb impedance. J. Neurophysiol. 2007, 98:3516-3524.
106. Lee J.Y., Schweighofer N. Dual adaptation supports a parallel architecture of motor memory. J. Neurosci. 2009, 29:10396-10404.
107. Lewicki M.S. Efficient coding of natural sounds. Nat. Neurosci. 2002, 5:356-363.
108. Lindle R.S., Metter E.J., Lynch N.A., Fleg J.L., Fozard J.L., Tobin J., Roy T.A., Hurley B.F. Age and gender comparisons of muscle strength in 654 women and men aged 20-93 yr. J. Appl. Physiol. 1997, 83:1581-1587.
109. Liu D., Todorov E. Evidence for the flexible sensorimotor strategies predicted by optimal feedback control. J. Neurosci. 2007, 27:9354-9368.
110. Loram I.D., Lakie M. Direct measurement of human ankle stiffness during quiet standing: the intrinsic mechanical stiffness is insufficient for stability. J. Physiol. 2002, 545:1041-1053.
111. Matthews P.B.C. Mammalian Muscle Receptors and Their Central Actions 1972, Arnold, London.
112. Matthews P.B.C. The human stretch reflex and the motor cortex. Trends Neurosci. 1991, 14:87-91.
113. McGurk H., MacDonald J. Hearing lips and seeing voices. Nature 1976, 264:746-748.
114. McIntyre J., Zago M., Berthoz A., Lacquaniti F. Does the brain model Newton's laws?. Nat. Neurosci. 2001, 4:693-694.
115. Mehta B., Schaal S. Forward models in visuomotor control. J. Neurophysiol. 2002, 88:942-953.
116. Merton P.A., Morton H.B. Stimulation of the cerebral cortex in the intact human subject. Nature 1980, 285:227.
117. Miall R.C., Weir D.J., Wolpert D.M., Stein J.F. Is the cerebellum a smith predictor?. J. Mot. Behav. 1993, 25:203-216.
118. Miall R.C., Christensen L.O., Cain O., Stanley J. Disruption of state estimation in the human lateral cerebellum. PLoS Biol. 2007, 5:e316.
119. Milner T.E., Franklin D.W. Impedance control and internal model use during the initial stage of adaptation to novel dynamics in humans. J. Physiol. 2005, 567:651-664.
120. Milner T.E., Franklin D.W., Imamizu H., Kawato M. Central representation of dynamics when manipulating handheld objects. J. Neurophysiol. 2006, 95:893-901.
121. Milner T.E., Franklin D.W., Imamizu H., Kawato M. Central control of grasp: manipulation of objects with complex and simple dynamics. Neuroimage 2007, 36:388-395.
122. Mitrovic D., Klanke S., Osu R., Kawato M., Vijayakumar S. A computational model of limb impedance control based on principles of internal model uncertainty. PLoS One 2010, 5:e13601.
123. Miyazaki M., Nozaki D., Nakajima Y. Testing Bayesian models of human coincidence timing. J. Neurophysiol. 2005, 94:395-399.
124. Morasso P. 'Brute force' vs. 'gentle taps' in the control of unstable loads. J. Physiol. 2011, 589:459-460.
125. Morasso P.G., Sanguineti V. Ankle muscle stiffness alone cannot stabilize balance during quiet standing. J. Neurophysiol. 2002, 88:2157-2162.
126. Müller F., Dichgans J. Dyscoordination of pinch and lift forces during grasp in patients with cerebellar lesions. Exp. Brain Res. 1994, 101:485-492.
127. Murray W.M., Delp S.L., Buchanan T.S. Variation of muscle moment arms with elbow and forearm position. J. Biomech. 1995, 28:513-525.
128. Murray W.M., Buchanan T.S., Delp S.L. The isometric functional capacity of muscles that cross the elbow. J. Biomech. 2000, 33:943-952.
129. Mussa-Ivaldi F.A., Hogan N., Bizzi E. Neural, mechanical, and geometric factors subserving arm posture in humans. J. Neurosci. 1985, 5:2732-2743.
130. Nagengast A.J., Braun D.A., Wolpert D.M. Optimal control predicts human performance on objects with internal degrees of freedom. PLoS Comput. Biol. 2009, 5:e1000419.
131. Nagengast A.J., Braun D.A., Wolpert D.M. Risk-sensitive optimal feedback control accounts for sensorimotor behavior under uncertainty. PLoS Comput. Biol. 2010, 6:e1000857.
132. Nanayakkara T., Shadmehr R. Saccade adaptation in response to altered arm dynamics. J. Neurophysiol. 2003, 90:4016-4021.
133. Nichols T.R., Houk J.C. Improvement in linearity and regulation of stiffness that results from actions of stretch reflex. J. Neurophysiol. 1976, 39:119-142.
134. Nowak D.A., Timmann D., Hermsdörfer J. Dexterity in cerebellar agenesis. Neuropsychologia 2007, 45:696-703.
135. Nowak D.A., Hermsdörfer J., Rost K., Timmann D., Topka H. Predictive and reactive finger force control during catching in cerebellar degeneration. Cerebellum 2004, 3:227-235.
136. Nozaki D., Kurtzer I., Scott S.H. Limited transfer of learning between unimanual and bimanual skills within the same limb. Nat. Neurosci. 2006, 9:1364-1366.
137. Olshausen B.A., Field D.J. Emergence of simple-cell receptive field properties by learning a sparse code for natural images. Nature 1996, 381:607-609.
138. Osu R., Burdet E., Franklin D.W., Milner T.E., Kawato M. Different mechanisms involved in adaptation to stable and unstable dynamics. J. Neurophysiol. 2003, 90:3255-3269.
139. Osu R., Franklin D.W., Kato H., Gomi H., Domen K., Yoshioka T., Kawato M. Short- and long-term changes in joint co-contraction associated with motor learning as revealed from surface EMG. J. Neurophysiol. 2002, 88:991-1004.
140. Osu R., Kamimura N., Iwasaki H., Nakano E., Harris C.M., Wada Y., Kawato M. Optimal impedance control for task achievement in the presence of signal-dependent noise. J. Neurophysiol. 2004, 92:1199-1215.
141. Owsley C., Sekuler R., Siemsen D. Contrast sensitivity throughout adulthood. Vision Res. 1983, 23:689-699.
142. Paulin M.G. The role of the cerebellum in motor control and perception. Brain Behav. Evol. 1993, 41:39-50.
143. Perreault E.J., Chen K., Trumbower R.D., Lewis G. Interactions with compliant loads alter stretch reflex gains but not intermuscular coordination. J. Neurophysiol. 2008, 99:2101-2113.
144. Pruszynski J.A., Kurtzer I., Scott S.H. Rapid motor responses are appropriately tuned to the metrics of a visuospatial task. J. Neurophysiol. 2008, 100:224-238.
145. Pruszynski J.A., Kurtzer I., Lillicrap T.P., Scott S.H. Temporal evolution of " automatic gain-scaling" J. Neurophysiol. 2009, 102:992-1003.
146. Pruszynski J.A., Kurtzer I.L., Nashed J.Y., Omrani M., Brouwer B., Scott S.H. Primary motor cortex underlies multi-joint integration for fast feedback control. Nature 2011, 10.1038/nature10436.
147. Rancourt D., Hogan N. Stability in force-production tasks. J. Mot. Behav. 2001, 33:193-204.
148. Roy J.E., Cullen K.E. Selective processing of vestibular reafference during self-generated head motion. J. Neurosci. 2001, 21:2131-2142.
149. Roy J.E., Cullen K.E. Dissociating self-generated from passively applied head motion: neural mechanisms in the vestibular nuclei. J. Neurosci. 2004, 24:2102-2111.
150. Saijo N., Murakami I., Nishida S., Gomi H. Large-field visual motion directly induces an involuntary rapid manual following response. J. Neurosci. 2005, 25:4941-4951.
151. Scheidt R.A., Dingwell J.B., Mussa-Ivaldi F.A. Learning to move amid uncertainty. J. Neurophysiol. 2001, 86:971-985.
152. Scheidt R.A., Conditt M.A., Secco E.L., Mussa-Ivaldi F.A. Interaction of visual and proprioceptive feedback during adaptation of human reaching movements. J. Neurophysiol. 2005, 93:3200-3213.
153. Schultz W., Dickinson A. Neuronal coding of prediction errors. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2000, 23:473-500.
154. Scott S.H. Optimal feedback control and the neural basis of volitional motor control. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2004, 5:532-546.
155. Selen L.P., Beek P.J., van Dieën J.H. Can co-activation reduce kinematic variability? A simulation study. Biol. Cybern. 2005, 93:373-381.
156. Selen L.P., Franklin D.W., Wolpert D.M. Impedance control reduces instability that arises from motor noise. J. Neurosci. 2009, 29:12606-12616.
157. Serrien D.J., Wiesendanger M. Role of the cerebellum in tuning anticipatory and reactive grip force responses. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 1999, 11:672-681.
158. Shadmehr R., Mussa-Ivaldi F.A. Adaptive representation of dynamics during learning of a motor task. J. Neurosci. 1994, 14:3208-3224.
159. Shadmehr R., Krakauer J.W. A computational neuroanatomy for motor control. Exp. Brain Res. 2008, 185:359-381.
160. Shemmell J., An J.H., Perreault E.J. The differential role of motor cortex in stretch reflex modulation induced by changes in environmental mechanics and verbal instruction. J. Neurosci. 2009, 29:13255-13263.
161. Shergill S.S., Bays P.M., Frith C.D., Wolpert D.M. Two eyes for an eye: the neuroscience of force escalation. Science 2003, 301:187.
162. Sing G.C., Joiner W.M., Nanayakkara T., Brayanov J.B., Smith M.A. Primitives for motor adaptation reflect correlated neural tuning to position and velocity. Neuron 2009, 64:575-589.
163. Slifkin A.B., Newell K.M. Noise, information transmission, and force variability. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 1999, 25:837-851.
164. Smith A.M. The coactivation of antagonist muscles. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 1981, 59:733-747.
165. Smith M.A., Shadmehr R. Intact ability to learn internal models of arm dynamics in Huntington's disease but not cerebellar degeneration. J. Neurophysiol. 2005, 93:2809-2821.
166. Smith M.A., Ghazizadeh A., Shadmehr R. Interacting adaptive processes with different timescales underlie short-term motor learning. PLoS Biol. 2006, 4:e179.
167. Sober S.J., Sabes P.N. Flexible strategies for sensory integration during motor planning. Nat. Neurosci. 2005, 8:490-497.
168. Sommer M.A., Wurtz R.H. A pathway in primate brain for internal monitoring of movements. Science 2002, 296:1480-1482.
169. Sommer M.A., Wurtz R.H. What the brain stem tells the frontal cortex. I. Oculomotor signals sent from superior colliculus to frontal eye field via mediodorsal thalamus. J. Neurophysiol. 2004, 91:1381-1402.
170. Sommer M.A., Wurtz R.H. What the brain stem tells the frontal cortex. II. Role of the SC-MD-FEF pathway in corollary discharge. J. Neurophysiol. 2004, 91:1403-1423.
171. Sommer M.A., Wurtz R.H. Influence of the thalamus on spatial visual processing in frontal cortex. Nature 2006, 444:374-377.
172. Sommer M.A., Wurtz R.H. Brain circuits for the internal monitoring of movements. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2008, 31:317-338.
173. Takahashi C.D., Scheidt R.A., Reinkensmeyer D.J. Impedance control and internal model formation when reaching in a randomly varying dynamical environment. J. Neurophysiol. 2001, 86:1047-1051.
174. Takahashi C.D., Nemet D., Rose-Gottron C.M., Larson J.K., Cooper D.M., Reinkensmeyer D.J. Effect of muscle fatigue on internal model formation and retention during reaching with the arm. J. Appl. Physiol. 2006, 100:695-706.
175. Thoroughman K.A., Shadmehr R. Electromyographic correlates of learning an internal model of reaching movements. J. Neurosci. 1999, 19:8573-8588.
176. Thoroughman K.A., Shadmehr R. Learning of action through adaptive combination of motor primitives. Nature 2000, 407:742-747.
177. Thoroughman K.A., Taylor J.A. Rapid reshaping of human motor generalization. J. Neurosci. 2005, 25:8948-8953.
178. Todorov E. Optimality principles in sensorimotor control. Nat. Neurosci. 2004, 7:907-915.
179. Todorov E., Jordan M.I. Optimal feedback control as a theory of motor coordination. Nat. Neurosci. 2002, 5:1226-1235.
180. Tong C., Wolpert D.M., Flanagan J.R. Kinematics and dynamics are not represented independently in motor working memory: evidence from an interference study. J. Neurosci. 2002, 22:1108-1113.
181. Tseng Y.W., Diedrichsen J., Krakauer J.W., Shadmehr R., Bastian A.J. Sensory prediction errors drive cerebellum-dependent adaptation of reaching. J. Neurophysiol. 2007, 98:54-62.
182. Uno Y., Kawato M., Suzuki R. Formation and control of optimal trajectory in human multijoint arm movement. Minimum torque-change model. Biol. Cybern. 1989, 61:89-101.
183. van Beers R.J. Motor learning is optimally tuned to the properties of motor noise. Neuron 2009, 63:406-417.
184. van Beers R.J., Sittig A.C., Denier van der Gon J.J. How humans combine simultaneous proprioceptive and visual position information. Exp. Brain Res. 1996, 111:253-261.
185. van Beers R.J., Haggard P., Wolpert D.M. The role of execution noise in movement variability. J. Neurophysiol. 2004, 91:1050-1063.
186. Vindras P., Viviani P. Frames of reference and control parameters in visuomanual pointing. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 1998, 24:569-591.
187. Vindras P., Desmurget M., Prablanc C., Viviani P. Pointing errors reflect biases in the perception of the initial hand position. J. Neurophysiol. 1998, 79:3290-3294.
188. von Holst E., Mittelstaedt H. Das reafferenzprinzip. Wechselwirkungen zwischen zentralnervensystem und peripherie. Naturwissenschaften 1950, 37:464-476.
189. Wei K., Körding K. Relevance of error: what drives motor adaptation?. J. Neurophysiol. 2009, 101:655-664.
190. Wei K., Körding K. Uncertainty of feedback and state estimation determines the speed of motor adaptation. Front. Comput. Neurosci. 2010, 4:11.
191. Wei K., Wert D., Körding K. The nervous system uses nonspecific motor learning in response to random perturbations of varying nature. J. Neurophysiol. 2010, 104:3053-3063.
192. Weiss P.L., Hunter I.W., Kearney R.E. Human ankle joint stiffness over the full range of muscle activation levels. J. Biomech. 1988, 21:539-544.
193. Wolpert D.M., Kawato M. Multiple paired forward and inverse models for motor control. Neural Netw. 1998, 11:1317-1329.
194. Wolpert D.M., Flanagan J.R. Motor prediction. Curr. Biol. 2001, 11:R729-R732.
195. Wolpert D.M., Ghahramani Z., Jordan M.I. Perceptual distortion contributes to the curvature of human reaching movements. Exp. Brain Res. 1994, 98:153-156.
196. Wolpert D.M., Ghahramani Z., Jordan M.I. An internal model for sensorimotor integration. Science 1995, 269:1880-1882.
197. Wolpert D.M., Goodbody S.J., Husain M. Maintaining internal representations: the role of the human superior parietal lobe. Nat. Neurosci. 1998, 1:529-533.
198. Wolpert D.M., Miall R.C., Kawato M. Internal models in the cerebellum. Trends Cogn. Sci. (Regul. Ed.) 1998, 2:338-347.
199. Yuille A., Kersten D. Vision as Bayesian inference: analysis by synthesis?. Trends Cogn. Sci. (Regul. Ed.) 2006, 10:301-308.
200. Zajac F.E. Muscle and tendon: properties, models, scaling, and application to biomechanics and motor control. Crit. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 1989, 17:359-411.