Metastatic cancer stem cells: New molecular targets for cancer therapy

Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology

Volumn 12, Issue 11, 2011, Pages 1909-1922

  Leiros G J ^a   Balana M E ^a  

^a Fundacion Pablo Cassara   (Argentina)

Author keywords

Aberrant differentiation; Cancer stem cells; Metastasis molecular targets; Metastatic process; Mobilisation and metastasis; Self renewal ability; Stem cell markers

Indexed keywords

BETA CATENIN; CHEMOKINE RECEPTOR CXCR4; CYCLOPAMINE; DICKKOPF 1 PROTEIN; FIBRONECTIN; FRESOLIMUMAB; GELATINASE B; HYPOXIA INDUCIBLE FACTOR; SECRETED FRIZZLED RELATED PROTEIN 1; SONIC HEDGEHOG PROTEIN; STROMAL CELL DERIVED FACTOR 1; TRABEDERSEN; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA; UVOMORULIN; VASCULOTROPIN RECEPTOR 1; VERY LATE ACTIVATION ANTIGEN 4; WNT PROTEIN;

ACUTE GRANULOCYTIC LEUKEMIA; ADULT STEM CELL; APOPTOSIS; ARTICLE; BASAL CELL CARCINOMA; BREAST METASTASIS; CANCER MORPHOLOGY; CANCER REGRESSION; CANCER RESISTANCE; CANCER STEM CELL; CANCER TISSUE; CARCINOGENESIS; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL HETEROGENEITY; CELL HOMING; CELL RENEWAL; CHRONIC MYELOID LEUKEMIA; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; EMBRYONIC STEM CELL; EPITHELIAL MESENCHYMAL TRANSITION; HEMATOPOIESIS; HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELL; HUMAN; MALIGNANT TRANSFORMATION; METASTASIS; MOLECULARLY TARGETED THERAPY; NONHUMAN; OXYGEN CONCENTRATION; PHASE 1 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); POLYCYTHEMIA VERA; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PROTEIN INDUCTION; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA; STEM CELL EXPANSION; STEM CELL NICHE; TARGET CELL; THROMBOCYTHEMIA; UPREGULATION;

EID: 80054875130     PISSN: 13892010     EISSN: 18734316     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/138920111798377094     Document Type: Article

References (138)

1. Clarke, M.F.; Dick, J.E.; Dirks, P.B.; Eaves, C.J.; Jamieson, C.H.M.; Jones, D.L.; Visvader, J.; Weissman, I.L.; Wahl, G.M. Cancer stem cells-perspectives on current status and future directions: AACR workshop on cancer stem cells. Cancer Res., 2006, 66(19), 9339-9344.
2. Croker, A.K.; Allan, A.L. Cancer stem cells: implications for the progression and treatment of metastatic disease. J. Cell. Mol. Med., 2008, 12(2), 374-390.
3. McCance, K.L.; Roberts, L.K., The Biology of Cancer. In: Pathophysiology, The Biological Basis of Disease in Adults and Children, Mosby, Ed. 1999; pp 304-349.
4. Reya, T.; Morrison, S.J.; Clarke, M.F.; Weissman, I.L. Stem cells, cancer, and cancer stem cells. Nature, 2001, 414(6859), 105-111.
5. Al-Hajj, M.; Clarke, M.F. Self-renewal and solid tumor stem cells. Oncogene, 2004, 23(43), 7274-7282.
6. Dalerba, P.; Clarke, M.F. Cancer Stem Cells and Tumor Metastasis: First Steps into Uncharted Territory. Cell Stem Cell, 2007, 1(3), 241-242.
7. Adamson, J.; Fialkow, P.; Murphy, S.; Prchal, J.; Steinmann, L. Polycythemia vera: stem-cell and probable clonal origin of the disease. N. Engl. J.Med., 1976, 295(17), 913-916.
8. Fialkow, P.; Faguet, G.; Jacobson, R.; Vaidya, K.; Murphy, S. Evidence that essential thrombocythemia is a clonal disorder with origin in a multipotent stem cell. Blood, 1981, 58(5), 916-919.
9. Fialkow, P.; Singer, J.; Adamson, J.; Vaidya, K.; Dow, L.; Ochs, J.; Moohr, J. Acute nonlymphocytic leukemia: heterogeneity of stem cell origin. Blood, 1981, 57(6), 1068-1073.
10. Fialkow Philip, J.; Jacobson Robert, J.; Papayannopoulou Thalia Chronic myelocytic leukemia: Clonal origin in a stem cell common to the granulocyte, erythrocyte, platelet and monocyte/macrophage. Am. j. Med., 1977, 63(1), 125-130.
11. Lapidot, T.; Sirard, C.; Vormoor, J.; Murdoch, B.; Hoang, T.; Caceres-Cortes, J.; Minden, M.; Paterson, B.; Caligiuri, M.A.; Dick, J.E. A cell initiating human acute myeloid leukaemia after transplantation into SCID mice. Nature, 1994, 367(6464), 645-648.
12. Bonnet, D.; Dick, J.E. Human acute myeloid leukemia is organized as a hierarchy that originates from a primitive hematopoietic cell. Nat. Med., 1997, 3(7), 730-737.
13. Gupta, P.B.; Chaffer, C.L.; Weinberg, R.A. Cancer stem cells: mirage or reality? Nat. Med., 2009, 15(9), 1010-1012.
14. Singh, S.K.; Clarke, I.D.; Terasaki, M.; Bonn, V.E.; Hawkins, C.; Squire, J.; Dirks, P.B. Identification of a cancer stem cell in human brain tumors. Cancer Res., 2003, 63(18), 5821-5828.
15. Al-Hajj, M.; Wicha, M.S.; Benito-Hernandez, A.; Morrison, S.J.; Clarke, M.F. Prospective identification of tumorigenic breast cancer cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2003, 100(7), 3983-3988.
16. O'Brien, C.A.; Pollett, A.; Gallinger, S.; Dick, J.E. A human colon cancer cell capable of initiating tumour growth in immunodeficient mice. Nature, 2007, 445(7123), 106-110.
17. Ricci-Vitiani, L.; Lombardi, D.G.; Pilozzi, E.; Biffoni, M.; Todaro, M.; Peschle, C.; De Maria, R. Identification and expansion of human colon-cancer-initiating cells. Nature, 2007, 445(7123), 111-115.
18. Zhang, S.; Balch, C.; Chan, M.W.; Lai, H.-C.; Matei, D.; Schilder, J.M.; Yan, P.S.; Huang, T.H.-M.; Nephew, K.P. Identification and characterization of ovarian cancer-initiating cells from primary human tumors. Cancer Res., 2008, 68(11), 4311-4320.
19. Li, C.; Heidt, D.G.; Dalerba, P.; Burant, C.F.; Zhang, L.; Adsay, V.; Wicha, M.; Clarke, M.F.; Simeone, D.M. Identification of pancreatic cancer stem cells. Cancer Res., 2007, 67(3), 1030-1037.
20. Maitland, N.J.; Collins, A.T. Prostate cancer stem cells: A new target for therapy. J. Clin. Oncol., 2008, 26(17), 2862-2870.
21. Lang, S.; Frame, F.; Collins, A. Prostate cancer stem cells. J.Pathol., 2009, 217(2), 299-306.
22. Schatton, T.; Murphy, G.F.; Frank, N.Y.; Yamaura, K.; Waaga-Gasser, A.M.; Gasser, M.; Zhan, Q.; Jordan, S.; Duncan, L.M.; Weishaupt, C.; Fuhlbrigge, R.C.; Kupper, T.S.; Sayegh, M.H.; Frank, M.H. Identification of cells initiating human melanomas. Nature, 2008, 451(7176), 345-349.
23. Fang, D.; Nguyen, T.K.; Leishear, K.; Finko, R.; Kulp, A.N.; Hotz, S.; Van Belle, P.A.; Xu, X.; Elder, D.E.; Herlyn, M. A Tumorigenic subpopulation with stem cell properties in melanomas. Cancer Res., 2005, 65(20), 9328-9337.
24. Chambers, A.F.; Groom, A.C.; MacDonald, I.C. Metastasis: Dissemination and growth of cancer cells in metastatic sites. Nat. Rev. Cancer, 2002, 2(8), 563-572.
25. Pantel, K.; Brakenhoff, R.H. Dissecting the metastatic cascade. Nat. Rev. Cancer, 2004, 4(6), 448-456.
26. Luzzi, K.J.; MacDonald, I.C.; Schmidt, E.E.; Kerkvliet, N.; Morris, V.L.; Chambers, A.F.; Groom, A.C. Multistep nature of metastatic inefficiency: Dormancy of solitary cells after successful extravasation andlimited survival of early micrometastases. Am. J. Pathol., 1998, 153(3), 865-873.
27. Weiss, L. Metastatic inefficiency. Adv. Cancer Res., 1990, 54, 159-211.
28. Paget, S. The distribution of secondary growths in cancer of the breast. Lancet, 1889, 1, 99-101.
29. Fidler, I. J. The pathogenesis of cancer metastasis: the 'seed and soil' hypothesis revisited. Nat. Rev. Cancer, 2003, 3(6), 453-458.
30. Ewing, J. Neoplastic diseases. S Treatise on Tumors, In: Saunders, W. B. Ed. London, 1928; pp 77-89.
31. Muller, A.; Homey, B.; Soto, H.; Ge, N.; Catron, D.; Buchanan, M.E.; McClanahan, T.; Murphy, E.; Yuan, W.; Wagner, S.N.; Barrera, J. L.; Mohar, A.; Verastegui, E.; Zlotnik, A. Involvement of chemokine receptors in breast cancer metastasis. Nature, 2001, 410(6824), 50-56.
32. Borsig, L.; Wong, R.; Hynes, R.O.; Varki, N.M.; Varki, A. Synergistic effects of L- and P-selectin in facilitating tumor metastasis can involve non-mucin ligands and implicate leukocytes as enhancers of metastasis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA, 2002, 99(4), 2193-2198.
33. Bacac, M.; Stamenkovic, I. Metastatic cancer cell. Annu. Rev. Pathol., 2008, 3, 221-247.
34. Bernards, R.; Weinberg, R. A. A progression puzzle. Nature, 2002, 418(6900), 823.
35. Brabletz, T.; Jung, A.; Spaderna, S.; Hlubek, F.; Kirchner, T. Migrating cancer stem cells [mdash] an integrated concept of malignant tumour progression. Nat. Rev. Cancer, 2005, 5(9), 744-749.
36. van 't Veer, L.J.; Dai, H.; van de Vijver, M.J.; He, Y.D.; Hart, A.A.; Mao, M.; Peterse, H.L.; van der Kooy, K.; Marton, M.J.; Witteveen, A.T.; Schreiber, G.J.; Kerkhoven, R.M.; Roberts, C.; Linsley, P.S.; Bernards, R.; Friend, S.H. Gene expression profiling predicts clinical outcome of breast cancer. Nature, 2002, 415(6871), 530-536.
37. Weigelt, B.; Glas, A.M.; Wessels, L.F.; Witteveen, A.T.; Peterse, J. L.; van't Veer, L.J. Gene expression profiles of primary breast tumors maintained in distant metastases. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2003, 100(26), 15901-15905.
38. Weigelt, B.; Peterse, J.L.; van 't Veer, L.J. Breast cancer metastasis: markers and models. Nat. Rev. Cancer, 2005, 5(8), 591-602.
39. Minn, A.J.; Gupta, G.P.; Siegel, P.M.; Bos, P.D.; Shu, W.; Giri, D.D.; Viale, A.; Olshen, A.B.; Gerald, W.L.; Massague, J. Genes that mediate breast cancer metastasis to lung. Nature, 2005, 436(7050), 518-524.
40. Minn, A.J.; Kang, Y.; Serganova, I.; Gupta, G.P.; Giri, D.D.; Doubrovin, M.; Ponomarev, V.; Gerald, W.L.; Blasberg, R.; Massague, J. Distinct organ-specific metastatic potential of individual breast cancer cells and primary tumors. J. Clin. Invest., 2005, 115(1), 44-55.
41. Muller, T.; Bain, G.; Wang, X.; Papkoff, J. Regulation of Epithelial Cell Migration and Tumor Formation by beta-Catenin Signaling. Exp. Cell Res., 2002, 280, 119-133.
42. Grunert, S.; Jechlinger, M.; Beug, H. Diverse cellular and molecular mechanisms contribute to epithelial plasticity and metastasis. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol., 2003, 4(8), 657-665.
43. Dreesen, O.; Brivanlou, A. Signaling pathways in cancer and embryonic stem cells. Stem Cell Rev. Rep., 2007, 3(1), 7-17.
44. Moustakas, A.; Heldin, C.-H. Signaling networks guiding epithelial&# x2013;mesenchymal transitions during embryogenesis and cancer progression. Cancer Sci., 2007, 98(10), 1512-1520.
45. Stover, D.G.; Bierie, B.; Moses, H.L. A delicate balance: TGF-beta and the tumor microenvironment. J. Cell. Biochem., 2007, 101(4), 851-861.
46. Kim, K.; Lu, Z.; Hay, E.D. Direct evidence for a role of betacatenin/LEF-1 signaling pathway in induction of EMT. Cell Biol. Int., 2002, 26(5), 463-476.
47. Thiery, J.P. Epithelial-mesenchymal transitions in development and pathologies. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol., 2003, 15(6), 740-746.
48. Brabletz, T.; Jung, A.; Reu, S.; Porzner, M.; Hlubek, F.; Kunz- Schughart, L.A.; Knuechel, R.; Kirchner, T. Variable beta-catenin expression in colorectal cancers indicates tumor progression driven by the tumor environment. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2001, 98(18), 10356-10361.
49. Tan, A.R.; Alexe, G.; Reiss, M. Transforming growth factor-beta signaling: emerging stem cell target in metastatic breast cancer? Breast Cancer Res. Treat., 2009, 115(3), 453-495.
50. Voog, J.; Jones, D.L. Stem Cells and the Niche: A Dynamic Duo. 6(2), 103-115.
51. Scadden, D.T. The stem-cell niche as an entity of action. Nature, 2006, 441(7097), 1075-1079.
52. Chepko, G.; Dickson, R.B. Ultrastructure of the putative stem cell niche in rat mammary epithelium. Tissue Cell, 2003, 35(2), 83-93.
53. Hendrix, M.J.C.; Seftor, E.A.; Seftor, R.E.B.; Kasemeier-Kulesa, J.; Kulesa, P. M.; Postovit, L.-M. Reprogramming metastatic tumour cells with embryonic microenvironments. Nat. Rev. Cancer, 2007, 7(4), 246-255.
54. Joyce, J.A.; Pollard, J.W. Microenvironmental regulation of metastasis. Nat. Rev. Cancer, 2009, 9(4), 239-252.
55. Bjerkvig, R.; Tysnes, B.B.; Aboody, K.S.; Najbauer, J.; Terzis, A. J. A. The origin of the cancer stem cell: current controversies and new insights. Nat. Rev. Cancer, 2005, 5(11), 899-904.
56. Kaplan, R.N.; Riba, R.D.; Zacharoulis, S.; Bramley, A.H.; Vincent, L.; Costa, C.; MacDonald, D.D.; Jin, D.K.; Shido, K.; Kerns, S.A.; Zhu, Z.; Hicklin, D.; Wu, Y.; Port, J.L.; Altorki, N.; Port, E.R.; Ruggero, D.; Shmelkov, S.V.; Jensen, K.K.; Rafii, S.; Lyden, D. VEGFR1-positive haematopoietic bone marrow progenitors initiate the pre-metastatic niche. Nature, 2005, 438(7069), 820-827.
57. Kaplan, R.N.; Rafii, S.; Lyden, D. Preparing the "Soil": The Premetastatic Niche. Cancer Res., 2006, 66(23), 11089-11093.
58. Karnoub, A.E.; Dash, A.B.; Vo, A.P.; Sullivan, A.; Brooks, M.W.; Bell, G.W.; Richardson, A.L.; Polyak, K.; Tubo, R.; Weinberg, R.A. Mesenchymal stem cells within tumour stroma promote breast cancer metastasis. Nature, 2007, 449(7162), 557-563.
59. Keith, B.; Simon, M.C. Hypoxia-inducible factors, stem cells, and cancer. Cell, 2007, 129(3), 465-472.
60. Barnhart, B.; Simon, M. Metastasis and stem cell pathways. Cancer Metastasis Rev., 2007, 26(2), 261-271.
61. Keith, B.; Simon, M.C. Hypoxia-inducible factors, stem cells, and cancer. 2007, 129(3), 465-472.
62. Erler, J.T.; Bennewith, K.L.; Nicolau, M.; Dornhofer, N.; Kong, C.; Le, Q.-T.; Chi, J.-T.A.; Jeffrey, S. S.; Giaccia, A.J. Lysyl oxidase is essential for hypoxia-induced metastasis. Nature, 2006, 440(7088), 1222-1226.
63. Li, L.; Neaves, W.B. Normal stem cells and cancer stem cells: The niche matters. Cancer Res., 2006, 66(9), 4553-4557.
64. Lapidot, T.; Dar, A.; Kollet, O. How do stem cells find their way home? Blood, 2005, 106(6), 1901-1910.
65. MacPherson, H.; Keir, P.; Webb, S.; Samuel, K.; Boyle, S.; Bickmore, W.; Forrester, L.; Dorin, J. Bone marrow-derived SP cells can contribute to the respiratory tract of mice in vivo. J. Cell Sci., 2005, 118(11), 2441-2450.
66. Jeffery, R.; Poulsom, R.; Alison, M.R. Sources of Adult Hepatic Stem Cells: Haematopoietic. In: Hepatocyte Transplantation, 2009; pp 1-14.
67. Kucia, M.; Reca, R.; Miekus, K.; Wanzeck, J.; Wojakowski, W.; Janowska-Wieczorek, A.; Ratajczak, J.; Ratajczak, M.Z. Trafficking of normal stem cells and metastasis of cancer stem cells involve similar mechanisms: pivotal role of the SDF-1-CXCR4 Axis. Stem Cells, 2005, 23(7), 879-894.
68. Ratajczak, M.Z.; Zuba-Surma, E.; Kucia, M.; Reca, R.; Wojakowski, W.; Ratajczak, J. The pleiotropic effects of the SDF-1- CXCR4 axis in organogenesis, regeneration and tumorigenesis. Leukemia, 2006, 20(11), 1915-1924.
69. Liang, Z.; Wu, T.; Lou, H.; Yu, X.; Taichman, R.S.; Lau, S.K.; Nie, S.; Umbreit, J.; Shim, H. Inhibition of Breast cancer metastasis by selective synthetic polypeptide against CXCR4. Cancer Res., 2004, 64(12), 4302-4308.
70. Dewan, M.Z.; Ahmed, S.; Iwasaki, Y.; Ohba, K.; Toi, M.; Yamamoto, N. Stromal cell-derived factor-1 and CXCR4 receptor interaction in tumor growth and metastasis of breast cancer. Biomed. Pharmacotherap., 2006, 60(6), 273-276.
71. Hermann, P.C.; Huber, S.L.; Herrler, T.; Aicher, A.; Ellwart, J.W.; Guba, M.; Bruns, C.J.; Heeschen, C. Distinct populations of cancer stem cells determine tumor growth and metastatic activity in human pancreatic cancer. Cell Stem Cell, 2007, 1(3), 313-323.
72. Shim, H.; Oishi, S.; Fujii, N. Chemokine receptor CXCR4 as a therapeutic target for neuroectodermal tumors. Semin. Cancer Biol., 2009, 19(2), 123-134.
73. Fulda, S.; Pervaiz, S. Apoptosis signaling in cancer stem cells. Intl J. Biochem. Cell Biol., 2010, 42(1), 31-38.
74. Thayer, S.P.; di Magliano, M.P.; Heiser, P.W.; Nielsen, C.M.; Roberts, D.J.; Lauwers, G.Y.; Qi, Y.P.; Gysin, S.; Castillo, C.F.-d.; Yajnik, V.; Antoniu, B.; McMahon, M.; Warshaw, A.L.; Hebrok, M. Hedgehog is an early and late mediator of pancreatic cancer tumorigenesis. Nature, 2003, 425(6960), 851-856.
75. Liu, S.; Dontu, G.; Mantle, I.D.; Patel, S.; Ahn, N.-s.; Jackson, K.W.; Suri, P.; Wicha, M.S. Hedgehog Signaling and Bmi-1 Regulate Self-renewal of Normal and Malignant Human Mammary Stem Cells. Cancer Res., 2006, 66(12), 6063-6071.
76. Pardal, R.; Clarke, M.F.; Morrison, S.J. Applying the principles of stem-cell biology to cancer. Nat. Rev. Cancer, 2003, 3(12), 895-902.
77. Croker, A. K.; Townson, J. L.; Allan, A. L.; Chambers, A. F. Tumor dormancy, metastasis, and cancer stem cells. In Stem Cells and Cancer, 2009; pp 141-153.
78. Dean, M.; Fojo, T.; Bates, S. Tumour stem cells and drug resistance. Nat. Rev. Cancer, 2005, 5(4), 275-284.
79. Naumov, G. N.; Townson, J. L.; MacDonald, I.C.; Wilson, S.M.; Bramwell, V.H.C.; Groom, A. C.; Chambers, A. F. Ineffectiveness of doxorubicin treatment on solitary dormant mammary carcinoma cells or late-developing metastases. Breast Cancer Res. Treat., 2003, 82(3), 199-206.
80. Dean, M. ABC transporters, drug resistance, and cancer stem cells. J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia, 2009, 14(1), 3-9.
81. Hu, C.; Li, H.; Li, J.; Zhu, Z.; Yin, S.; Hao, X.; Yao, M.; Zheng, S.; Gu, J. Analysis of ABCG2 expression and side population identifies intrinsic drug efflux in the HCC cell line MHCC-97L and its modulation by Akt signaling. Carcinogenesis, 2008, 29(12), 2289-2297.
82. Scharenberg, C.W.; Harkey, M.A.; Torok-Storb, B. The ABCG2 transporter is an efficient Hoechst 33342 efflux pump and is preferentially expressed by immature human hematopoietic progenitors. Blood, 2002, 99(2), 507-512.
83. Solazzo, M.; Fantappie, O.; D'Amico, M.; Sassoli, C.; Tani, A.; Cipriani, G.; Bogani, C.; Formigli, L.; Mazzanti, R. Mitochondrial expression and functional activity of breast cancer resistance protein in different multiple drug-resistant cell lines. Cancer Res., 2009, 69(18), 7235-7242.
84. Cairns, J. Mutation selection and the natural history of cancer. Nature, 1975, 255(5505), 197-200.
85. Cairns, J. Cancer and the immortal strand hypothesis. Genetics, 2006, 174(3), 1069-1072.
86. Baumann, M.; Krause, M.; Hill, R. Exploring the role of cancer stem cells in radioresistance. Nat. Rev. Cancer, 2008, 8(7), 545-554.
87. Hill RP, The proportion of stem cells in murine tumors. Int. J.Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys., 1989, 2, 513-518.
88. Baumann M, D.W.a.S.H. Response of human squamous cell carcinoma xenografts of different sizes to irradiation: relationship of clonogenic cells, cellular radiation sensitivity in vivo, and tumor rescuing units. Radiation Res., 1990, 123(3), 325-330.
89. Yaromina, A.; Krause, M.; Thames, H.; Rosner, A.; Krause, M.; Hessel, F.; Grenman, R.; Zips, D.; Baumann, M. Pre-treatment number of clonogenic cells and their radiosensitivity are major determinants of local tumour control after fractionated irradiation. Radiotherap. Oncol., 2007, 83(3), 304-310.
90. Bao, S.; Wu, Q.; McLendon, R.E.; Hao, Y.; Shi, Q.; Hjelmeland, A.B.; Dewhirst, M.W.; Bigner, D.D.; Rich, J.N. Glioma stem cells promote radioresistance by preferential activation of the DNA damage response. Nature, 2006, 444(7120), 756-760.
91. Guan, Y.; Gerhard, B.; Hogge, D. E. Detection, isolation, and stimulation of quiescent primitive leukemic progenitor cells from patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Blood, 2003, 101(8), 3142-3149.
92. Al-Hajj, M.; Becker, M.W.; Wicha, M.; Weissman, I.; Clarke, M. F. Therapeutic implications of cancer stem cells. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev., 2004, 14(1), 43-47.
93. Diehn, M.; Cho, R.W.; Lobo, N.A.; Kalisky, T.; Dorie, M.J.; Kulp, A.N.; Qian, D.; Lam, J.S.; Ailles, L.E.; Wong, M.; Joshua, B.; Kaplan, M.J.; Wapnir, I.; Dirbas, F.M.; Somlo, G.; Garberoglio, C.; Paz, B.; Shen, J.; Lau, S.K.; Quake, S.R.; Brown, J.M.; Weissman, I.L.; Clarke, M.F. Association of reactive oxygen species levels and radioresistance in cancer stem cells. Nature, 2009, 458(7239), 780-783.
94. Zhao, C.; Blum, J.; Chen, A.; Kwon, H.Y.; Jung, S.H.; Cook, J. M.; Lagoo, A.; Reya, T. Loss of beta-catenin impairs the renewal of normal and CML stem cells in vivo. Cancer Cell, 2007, 12(6), 528-541.
95. Malanchi, I.; Peinado, H.; Kassen, D.; Hussenet, T.; Metzger, D.; Chambon, P.; Huber, M.; Hohl, D.; Cano, A.; Birchmeier, W.; Huelsken, J. Cutaneous cancer stem cell maintenance is dependent on beta-catenin signalling. Nature, 2008, 452(7187), 650-653.
96. Kawano, Y.; Kypta, R. Secreted antagonists of the Wnt signaling pathway. J. Cell Sci., 2003, 116(Pt 13), 2627-2634.
97. You, L.; He, B.; Xu, Z.; Uematsu, K.; Mazieres, J.; Fujii, N.; Mikami, I.; Reguart, N.; McIntosh, J.K.; Kashani-Sabet, M.; McCormick, F.; Jablons, D.M. An anti-Wnt-2 monoclonal antibody induces apoptosis in malignant melanoma cells and inhibits tumor growth. Cancer Res., 2004, 64(15), 5385-5389.
98. Lepourcelet, M.; Chen, Y.N.; France, D.S.; Wang, H.; Crews, P.; Petersen, F.; Bruseo, C.; Wood, A.W.; Shivdasani, R.A. Smallmolecule antagonists of the oncogenic Tcf/beta-catenin protein complex. Cancer Cell, 2004, 5(1), 91-102.
99. Sanchez, P.; Hernandez, A.M.; Stecca, B.; Kahler, A.J.; DeGueme, A.M.; Barrett, A.; Beyna, M.; Datta, M.W.; Datta, S.; Ruizi Altaba, A. Inhibition of prostate cancer proliferation by interference with SONIC HEDGEHOG-GLI1 signaling. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2004, 101(34), 12561-12566.
100. Romer, J.T.; Kimura, H.; Magdaleno, S.; Sasai, K.; Fuller, C.; Baines, H.; Connelly, M.; Stewart, C.F.; Gould, S.; Rubin, L.L.; Curran, T. Suppression of the Shh pathway using a small molecule inhibitor eliminates medulloblastoma in Ptc1(+/-)p53(-/-) mice. Cancer Cell, 2004, 6(3), 229-240.
101. Zhao, C.; Chen, A.; Jamieson, C.H.; Fereshteh, M.; Abrahamsson, A.; Blum, J.; Kwon, H.Y.; Kim, J.; Chute, J.P.; Rizzieri, D.; Munchhof, M.; VanArsdale, T.; Beachy, P.A.; Reya, T. Hedgehog signalling is essential for maintenance of cancer stem cells in myeloid leukaemia. Nature, 2009, 458(7239), 776-779.
102. Liu, S.; Dontu, G.; Mantle, I.D.; Patel, S.; Ahn, N.S.; Jackson, K.W.; Suri, P.; Wicha, M.S. Hedgehog signaling and Bmi-1 regulate self-renewal of normal and malignant human mammary stem cells. Cancer Res., 2006, 66(12), 6063-6071.
103. Kakarala, M.; Wicha, M.S. Implications of the cancer stem-cell hypothesis for breast cancer prevention and therapy. J. Clin. Oncol., 2008, 26(17), 2813-2820.
104. Feldmann, G.; Fendrich, V.; McGovern, K.; Bedja, D.; Bisht, S.; Alvarez, H.; Koorstra, J.B.; Habbe, N.; Karikari, C.; Mullendore, M.; Gabrielson, K.L.; Sharma, R.; Matsui, W.; Maitra, A. An orally bioavailable small-molecule inhibitor of Hedgehog signaling inhibits tumor initiation and metastasis in pancreatic cancer. Mol. Cancer Ther., 2008, 7(9), 2725-2735.
105. Zhou, B.B.; Zhang, H.; Damelin, M.; Geles, K.G.; Grindley, J.C.; Dirks, P.B. Tumour-initiating cells: challenges and opportunities for anticancer drug discovery. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov., 2009, 8(10), 806-823.
106. van Es, J.H.; van Gijn, M.E.; Riccio, O.; van den Born, M.; Vooijs, M.; Begthel, H.; Cozijnsen, M.; Robine, S.; Winton, D.J.; Radtke, F.; Clevers, H. Notch/gamma-secretase inhibition turns proliferative cells in intestinal crypts and adenomas into goblet cells. Nature, 2005, 435(7044), 959-963.
107. Fan, X.; Matsui, W.; Khaki, L.; Stearns, D.; Chun, J.; Li, Y.M.; Eberhart, C.G. Notch pathway inhibition depletes stem-like cells and blocks engraftment in embryonal brain tumors. Cancer Res., 2006, 66(15), 7445-7452.
108. Li, K.; Li, Y.; Wu, W.; Gordon, W.R.; Chang, D.W.; Lu, M.; Scoggin, S.; Fu, T.; Vien, L.; Histen, G.; Zheng, J.; Martin-Hollister, R.; Duensing, T.; Singh, S.; Blacklow, S.C.; Yao, Z.; Aster, J.C.; Zhou, B. B. Modulation of notch signaling by antibodies specific for the extracellular negative regulatory region of NOTCH3. J. Biol. Chem., 2008, 283(12), 8046-8054.
109. Rossi, D. J.; Weissman, I. L. Pten, tumorigenesis, and stem cell self-renewal. Cell, 2006, 125(2), 229-231.
110. Yilmaz, O. H.; Valdez, R.; Theisen, B.K.; Guo, W.; Ferguson, D.O.; Wu, H.; Morrison, S. J. Pten dependence distinguishes haematopoietic stem cells from leukaemia-initiating cells. Nature, 2006, 441(7092), 475-482.
111. Piccirillo, S.G.; Reynolds, B.A.; Zanetti, N.; Lamorte, G.; Binda, E.; Broggi, G.; Brem, H.; Olivi, A.; Dimeco, F.; Vescovi, A.L. Bone morphogenetic proteins inhibit the tumorigenic potential of human brain tumour-initiating cells. Nature, 2006, 444(7120), 761-765.
112. M. Transforming Growth Factor Beta in Metastasis: In Vitro and in Vivo Mechanisms. HUMA: Totowa, NJ, USA, 2008.
113. Guzman, M.L.; Swiderski, C.F.; Howard, D.S.; Grimes, B.A.; Rossi, R.M.; Szilvassy, S.J.; Jordan, C.T. Preferential induction of apoptosis for primary human leukemic stem cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2002, 99(25), 16220-16225.
114. Ito, K.; Bernardi, R.; Morotti, A.; Matsuoka, S.; Saglio, G.; Ikeda, Y.; Rosenblatt, J.; Avigan, D.E.; Teruya-Feldstein, J.; Pandolfi, P. P. PML targeting eradicates quiescent leukaemia-initiating cells. Nature, 2008, 453(7198), 1072-1078.
115. Chumsri, S.; Phatak, P.; Edelman, M.J.; Khakpour, N.; Hamburger, A.W.; Burger, A.M. Cancer Stem Cells and Individualized Therapy. Cancer Genomics - Proteomics, 2007, 4(3), 165-174.
116. Donnenberg, V.S.; Donnenberg, A. D. Multiple drug resistance in cancer revisited: The CANCER STEM CELL Hypothesis. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 2005, 45(8), 872-877.
117. Nakanishi, T. Drug transporters as targets for cancer chemotherapy. Cancer Genomics - Proteomics, 2007, 4(3), 241-254.
118. Chambers, A.F.; Wilson, S.M.; Kerkvliet, N.; O'Malley, F.P.; Harris, J. F.; Casson, A.G. Osteopontin expression in lung cancer. Lung Cancer, 1996, 15(3), 311-323.
119. Oates, A.J.; Barraclough, R.; Rudland, P.S. The role of osteopontin in tumorigenesis and metastasis. Invasion Metastasis, 1997, 17(1), 1-15.
120. Thalmann, G.N.; Sikes, R.A.; Devoll, R. E.; Kiefer, J.A.; Markwalder, R.; Klima, I.; Farach-Carson, C.M.; Studer, U. E.; Chung, L.W. Osteopontin: possible role in prostate cancer progression. Clin. Cancer Res., 1999, 5(8), 2271-2277.
121. Tuck, A.B.; O'Malley, F.P.; Singhal, H.; Tonkin, K.S.; Harris, J.F.; Bautista, D.; Chambers, A.F. Osteopontin and p53 expression are associated with tumor progression in a case of synchronous, bilateral, invasive mammary carcinomas. Arch. Pathol. Lab Med., 1997, 121(6), 578-584.
122. Fedarko, N.S.; Jain, A.; Karadag, A.; Van Eman, M.R.; Fisher, L.W. Elevated serum bone sialoprotein and osteopontin in colon, breast, prostate, and lung cancer. Clin. Cancer Res., 2001, 7(12), 4060-4066.
123. Kim, J.H.; Skates, S.J.; Uede, T.; Wong, K.K.; Schorge, J.O.; Feltmate, C.M.; Berkowitz, R.S.; Cramer, D.W.; Mok, S.C. Osteopontin as a potential diagnostic biomarker for ovarian cancer. JAMA, 2002, 287(13), 1671-1679.
124. Singhal, H.; Bautista, D.S.; Tonkin, K.S.; O'Malley, F.P.; Tuck, A.B.; Chambers, A.F.; Harris, J.F. Elevated plasma osteopontin in metastatic breast cancer associated with increased tumor burden and decreased survival. Clin. Cancer Res., 1997, 3(4), 605-611.
125. Ceradini, D.J.; Kulkarni, A.R.; Callaghan, M.J.; Tepper, O.M.; Bastidas, N.; Kleinman, M.E.; Capla, J.M.; Galiano, R.D.; Levine, J.P.; Gurtner, G.C. Progenitor cell trafficking is regulated by hypoxic gradients through HIF-1 induction of SDF-1. Nat. Med., 2004, 10(8), 858-864.
126. Burger, J.A.; Kipps, T.J. CXCR4: a key receptor in the crosstalk between tumor cells and their microenvironment. Blood, 2006, 107(5), 1761-1767.
127. Mueller, M.T.; Hermann, P.C.; Heeschen, C. Cancer stem cells as new therapeutic target to prevent tumour progression and metastasis. Front Biosci., (Elite Ed), 2010, 2, 602-613.
128. Takenaga, M.; Tamamura, H.; Hiramatsu, K.; Nakamura, N.; Yamaguchi, Y.; Kitagawa, A.; Kawai, S.; Nakashima, H.; Fujii, N.; Igarashi, R. A single treatment with microcapsules containing a CXCR4 antagonist suppresses pulmonary metastasis of murine melanoma. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 2004, 320(1), 226-232.
129. Tabs, S.; Avci, O. Induction of the differentiation and apoptosis of tumor cells in vivo with efficiency and selectivity. Eur. J. Dermatol., 2004, 14(2), 96-102.
130. Von Hoff, D.D.; LoRusso, P.M.; Rudin, C.M.; Reddy, J.C.; Yauch, R.L.; Tibes, R.; Weiss, G.J.; Borad, M.J.; Hann, C.L.; Brahmer, J.R.; Mackey, H.M.; Lum, B.L.; Darbonne, W.C.; Marsters, J.C., Jr.; de Sauvage, F.J.; Low, J.A. Inhibition of the hedgehog pathway in advanced basal-cell carcinoma. N. Engl. J. Med., 2009, 361(12), 1164-1172.
131. Molckovsky, A.; Siu, L.L. First-in-class, first-in-human phase I results of targeted agents: highlights of the 2008 American society of clinical oncology meeting. J. Hematol. Oncol., 2008, 1, 20.
132. Chumsri, S.; Burger, A. M. Cancer stem cell targeted agents: therapeutic approaches and consequences. Curr. Opin. Mol. Ther., 2008, 10(4), 323-333.
133. Fracasso, P.M.; Goldstein, L.J.; de Alwis, D.P.; Rader, J.S.; Arquette, M.A.; Goodner, S.A.; Wright, L.P.; Fears, C.L.; Gazak, R.J.; Andre, V.A.; Burgess, M.F.; Slapak, C.A.; Schellens, J.H. Phase I study of docetaxel in combination with the P-glycoprotein inhibitor, zosuquidar, in resistant malignancies. Clin. Cancer Res., 2004, 10(21), 7220-7228.
134. Morris, J.C.; Shapiro, G.I.; Tan, A.R.; Lawrence, D.P.; Olencki, T.E.; Dezube, B.J.; Hsu, F.J.; Reiss, M.; Berzofsky, J.A. Phase I/II study of GC1008: A human anti-transforming growth factor-beta (TGF{beta}) monoclonal antibody (MAb) in patients with advanced malignant melanoma (MM) or renal cell carcinoma (RCC). J. Clin. Oncol. (Meeting Abstracts), 2008, 26(15_suppl), 9028-.
135. Schlingensiepen, K.H.; Fischer-Blass, B.; Schmaus, S.; Ludwig, S. Antisense therapeutics for tumor treatment: the TGF-beta2 inhibitor AP 12009 in clinical development against malignant tumors. Recent Results Cancer Res., 2008, 177, 137-150.
136. Du, W.; Ji, H.; Cao, S.; Wang, L.; Bai, F.; Liu, J.; Fan, D. EpCAM: A potential antimetastatic target for gastric cancer. Dig Dis. Sci., 2010, 55(8),2165-2171
137. Chaudry, M.A.; Sales, K.; Ruf, P.; Lindhofer, H.; Winslet, M.C. EpCAM an immunotherapeutic target for gastrointestinal malignancy: current experience and future challenges. Br. J. Cancer, 2007, 96(7), 1013-1019.
138. Burges, A.; Wimberger, P.; Kumper, C.; Gorbounova, V.; Sommer, H.; Schmalfeldt, B.; Pfisterer, J.; Lichinitser, M.; Makhson, A.; Moiseyenko, V.; Lahr, A.; Schulze, E.; Jager, M.; Strohlein, M. A.; Heiss, M. M.; Gottwald, T.; Lindhofer, H.; Kimmig, R. Effective relief of malignant ascites in patients with advanced ovarian cancer by a trifunctional anti-EpCAM x anti-CD3 antibody: a phase I/II study. Clin. Cancer Res., 2007, 13(13), 3899-3905.