Chemopreventive activity of vitamin e in breast cancer: A focus on γ- and δ-tocopherol

Nutrients

Volumn 3, Issue 11, 2011, Pages 962-986

  Smolarek, Amanda K ^a,b   Suh, Nanjoo ^a,b,c  

^a RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c RUTGERS CANCER INSTITUTE OF NEW JERSEY   (United States)

Author keywords

(PPAR ); Anti inflammatory; Apoptosis; Breast cancer; Case control studies; Cell proliferation; Estrogen receptor (ER); Nuclear factor (erythroid derived 2) like 2 (Nrf2); Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor ; Tocopherols; Vitamin e

Indexed keywords

8 ISOPROSTANE; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ASCORBIC ACID; BETA CAROTENE; BETA TOCOPHEROL; CASPASE 3; CELECOXIB; CYCLINE; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2; DELTA TOCOPHEROL; EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTOR 2; ESTROGEN RECEPTOR; GAMMA TOCOPHEROL; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR GAMMA; PEROXYNITRITE; PERTUZUMAB; PROGESTERONE RECEPTOR; PROSTAGLANDIN E2; REACTIVE NITROGEN SPECIES; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; SELENIUM; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR NRF2; TRASTUZUMAB; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY; APOPTOSIS; ARTICLE; BREAST CANCER; BREAST CARCINOGENESIS; BREAST HYPERPLASIA; BREAST TUMOR; CANCER INHIBITION; CANCER PREVENTION; CELL PROLIFERATION; COLORECTAL CANCER; DRUG DOSE COMPARISON; DRUG STRUCTURE; GENE MUTATION; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; LUNG CANCER; LUNG TUMOR; NONHUMAN; ONCOGENE; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PERITONITIS; PROSTAGLANDIN SYNTHESIS INHIBITION; PROSTATE CANCER; RISK REDUCTION;

EID: 82155197567     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20726643     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/nu3110962     Document Type: Article

References (158)

1. Taylor, P.R.; Qiao, Y.L.; Abnet, C.C.; Dawsey, S.M.; Yang, C.S.; Gunter, E.W.; Wang, W.; Blot, W.J.; Dong, Z.W.; Mark, S.D. Prospective study of serum vitamin E levels and esophageal and gastric cancers. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2003, 95, 1414-1416.
2. Constantinou, C.; Papas, A.; Constantinou, A.I. Vitamin E and cancer: An insight into the anticancer activities of vitamin E isomers and analogs. Int. J. Cancer 2008, 123, 739-752.
3. Brigelius-Flohe, R.; Traber, M.G. Vitamin E: Function and metabolism. FASEB J. 1999, 13, 1145-1155.
4. McLaughlin, P.J.; Weihrauch, J.L. Vitamin E content of foods. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 1979, 75, 647-665.
5. Traber, M.G. Vitamin E regulatory mechanisms. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 2007, 27, 347-362.
6. Aggarwal, B.B.; Sundaram, C.; Prasad, S.; Kannappan, R. Tocotrienols, the vitamin E of the 21st century: Its potential against cancer and other chronic diseases. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2010, 80, 1613-1631.
7. Lee, H.J.; Ju, J.; Paul, S.; So, J.Y.; DeCastro, A.; Smolarek, A.; Lee, M.J.; Yang, C.S.; Newmark, H.L.; Suh, N. Mixed tocopherols prevent mammary tumorigenesis by inhibiting estrogen action and activating PPAR-gamma. Clin. Cancer Res. 2009, 15, 4242-4249.
8. Ju, J.; Hao, X.; Lee, M.J.; Lambert, J.D.; Lu, G.; Xiao, H.; Newmark, H.L.; Yang, C.S. A gamma-tocopherol-rich mixture of tocopherols inhibits colon inflammation and carcinogenesis in azoxymethane and dextran sulfate sodium-treated mice. Cancer Prev. Res. (Phila.) 2009, 2, 143-152.
9. Sen, C.K.; Khanna, S.; Roy, S. Tocotrienols in health and disease: The other half of the natural vitamin E family. Mol. Aspects Med. 2007, 28, 692-728.
10. Tan, B. Tocotrienols: The New Vitamin E. Spacedoc.com, 2010. Available online: http://www.spacedoc.com/tocotrienols (accessed on 15 October 2011).
11. Boscoboinik, D.; Szewczyk, A.; Azzi, A. Alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) regulates vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and protein kinase C activity. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1991, 286, 264-269.
12. Boscoboinik, D.; Szewczyk, A.; Hensey, C.; Azzi, A. Inhibition of cell proliferation by alpha-tocopherol. Role of protein kinase C. J. Biol. Chem. 1991, 266, 6188-6194.
13. Murphy, D.J.; Mavis, R.D. Membrane transfer of alpha-tocopherol. Influence of soluble alpha-tocopherol-binding factors from the liver, lung, heart, and brain of the rat. J. Biol. Chem. 1981, 256, 10464-10468.
14. Sontag, T.J.; Parker, R.S. Cytochrome P450 omega-hydroxylase pathway of tocopherol catabolism. Novel mechanism of regulation of vitamin E status. J. Biol. Chem. 2002, 277, 25290-25296.
15. Hosomi, A.; Arita, M.; Sato, Y.; Kiyose, C.; Ueda, T.; Igarashi, O.; Arai, H.; Inoue, K. Affinity for alpha-tocopherol transfer protein as a determinant of the biological activities of vitamin E analogs. FEBS Lett. 1997, 409, 105-108.
16. Zimmer, S.; Stocker, A.; Sarbolouki, M.N.; Spycher, S.E.; Sassoon, J.; Azzi, A. A novel human tocopherol-associated protein: Cloning, in vitro expression, and characterization. J. Biol. Chem. 2000, 275, 25672-25680.
17. Dutta-Roy, A.K.; Gordon, M.J.; Leishman, D.J.; Paterson, B.J.; Duthie, G.G.; James, W.P. Purification and partial characterisation of an alpha-tocopherol-binding protein from rabbit heart cytosol. Mol. Cell Biochem. 1993, 123, 139-144.
18. Gordon, M.J.; Campbell, F.M.; Dutta-Roy, A.K. alpha-Tocopherol-binding protein in the cytosol of the human placenta. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 1996, 24, 202S.
19. Gordon, M.J.; Campbell, F.M.; Duthie, G.G.; Dutta-Roy, A.K. Characterization of a novel alpha-tocopherol-binding protein from bovine heart cytosol. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1995, 318, 140-146.
20. Birringer, M.; Pfluger, P.; Kluth, D.; Landes, N.; Brigelius-Flohe, R. Identities and differences in the metabolism of tocotrienols and tocopherols in HepG2 cells. J. Nutr. 2002, 132, 3113-3118.
21. Huang, H.Y.; Appel, L.J. Supplementation of diets with alpha-tocopherol reduces serum concentrations of gamma- and delta-tocopherol in humans. J. Nutr. 2003, 133, 3137-3140.
22. Yu, W.; Jia, L.; Park, S.K.; Li, J.; Gopalan, A.; Simmons-Menchaca, M.; Sanders, B.G.; Kline, K. Anticancer actions of natural and synthetic vitamin E forms: RRR-alpha-tocopherol blocks the anticancer actions of gamma-tocopherol. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2009, 53, 1573-1581.
23. Jiang, Q.; Christen, S.; Shigenaga, M.K.; Ames, B.N. gamma-tocopherol, the major form of vitamin E in the US diet, deserves more attention. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2001, 74, 714-722.
24. Dietrich, M.; Traber, M.G.; Jacques, P.F.; Cross, C.E.; Hu, Y.; Block, G. Does gamma-tocopherol play a role in the primary prevention of heart disease and cancer? A review. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2006, 25, 292-299.
25. Gysin, R.; Azzi, A.; Visarius, T. Gamma-tocopherol inhibits human cancer cell cycle progression and cell proliferation by down-regulation of cyclins. FASEB J. 2002, 16, 1952-1954.
26. Jiang, Q.; Wong, J.; Fyrst, H.; Saba, J.D.; Ames, B.N. gamma-Tocopherol or combinations of vitamin E forms induce cell death in human prostate cancer cells by interrupting sphingolipid synthesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2004, 101, 17825-17830.
27. Campbell, S.E.; Stone, W.L.; Whaley, S.G.; Qui, M.; Krishnan, K. Gamma (gamma) tocopherol upregulates peroxisome proliferator activated receptor (PPAR) gamma (gamma) expression in SW 480 human colon cancer cell lines. BMC Cancer 2003, 3, 25; doi:10.1186/1471-2407-3-25.
28. Jiang, Q.; Elson-Schwab, I.; Courtemanche, C.; Ames, B.N. Gamma-tocopherol and its major metabolite, in contrast to alpha-tocopherol, inhibit cyclooxygenase activity in macrophages and epithelial cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2000, 97, 11494-11499.
29. Jiang, Q.; Ames, B.N. Gamma-tocopherol, but not alpha-tocopherol, decreases proinflammatory eicosanoids and inflammation damage in rats. FASEB J. 2003, 17, 816-822.
30. Jiang, Q.; Lykkesfeldt, J.; Shigenaga, M.K.; Shigeno, E.T.; Christen, S.; Ames, B.N. Gamma-tocopherol supplementation inhibits protein nitration and ascorbate oxidation in rats with inflammation. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2002, 33, 1534-1542.
31. Christen, S.; Woodall, A.A.; Shigenaga, M.K.; Southwell-Keely, P.T.; Duncan, M.W.; Ames, B.N. Gamma-tocopherol traps mutagenic electrophiles such as NO(X) and complements alpha-tocopherol: Physiological implications. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1997, 94, 3217-3222.
32. Cooney, R.V.; Franke, A.A.; Harwood, P.J.; Hatch-Pigott, V.; Custer, L.J.; Mordan, L.J. Gamma-tocopherol detoxification of nitrogen dioxide: Superiority to alpha-tocopherol. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1993, 90, 1771-1775.
33. Kamal-Eldin, A.; Appelqvist, L.A. The chemistry and antioxidant properties of tocopherols and tocotrienols. Lipids 1996, 31, 671-701.
34. Cillard, J.; Cillard, P. Prooxidant effect of alpha-tocopherol on essential fatty acids in aqueous media. Ann. Nutr. Aliment. 1980, 34, 579-591.
35. Burton, G.W.; Traber, M.G. Vitamin E: Antioxidant activity, biokinetics, and bioavailability. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 1990, 10, 357-382.
36. Burton, G.W.; Ingold, K.U. Vitamin E as an in vitro and in vivo antioxidant. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1989, 570, 7-22.
37. Lee, I.M.; Cook, N.R.; Gaziano, J.M.; Gordon, D.; Ridker, P.M.; Manson, J.E.; Hennekens, C.H.; Buring, J.E. Vitamin E in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer: The Women's Health Study: A randomized controlled trial. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2005, 294, 56-65.
38. Hensley, K.; Benaksas, E.J.; Bolli, R.; Comp, P.; Grammas, P.; Hamdheydari, L.; Mou, S.; Pye, Q.N.; Stoddard, M.F.; Wallis, G. et al. New perspectives on vitamin E: Gamma-tocopherol and carboxyelthylhydroxychroman metabolites in biology and medicine. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2004, 36, 1-15.
39. Kline, K.; Lawson, K.A.; Yu, W.; Sanders, B.G. Vitamin E and breast cancer prevention: Current status and future potential. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia 2003, 8, 91-102.
40. Bairati, I.; Meyer, F.; Gelinas, M.; Fortin, A.; Nabid, A.; Brochet, F.; Mercier, J.P.; Tetu, B.; Harel, F.; Masse, B. et al. A randomized trial of antioxidant vitamins to prevent second primary cancers in head and neck cancer patients. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2005, 97, 481-488.
41. Brigelius-Flohe, R.; Kelly, F.J.; Salonen, J.T.; Neuzil, J.; Zingg, J.M.; Azzi, A. The European perspective on vitamin E: Current knowledge and future research. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 76, 703-716.
42. Li, G.X.; Lee, M.J.; Liu, A.B.; Yang, Z.; Lin, Y.; Shih, W.J.; Yang, C.S. delta-tocopherol is more active than alpha-or gamma-tocopherol in inhibiting lung tumorigenesis in vivo. Cancer Prev. Res. (Phila.) 2011, 4, 404-413.
43. Barve, A.; Khor, T.O.; Nair, S.; Reuhl, K.; Suh, N.; Reddy, B.; Newmark, H.; Kong, A.N. Gamma-tocopherol-enriched mixed tocopherol diet inhibits prostate carcinogenesis in TRAMP mice. Int. J. Cancer 2009, 124, 1693-1699.
44. American Cancer Society. Learn about Cancer-Breast Cancer, 2011. Available online: http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/BreastCancer/DetailedGuide/breast-cancer-key-statistics (accessed on 25 May 2011).
45. Blows, F.M.; Driver, K.E.; Schmidt, M.K.; Broeks, A.; van Leeuwen, F.E.; Wesseling, J.; Cheang, M.C.; Gelmon, K.; Nielsen, T.O.; Blomqvist, C. et al. Subtyping of breast cancer by immunohistochemistry to investigate a relationship between subtype and short and long term survival: A collaborative analysis of data for 10,159 cases from 12 studies. PLoS Med. 2010, 7, e1000279; doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000279.
46. Sorlie, T.; Tibshirani, R.; Parker, J.; Hastie, T.; Marron, J.S.; Nobel, A.; Deng, S.; Johnsen, H.; Pesich, R.; Geisler, S. et al. Repeated observation of breast tumor subtypes in independent gene expression data sets. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003, 100, 8418-8423.
47. Russo, J.; Hasan Lareef, M.; Balogh, G.; Guo, S.; Russo, I.H. Estrogen and its metabolites are carcinogenic agents in human breast epithelial cells. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2003, 87, 1-25.
48. Mense, S.M.; Remotti, F.; Bhan, A.; Singh, B.; El-Tamer, M.; Hei, T.K.; Bhat, H.K. Estrogen-induced breast cancer: Alterations in breast morphology and oxidative stress as a function of estrogen exposure. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2008, 232, 78-85.
49. Singh, B.; Mense, S.M.; Remotti, F.; Liu, X.; Bhat, H.K. Antioxidant butylated hydroxyanisole inhibits estrogen-induced breast carcinogenesis in female ACI rats. J. Biochem. Mol. Toxicol. 2009, 23, 202-211.
50. Yager, J.D.; Davidson, N.E. Estrogen carcinogenesis in breast cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 2006, 354, 270-282.
51. Gaikwad, N.W.; Rogan, E.G.; Cavalieri, E.L. Evidence from ESI-MS for NQO1-catalyzed reduction of estrogen ortho-quinones. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2007, 43, 1289-1298.
52. Sumi, D.; Numasawa, Y.; Endo, A.; Iwamoto, N.; Kumagai, Y. Catechol estrogens mediated activation of Nrf2 through covalent modification of its quinone metabolite to Keap1. J. Toxicol. Sci. 2009, 34, 627-635.
53. Rogan, E.G.; Badawi, A.F.; Devanesan, P.D.; Meza, J.L.; Edney, J.A.; West, W.W.; Higginbotham, S.M.; Cavalieri, E.L. Relative imbalances in estrogen metabolism and conjugation in breast tissue of women with carcinoma: Potential biomarkers of susceptibility to cancer. Carcinogenesis 2003, 24, 697-702.
54. Owens, M.A.; Horten, B.C.; da Silva, M.M. HER2 amplification ratios by fluorescence in situ hybridization and correlation with immunohistochemistry in a cohort of 6556 breast cancer tissues. Clin. Breast Cancer 2004, 5, 63-69.
55. Baselga, J.; Swain, S.M. Novel anticancer targets: Revisiting ERBB2 and discovering ERBB3. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2009, 9, 463-475.
56. Franklin, M.C.; Carey, K.D.; Vajdos, F.F.; Leahy, D.J.; de Vos, A.M.; Sliwkowski, M.X. Insights into ErbB signaling from the structure of the ErbB2-pertuzumab complex. Cancer Cell 2004, 5, 317-328.
57. Lewis Phillips, G.D.; Li, G.; Dugger, D.L.; Crocker, L.M.; Parsons, K.L.; Mai, E.; Blattler, W.A.; Lambert, J.M.; Chari, R.V.; Lutz, R.J. et al. Targeting HER2-positive breast cancer with trastuzumab-DM1, an antibody-cytotoxic drug conjugate. Cancer Res. 2008, 68, 9280-9290.
58. Spector, N.L.; Xia, W.; Burris, H., III; Hurwitz, H.; Dees, E.C.; Dowlati, A.; O'Neil, B.; Overmoyer, B.; Marcom, P.K.; Blackwell, K.L. et al. Study of the biologic effects of lapatinib, a reversible inhibitor of ErbB1 and ErbB2 tyrosine kinases, on tumor growth and survival pathways in patients with advanced malignancies. J. Clin. Oncol. 2005, 23, 2502-2512.
59. Citri, A.; Alroy, I.; Lavi, S.; Rubin, C.; Xu, W.; Grammatikakis, N.; Patterson, C.; Neckers, L.; Fry, D.W.; Yarden, Y. Drug-induced ubiquitylation and degradation of ErbB receptor tyrosine kinases: Implications for cancer therapy. EMBO J. 2002, 21, 2407-2417.
60. Hynes, N.E.; Lane, H.A. ERBB receptors and cancer: The complexity of targeted inhibitors. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2005, 5, 341-354.
61. Olayioye, M.A.; Neve, R.M.; Lane, H.A.; Hynes, N.E. The ErbB signaling network: Receptor heterodimerization in development and cancer. EMBO J. 2000, 19, 3159-3167.
62. Burgess, A.W.; Cho, H.S.; Eigenbrot, C.; Ferguson, K.M.; Garrett, T.P.; Leahy, D.J.; Lemmon, M.A.; Sliwkowski, M.X.; Ward, C.W.; Yokoyama, S. An open-and-shut case? Recent insights into the activation of EGF/ErbB receptors. Mol. Cell 2003, 12, 541-552.
63. Tzahar, E.; Waterman, H.; Chen, X.; Levkowitz, G.; Karunagaran, D.; Lavi, S.; Ratzkin, B.J.; Yarden, Y. A hierarchical network of interreceptor interactions determines signal transduction by Neu differentiation factor/neuregulin and epidermal growth factor. Mol. Cell Biol. 1996, 16, 5276-5287.
64. Pinkas-Kramarski, R.; Soussan, L.; Waterman, H.; Levkowitz, G.; Alroy, I.; Klapper, L.; Lavi, S.; Seger, R.; Ratzkin, B.J.; Sela, M.; Yarden, Y. Diversification of Neu differentiation factor and epidermal growth factor signaling by combinatorial receptor interactions. EMBO J. 1996, 15, 2452-2467.
65. Holbro, T.; Beerli, R.R.; Maurer, F.; Koziczak, M.; Barbas, C.F., III; Hynes, N.E. The ErbB2/ErbB3 heterodimer functions as an oncogenic unit: ErbB2 requires ErbB3 to drive breast tumor cell proliferation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003, 100, 8933-8938.
66. Yarden, Y.; Sliwkowski, M.X. Untangling the ErbB signalling network. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2001, 2, 127-137.
67. Hellyer, N.J.; Cheng, K.; Koland, J.G. ErbB3 (HER3) interaction with the p85 regulatory subunit of phosphoinositide 3-kinase. Biochem. J. 1998, 333, 757-763.
68. Brenton, J.D.; Carey, L.A.; Ahmed, A.A.; Caldas, C. Molecular classification and molecular forecasting of breast cancer: Ready for clinical application? J. Clin. Oncol. 2005, 23, 7350-7360.
69. Peppercorn, J.; Perou, C.M.; Carey, L.A. Molecular subtypes in breast cancer evaluation and management: Divide and conquer. Cancer Invest. 2008, 26, 1-10.
70. Carey, L.A.; Perou, C.M.; Livasy, C.A.; Dressler, L.G.; Cowan, D.; Conway, K.; Karaca, G.; Troester, M.A.; Tse, C.K.; Edmiston, S. et al. Race, breast cancer subtypes, and survival in the Carolina Breast Cancer Study. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2006, 295, 2492-2502.
71. Kline, K.; Lawson, K.A.; Yu, W.; Sanders, B.G. Vitamin E and cancer. Vitam. Horm. 2007, 76, 435-461.
72. Stone, W.L.; Krishnan, K.; Campbell, S.E.; Qui, M.; Whaley, S.G.; Yang, H. Tocopherols and the treatment of colon cancer. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2004, 1031, 223-233.
73. Chamras, H.; Barsky, S.H.; Ardashian, A.; Navasartian, D.; Heber, D.; Glaspy, J.A. Novel interactions of vitamin E and estrogen in breast cancer. Nutr. Cancer 2005, 52, 43-48.
74. Rice, S.; Whitehead, S.A. Phytoestrogens oestrogen synthesis and breast cancer. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2008, 108, 186-195.
75. Comitato, R.; Nesaretnam, K.; Leoni, G.; Ambra, R.; Canali, R.; Bolli, A.; Marino, M.; Virgili, F. A novel mechanism of natural vitamin E tocotrienol activity: Involvement of ERbeta signal transduction. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 2009, 297, E427-E437.
76. Smolarek, A.K.; So, J.Y.; Thomas, P.E.; Lee, H.J.; Paul, S.; Dombrowski, A.; Wang, C.X.; Kong, A.N.T.; Reuhl, K.; Lee, M.J. et al. Dietary Mixed Tocopherols Inhibit Cell Proliferation in Mammary Hyperplasia, Suppress the Expression of Inflammatory Markers, and Upregulate PPARy. In Proceedings of the 102nd Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research, Orlando, FL, USA, 2-6 April 2011; Abstract Poster #1851.
77. Desvergne, B.; Wahli, W. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors: Nuclear control of metabolism. Endocr. Rev. 1999, 20, 649-688.
78. Michalik, L.; Desvergne, B.; Wahli, W. Peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptors and cancers: Complex stories. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2004, 4, 61-70.
79. Mansure, J.J.; Nassim, R.; Kassouf, W. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma in bladder cancer: A promising therapeutic target. Cancer Biol. Ther. 2009, 8, 6-15.
80. Jarrar, M.H.; Baranova, A. Pparγ activation by thiazolidinediones (TZDs) may modulate breast carcinoma outcome: The importance of interplay with TGFbeta signalling. J. Cell Mol. Med. 2007, 11, 71-87.
81. Campbell, S.E.; Musich, P.R.; Whaley, S.G.; Stimmel, J.B.; Leesnitzer, L.M.; Dessus-Babus, S.; Duffourc, M.; Stone, W.; Newman, R.A.; Yang, P. et al. Gamma tocopherol upregulates the expression of 15-S-HETE and induces growth arrest through a PPAR gamma-dependent mechanism in PC-3 human prostate cancer cells. Nutr. Cancer 2009, 61, 649-662.
82. De Pascale, M.C.; Bassi, A.M.; Patrone, V.; Villacorta, L.; Azzi, A.; Zingg, J.M. Increased expression of transglutaminase-1 and PPARgamma after vitamin E treatment in human keratinocytes. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2006, 447, 97-106.
83. Bonofiglio, D.; Gabriele, S.; Aquila, S.; Catalano, S.; Gentile, M.; Middea, E.; Giordano, F.; Ando, S. Estrogen receptor alpha binds to peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor response element and negatively interferes with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma signaling in breast cancer cells. Clin. Cancer Res. 2005, 11, 6139-6147.
84. Saw, C.L.; Wu, Q.; Kong, A.N. Anti-cancer and potential chemopreventive actions of ginseng by activating Nrf2 (NFE2L2) anti-oxidative stress/anti-inflammatory pathways. Chin. Med. 2010, 5, 37; doi:10.1186/1749-8546-5-37.
85. Surh, Y.J. Cancer chemoprevention with dietary phytochemicals. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2003, 3, 768-780.
86. Frohlich, D.A.; McCabe, M.T.; Arnold, R.S.; Day, M.L. The role of Nrf2 in increased reactive oxygen species and DNA damage in prostate tumorigenesis. Oncogene 2008, 27, 4353-4362.
87. Kwak, M.K.; Kensler, T.W. Targeting NRF2 signaling for cancer chemoprevention. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2010, 244, 66-76.
88. Khor, T.O.; Yu, S.; Kong, A.N. Dietary cancer chemopreventive agents-Targeting inflammation and Nrf2 signaling pathway. Planta Med. 2008, 74, 1540-1547.
89. Chen, C.; Kong, A.N. Dietary cancer-chemopreventive compounds: From signaling and gene expression to pharmacological effects. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 2005, 26, 318-326.
90. Feng, Z.; Liu, Z.; Li, X.; Jia, H.; Sun, L.; Tian, C.; Jia, L.; Liu, J. alpha-Tocopherol is an effective Phase II enzyme inducer: Protective effects on acrolein-induced oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in human retinal pigment epithelial cells. J. Nutr. Biochem 2010, 21, 1222-1231.
91. Yu, S.; Khor, T.O.; Cheung, K.L.; Li, W.; Wu, T.Y.; Huang, Y.; Foster, B.A.; Kan, Y.W.; Kong, A.N. Nrf2 expression is regulated by epigenetic mechanisms in prostate cancer of TRAMP mice. PLoS One 2010, 5, e0008579; doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0008579.
92. Smolarek, A.K.; So, J.Y.; Thomas, P.E.; Lee, H.J.; Paul, S.; Dombrowski, A.; Wang, C.X.; Saw, C.L.-L.; Khor, T.O.; Kong, A.N.T. et al. Dietary tocopherols inhibit cell proliferation, regulate expression of ERα, PPARγ and Nrf2, and decrease serum inflammatory markers during the development of mammary hyperplasia. Unpublished work, 2011.
93. Kerr, J.F. History of the events leading to the formulation of the apoptosis concept. Toxicology 2002, 181-182, 471-474.
94. Kerr, J.F.; Wyllie, A.H.; Currie, A.R. Apoptosis: A basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics. Br. J. Cancer 1972, 26, 239-257.
95. Hacker, G. The morphology of apoptosis. Cell Tissue Res. 2000, 301, 5-17.
96. Elmore, S. Apoptosis: A review of programmed cell death. Toxicol. Pathol. 2007, 35, 495-516.
97. Igney, F.H.; Krammer, P.H. Death and anti-death: Tumour resistance to apoptosis. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2002, 2, 277-288.
98. Cohen, G.M. Caspases: The executioners of apoptosis. Biochem. J. 1997, 326, 1-16.
99. Rai, N.K.; Tripathi, K.; Sharma, D.; Shukla, V.K. Apoptosis: A basic physiologic process in wound healing. Int. J. Low. Extrem. Wounds 2005, 4, 138-144.
100. Campbell, S.E.; Stone, W.L.; Lee, S.; Whaley, S.; Yang, H.; Qui, M.; Goforth, P.; Sherman, D.; McHaffie, D.; Krishnan, K. Comparative effects of RRR-alpha- and RRR-gamma-tocopherol on proliferation and apoptosis in human colon cancer cell lines. BMC Cancer 2006, 6, 13; doi:10.1186/1471-2407-6-13.
101. Jiang, Q.; Wong, J.; Ames, B.N. Gamma-tocopherol induces apoptosis in androgen-responsive LNCaP prostate cancer cells via caspase-dependent and independent mechanisms. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2004, 1031, 399-400.
102. Yu, W.; Simmons-Menchaca, M.; Gapor, A.; Sanders, B.G.; Kline, K. Induction of apoptosis in human breast cancer cells by tocopherols and tocotrienols. Nutr. Cancer 1999, 33, 26-32.
103. Yu, W.; Jia, L.; Wang, P.; Lawson, K.A.; Simmons-Menchaca, M.; Park, S.K.; Sun, L.; Sanders, B.G.; Kline, K. In vitro and in vivo evaluation of anticancer actions of natural and synthetic vitamin E forms. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2008, 52, 447-456.
104. Suh, N.; Paul, S.; Lee, H.J.; Ji, Y.; Lee, M.J.; Yang, C.S.; Reddy, B.S.; Newmark, H.L. Mixed tocopherols inhibit N-methyl-N-nitrosourea-induced mammary tumor growth in rats. Nutr. Cancer 2007, 59, 76-81.
105. Smolarek, A.K.; So, J.Y.; Kong, A.N.; Reuhl, K.; Lin, Y.; Shih, W.J.; Lee, M.J.; Yang, C.S.; Suh, N. Dietary administration of gamma- and delta-tocopherol inhibits mammary carcinogenesis. In Proceedings of Society of Toxicology's 51st Annual Meeting & ToxExpo, San Francisco, CA, USA, 11-15 March 2012.
106. Herschman, H.R. Prostaglandin synthase 2. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1996, 1299, 125-140.
107. Howe, L.R.; Subbaramaiah, K.; Brown, A.M.; Dannenberg, A.J. Cyclooxygenase-2: A target for the prevention and treatment of breast cancer. Endocr. Relat. Cancer 2001, 8, 97-114.
108. Ristimaki, A.; Sivula, A.; Lundin, J.; Lundin, M.; Salminen, T.; Haglund, C.; Joensuu, H.; Isola, J. Prognostic significance of elevated cyclooxygenase-2 expression in breast cancer. Cancer Res. 2002, 62, 632-635.
109. Howe, L.R.; Subbaramaiah, K.; Patel, J.; Masferrer, J.L.; Deora, A.; Hudis, C.; Thaler, H.T.; Muller, W.J.; Du, B.; Brown, A.M. et al. Celecoxib, a selective cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitor, protects against human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER-2)/neu-induced breast cancer. Cancer Res. 2002, 62, 5405-5407.
110. Wagner, K.H.; Kamal-Eldin, A.; Elmadfa, I. Gamma-tocopherol-An underestimated vitamin? Ann. Nutr. Metab. 2004, 48, 169-188.
111. Jiang, Q.; Yin, X.; Lill, M.A.; Danielson, M.L.; Freiser, H.; Huang, J. Long-chain carboxychromanols, metabolites of vitamin E, are potent inhibitors of cyclooxygenases. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105, 20464-20469.
112. Ambrosone, C.B.; Marshall, J.R.; Vena, J.E.; Laughlin, R.; Graham, S.; Nemoto, T.; Freudenheim, J.L. Interaction of family history of breast cancer and dietary antioxidants with breast cancer risk (New York, United States). Cancer Causes Control 1995, 6, 407-415.
113. Ray, G.; Husain, S.A. Role of lipids, lipoproteins and vitamins in women with breast cancer. Clin. Biochem. 2001, 34, 71-76.
114. Mannisto, S.; Pietinen, P.; Virtanen, M.; Kataja, V.; Uusitupa, M. Diet and the risk of breast cancer in a case-control study: Does the threat of disease have an influence on recall bias? J. Clin. Epidemiol. 1999, 52, 429-439.
115. Ronco, A.; De Stefani, E.; Boffetta, P.; Deneo-Pellegrini, H.; Mendilaharsu, M.; Leborgne, F. Vegetables, fruits, and related nutrients and risk of breast cancer: A case-control study in Uruguay. Nutr. Cancer 1999, 35, 111-119.
116. Braga, C.; La Vecchia, C.; Negri, E.; Franceschi, S.; Parpinel, M. Intake of selected foods and nutrients and breast cancer risk: An age- and menopause-specific analysis. Nutr. Cancer 1997, 28, 258-263.
117. Freudenheim, J.L.; Marshall, J.R.; Vena, J.E.; Laughlin, R.; Brasure, J.R.; Swanson, M.K.; Nemoto, T.; Graham, S. Premenopausal breast cancer risk and intake of vegetables, fruits, and related nutrients. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1996, 88, 340-348.
118. London, S.J.; Stein, E.A.; Henderson, I.C.; Stampfer, M.J.; Wood, W.C.; Remine, S.; Dmochowski, J.R.; Robert, N.J.; Willett, W.C. Carotenoids, retinol, and vitamin E and risk of proliferative benign breast disease and breast cancer. Cancer Causes Control 1992, 3, 503-512.
119. Sharhar, S.; Normah, H.; Fatimah, A.; Fadilah, R.N.; Rohi, G.A.; Amin, I.; Cham, B.G.; Rizal, R.M.; Fairulnizal, M.N. Antioxidant intake and status, and oxidative stress in relation to breast cancer risk: A case-control study. Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. 2008, 9, 343-349.
120. Levi, F.; Pasche, C.; Lucchini, F.; La Vecchia, C. Dietary intake of selected micronutrients and breast-cancer risk. Int. J. Cancer 2001, 91, 260-263.
121. Negri, E.; La Vecchia, C.; Franceschi, S.; D'Avanzo, B.; Talamini, R.; Parpinel, M.; Ferraroni, M.; Filiberti, R.; Montella, M.; Falcini, F.; Conti, E.; Decarli, A. Intake of selected micronutrients and the risk of breast cancer. Int. J. Cancer 1996, 65, 140-144.
122. Dorjgochoo, T.; Shrubsole, M.J.; Shu, X.O.; Lu, W.; Ruan, Z.; Zheng, Y.; Cai, H.; Dai, Q.; Gu, K.; Gao, Y.T. et al. Vitamin supplement use and risk for breast cancer: The Shanghai Breast Cancer Study. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 2008, 111, 269-278.
123. Adzersen, K.H.; Jess, P.; Freivogel, K.W.; Gerhard, I.; Bastert, G. Raw and cooked vegetables, fruits, selected micronutrients, and breast cancer risk: A case-control study in Germany. Nutr. Cancer 2003, 46, 131-137.
124. Zaroukian, S.; Pineault, R.; Gandini, S.; Lacroix, A.; Ghadirian, P. Correlation between nutritional biomarkers and breast cancer: A case-control study. Breast 2005, 14, 209-223.
125. Tamimi, R.M.; Hankinson, S.E.; Campos, H.; Spiegelman, D.; Zhang, S.; Colditz, G.A.; Willett, W.C.; Hunter, D.J. Plasma carotenoids, retinol, and tocopherols and risk of breast cancer. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2005, 161, 153-160.
126. Sato, R.; Helzlsouer, K.J.; Alberg, A.J.; Hoffman, S.C.; Norkus, E.P.; Comstock, G.W. Prospective study of carotenoids, tocopherols, and retinoid concentrations and the risk of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 2002, 11, 451-457.
127. Comstock, G.W.; Burke, A.E.; Hoffman, S.C.; Norkus, E.P.; Gross, M.; Helzlsouer, K.J. The repeatability of serum carotenoid, retinoid, and tocopherol concentrations in specimens of blood collected 15 years apart. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 2001, 10, 65-68.
128. Yang, Y.J.; Hwang, S.H.; Kim, H.J.; Nam, S.J.; Kong, G.; Kim, M.K. Dietary intake of nitrate relative to antioxidant vitamin in relation to breast cancer risk: A case-control study. Nutr. Cancer 2010, 62, 555-566.
129. Simon, M.S.; Djuric, Z.; Dunn, B.; Stephens, D.; Lababidi, S.; Heilbrun, L.K. An evaluation of plasma antioxidant levels and the risk of breast cancer: A pilot case control study. Breast J. 2000, 6, 388-395.
130. Bohlke, K.; Spiegelman, D.; Trichopoulou, A.; Katsouyanni, K.; Trichopoulos, D. Vitamins A, C and E and the risk of breast cancer: Results from a case-control study in Greece. Br. J. Cancer 1999, 79, 23-29.
131. Mezzetti, M.; La Vecchia, C.; Decarli, A.; Boyle, P.; Talamini, R.; Franceschi, S. Population attributable risk for breast cancer: Diet, nutrition, and physical exercise. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1998, 90, 389-394.
132. Dorgan, J.F.; Sowell, A.; Swanson, C.A.; Potischman, N.; Miller, R.; Schussler, N.; Stephenson, H.E., Jr. Relationships of serum carotenoids, retinol, alpha-tocopherol, and selenium with breast cancer risk: Results from a prospective study in Columbia, Missouri (United States). Cancer Causes Control 1998, 9, 89-97.
133. Wang, C.; Baumgartner, R.N.; Yang, D.; Slattery, M.L.; Murtaugh, M.A.; Byers, T.; Hines, L.M.; Giuliano, A.R.; Baumgartner, K.B. No evidence of association between breast cancer risk and dietary carotenoids, retinols, vitamin C and tocopherols in Southwestern Hispanic and non-Hispanic White women. Breast Cancer Res. Treat 2009, 114, 137-145.
134. Nissen, S.B.; Tjonneland, A.; Stripp, C.; Olsen, A.; Christensen, J.; Overvad, K.; Dragsted, L.O.; Thomsen, B. Intake of vitamins A, C, and E from diet and supplements and breast cancer in postmenopausal women. Cancer Causes Control 2003, 14, 695-704.
135. Do, M.H.; Lee, S.S.; Jung, P.J.; Lee, M.H. Intake of dietary fat and vitamin in relation to breast cancer risk in Korean women: A case-control study. J. Korean Med. Sci. 2003, 18, 534-540.
136. Rohan, T.E.; Howe, G.R.; Friedenreich, C.M.; Jain, M.; Miller, A.B. Dietary fiber, vitamins A, C, and E, and risk of breast cancer: A cohort study. Cancer Causes Control 1993, 4, 29-37.
137. Michels, K.B.; Holmberg, L.; Bergkvist, L.; Ljung, H.; Bruce, A.; Wolk, A. Dietary antioxidant vitamins, retinol, and breast cancer incidence in a cohort of Swedish women. Int. J. Cancer 2001, 91, 563-567.
138. Zhang, S.; Hunter, D.J.; Forman, M.R.; Rosner, B.A.; Speizer, F.E.; Colditz, G.A.; Manson, J.E.; Hankinson, S.E.; Willett, W.C. Dietary carotenoids and vitamins A, C, and E and risk of breast cancer. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1999, 91, 547-556.
139. Verhoeven, D.T.; Assen, N.; Goldbohm, R.A.; Dorant, E.; van't Veer, P.; Sturmans, F.; Hermus, R.J.; van den Brandt, P.A. Vitamins C and E Retinol Beta-carotene and dietary fibre in relation to breast cancer risk: A prospective cohort study. Br. J. Cancer 1997, 75, 149-155.
140. Jarvinen, R.; Knekt, P.; Seppanen, R.; Teppo, L. Diet and breast cancer risk in a cohort of Finnish women. Cancer Lett. 1997, 114, 251-253.
141. Kushi, L.H.; Fee, R.M.; Sellers, T.A.; Zheng, W.; Folsom, A.R. Intake of vitamins A, C, and E and postmenopausal breast cancer. The Iowa Women's Health Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1996, 144, 165-174.
142. Hunter, D.J.; Manson, J.E.; Colditz, G.A.; Stampfer, M.J.; Rosner, B.; Hennekens, C.H.; Speizer, F.E.; Willett, W.C. A prospective study of the intake of vitamins C, E, and A and the risk of breast cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 1993, 329, 234-240.
143. Friedenreich, C.M.; Howe, G.R.; Miller, A.B. Recall bias in the association of micronutrient intake and breast cancer. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 1993, 46, 1009-1017.
144. Graham, S.; Zielezny, M.; Marshall, J.; Priore, R.; Freudenheim, J.; Brasure, J.; Haughey, B.; Nasca, P.; Zdeb, M. Diet in the epidemiology of postmenopausal breast cancer in the New York State Cohort. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1992, 136, 1327-1337.
145. Nagel, G.; Linseisen, J.; van Gils, C.H.; Peeters, P.H.; Boutron-Ruault, M.C.; Clavel-Chapelon, F.; Romieu, I.; Tjonneland, A.; Olsen, A.; Roswall, N. et al. Dietary beta-carotene, vitamin C and E intake and breast cancer risk in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 2010, 119, 753-765.
146. Cui, Y.; Shikany, J.M.; Liu, S.; Shagufta, Y.; Rohan, T.E. Selected antioxidants and risk of hormone receptor-defined invasive breast cancers among postmenopausal women in the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 87, 1009-1018.
147. Cho, E.; Spiegelman, D.; Hunter, D.J.; Chen, W.Y.; Zhang, S.M.; Colditz, G.A.; Willett, W.C. Premenopausal intakes of vitamins A, C, and E, folate, and carotenoids, and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 2003, 12, 713-720.
148. Nechuta, S.; Lu, W.; Chen, Z.; Zheng, Y.; Gu, K.; Cai, H.; Zheng, W.; Shu, X.O. Vitamin supplement use during breast cancer treatment and survival: A prospective cohort study. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 2011, 20, 262-271.
149. Schwenke, D.C. Does lack of tocopherols and tocotrienols put women at increased risk of breast cancer? J. Nutr. Biochem 2002, 13, 2-20.
150. Kimmick, G.G.; Bell, R.A.; Bostick, R.M. Vitamin E and breast cancer: A review. Nutr. Cancer 1997, 27, 109-117.
151. Fulan, H.; Changxing, J.; Baina, W.Y.; Wencui, Z.; Chunqing, L.; Fan, W.; Dandan, L.; Dianjun, S.; Tong, W.; Da, P. et al. Retinol, vitamins A, C, and E and breast cancer risk: A meta-analysis and meta-regression. Cancer Causes Control 2011, 22, 1383-1396.
152. The alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene lung cancer prevention study: Design, methods, participant characteristics, and compliance. The ATBC Cancer Prevention Study Group. Ann. Epidemiol. 1994, 4, 1-10.
153. Albanes, D.; Malila, N.; Taylor, P.R.; Huttunen, J.K.; Virtamo, J.; Edwards, B.K.; Rautalahti, M.; Hartman, A.M.; Barrett, M.J.; Pietinen, P. et al. Effects of supplemental alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene on colorectal cancer: Results from a controlled trial (Finland). Cancer Causes Control 2000, 11, 197-205.
154. Heinonen, O.P.; Albanes, D.; Virtamo, J.; Taylor, P.R.; Huttunen, J.K.; Hartman, A.M.; Haapakoski, J.; Malila, N.; Rautalahti, M.; Ripatti, S. et al. Prostate cancer and supplementation with alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene: Incidence and mortality in a controlled trial. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1998, 90, 440-446.
155. Gaziano, J.M.; Glynn, R.J.; Christen, W.G.; Kurth, T.; Belanger, C.; MacFadyen, J.; Bubes, V.; Manson, J.E.; Sesso, H.D.; Buring, J.E. Vitamins E and C in the prevention of prostate and total cancer in men: The Physicians' Health Study II randomized controlled trial. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2009, 301, 52-62.
156. Lippman, S.M.; Klein, E.A.; Goodman, P.J.; Lucia, M.S.; Thompson, I.M.; Ford, L.G.; Parnes, H.L.; Minasian, L.M.; Gaziano, J.M.; Hartline, J.A. et al. Effect of selenium and vitamin E on risk of prostate cancer and other cancers: The Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT). J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2009, 301, 39-51.
157. Lonn, E.; Bosch, J.; Yusuf, S.; Sheridan, P.; Pogue, J.; Arnold, J.M.; Ross, C.; Arnold, A.; Sleight, P.; Probstfield, J. et al. Effects of long-term vitamin E supplementation on cardiovascular events and cancer: A randomized controlled trial. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2005, 293, 1338-1347.
158. Lin, J.; Cook, N.R.; Albert, C.; Zaharris, E.; Gaziano, J.M.; Van Denburgh, M.; Buring, J.E.; Manson, J.E. Vitamins C and E and beta carotene supplementation and cancer risk: A randomized controlled trial. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2009, 101, 14-23.