Effects of dietary fat on appetite and energy intake in health and obesity - Oral and gastrointestinal sensory contributions

Physiology and Behavior

Volumn 104, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 613-620

  Little, Tanya J ^a   Feinle Bisset, Christine ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE   (Australia)

Author keywords

Fat sensing; Fatty acids; Gastrointestinal function; Taste

Indexed keywords

FATTY ACID; G PROTEIN COUPLED RECEPTOR; G PROTEIN COUPLED RECEPTOR 119; G PROTEIN COUPLED RECEPTOR 120; G PROTEIN COUPLED RECEPTOR 40; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

APPETITE; ARTICLE; BODY WEIGHT; CALORIC INTAKE; ENERGY CONSERVATION; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; FAT INTAKE; FOOD INTAKE; FOOD PREFERENCE; HEALTH STATUS; HUMAN; INTESTINE; INTESTINE FUNCTION; LIPID DIET; MOLECULAR INTERACTION; MOLECULAR RECOGNITION; MOUTH CAVITY; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN FUNCTION; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SMALL INTESTINE; TASTE DISCRIMINATION; VAGUS NERVE; WEIGHT CONTROL;

APPETITE; DIETARY FATS; ENERGY INTAKE; FEEDING BEHAVIOR; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; HUMANS; OBESITY; TASTE;

EID: 79960429078     PISSN: 00319384     EISSN: 1873507X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.04.038     Document Type: Article

References (135)

1. Heddle R., Dent J., Read N.W., et al. Antropyloroduodenal motor responses to intraduodenal lipid infusion in healthy volunteers. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 1988, 254:G671-G679.
2. MacIntosh C.G., Andrews J.M., Jones K.L., et al. Effects of age on concentrations of plasma cholecystokinin, glucagon-like peptide 1, and peptide YY and their relation to appetite and pyloric motility. Am J Clin Nutr 1999, 69:999-1006.
3. Herrmann C., Goke R., Richter G., et al. Glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucose-dependent insulin-releasing polypeptide plasma levels in response to nutrients. Digestion 1995, 56:117-126.
4. Feinle-Bisset C., Patterson M., Ghatei M.A., et al. Fat digestion is required for suppression of ghrelin and stimulation of peptide YY and pancreatic polypeptide secretion by intraduodenal lipid. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2005, 289:E948-E953.
5. Seimon R.V., Lange K., Little T.J., et al. Pooled data analysis identifies pyloric pressures and plasma CCK concentrations as major determinants of acute energy intake in healthy lean males. Am J Clin Nutr 2010, 92:61-68.
6. Gilbertson T.A., Liu L., York D.A., et al. Dietary fat preferences are inversely correlated with peripheral gustatory fatty acid sensitivity. Ann NY Acad Sci 1998, 855:165-168.
7. Gilbertson T.A. Gustatory mechanisms for the detection of fat. Curr Opinion Neurobiol 1998, 8:447-452.
8. Mattes R.D. Oral fat exposure alters postprandial lipid metabolism in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1996, 63:911-917.
9. Heath R.B., Jones R., Frayn K.N., et al. Vagal stimulation exaggerates the inhibitory ghrelin response to oral fat in humans. J Endocrinol 2004, 180:273-281.
10. Smeets A.J., Lejeune M.P., Westerterp-Plantenga M.S. Effects of oral fat perception by modified sham feeding on energy expenditure, hormones and appetite profile in the postprandial state. Br J Nutr 2009, 101:1360-1368.
11. Sclafani A., Ackroff K., Abumrad N.A. CD36 gene deletion reduces fat preference and intake but not post-oral fat conditioning in mice. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2007, 293:R1823-R1832.
12. Stewart J.E., Feinle-Bisset C., Golding M., et al. Oral sensitivity to fatty acids, food consumption and BMI in human subjects. Br J Nutr 2010, 104:145-152.
13. Abumrad N.A. CD36 may determine our desire for dietary fats. J Clin Invest 2005, 115:2965-2967.
14. Mattes R.D. Is there a fatty acid taste?. Annu Rev Nutr 2009, 29:305-327.
15. Gaillard D., Laugerette F., Darcel N., et al. The gustatory pathway is involved in CD36-mediated orosensory perception of long-chain fatty acids in the mouse. FASEB J 2008, 22:1458-1468.
16. Chale-Rush A., Burgess J.R., Mattes R.D. Evidence for human orosensory (taste?) sensitivity to free fatty acids. Chem Sens 2007, 32:423-431.
17. Chale-Rush A., Burgess J.R., Mattes R.D. Multiple routes of chemosensitivity to free fatty acids in humans. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2007, 292:G1206-G1212.
18. Mattes R.D. Oral detection of short-, medium-, and long-chain free fatty acids in humans. Chem Sens 2009, 34:145-150.
19. Mattes R.D. Fat taste and lipid metabolism in humans. Physiol Behav 2005, 86:691-697.
20. Wojdemann M., Olsen O., Norregaard P., et al. Gastric lipase secretion after sham feeding and cholinergic blockade. Dig Dis Sci 1997, 42:1070-1075.
21. Chavez-Jauregui R.N., Mattes R.D., Parks E.J. Dynamics of fat absorption and effect of sham feeding on postprandial lipema. Gastroenterology 2010, 139:1538-1548.
22. Mattes R.D. Brief oral stimulation, but especially oral fat exposure, elevates serum triglycerides in humans. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2009, 296:G365-G371.
23. Crystal S.R., Teff K.L. Tasting fat: cephalic phase hormonal responses and food intake in restrained and unrestrained eaters. Physiol Behav 2006, 89:213-220.
24. Cecil J.E., Francis J., Read N.W. Comparison of the effects of a high-fat and high-carbohydrate soup delivered orally and intragastrically on gastric emptying, appetite, and eating behaviour. Physiol Behav 1999, 67:299-306.
25. Smeets A.J., Westerterp-Plantenga M.S. Satiety and substrate mobilization after oral fat stimulation. Br J Nutr 2006, 95:795-801.
26. Gilbertson T.A., Liu L., Kim I., et al. Fatty acid responses in taste cells from obesity-prone and -resistant rats. Physiol Behav 2005, 86:681-690.
27. Stewart J.E., Seimon R.V., Otto B., et al. Marked differences in gustatory and gastrointestinal sensitivity to oleic acid between lean and obese. Am J Clin Nutr 2011, 50:225-233.
28. Grabenhorst F., Rolls E.T., Parris B.A., et al. How the brain represents the reward value of fat in the mouth. Cereb Cortex 2010, 20:1082-1091.
29. Gomez R.S., Pelka M., Johannessen A.C., et al. CD36 (OKM5) antigen expression on human mucosal epithelia is associated with keratinization type. J Dermatol 1997, 24:435-440.
30. Simons P.J., Kummer J.A., Luiken J.J., et al. Apical CD36 immunolocalization in human and porcine taste buds from circumvallate and foliate papillae. Acta Histochem 2010, 10.1016/j.acthis.2010.08.006.
31. Fukuwatari T., Kawada T., Tsuruta M., et al. Expression of the putative membrane fatty acid transporter (FAT) in taste buds of the circumvallate papillae in rats. FEBS Lett 1997, 414:461-464.
32. El-Yassimi A., Hichami A., Besnard P., et al. Linoleic acid induces calcium signaling, Src kinase phosphorylation, and neurotransmitter release in mouse CD36-positive gustatory cells. J Biol Chem 2008, 283:12949-12959.
33. Laugerette F., Passilly-Degrace P., Patris B., et al. CD36 involvement in orosensory detection of dietary lipids, spontaneous fat preference, and digestive secretions. J Clin Invest 2005, 115:3177-3184.
34. Matsumura S., Eguchi A., Mizushige T., et al. Colocalization of GPR120 with phospholipase-Cbeta2 and alpha-gustducin in the taste bud cells in mice. Neurosci Lett 2009, 450:186-190.
35. Cartoni C., Yasumatsu K., Ohkuri T., et al. Taste preference for fatty acids is mediated by GPR40 and GPR120. J Neurosci 2010, 30:8376-8382.
36. Feinle C., O'Donovan D.G., Doran S., et al. Effects of fat digestion on appetite, APD motility, and gut hormones in response to duodenal fat infusion in humans. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2003, 284:G798-G807.
37. Cooke A.R. Localization of receptors inhibiting gastric emptying in the gut. Gastroenterology 1977, 72:875-880.
38. Heddle R., Collins P.J., Dent J., et al. Motor mechanisms associated with slowing of the gastric emptying of a solid meal by an intraduodenal lipid infusion. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1989, 4:437-447.
39. Feinle C., D'Amato M., Read N.W. Cholecystokinin-A receptors modulate gastric sensory and motor responses to gastric distension and duodenal lipid. Gastroenterology 1996, 110:1379-1385.
40. Azpiroz F., Malagelada J.R. Intestinal control of gastric tone. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 1985, 249:G501-G509.
41. Heddle R., Dent J., Toouli J., et al. Topography and measurement of pyloric pressure waves and tone in humans. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 1988, 255:G490-G497.
42. Liddle R.A., Morita E.T., Conrad C.K., et al. Regulation of gastric emptying in humans by cholecystokinin. J Clin Invest 1986, 77:992-996.
43. Allen J.M., Fitzpatrick M.L., Yeats J.C., et al. Effects of peptide YY and neuropeptide Y on gastric emptying in man. Digestion 1984, 30:255-262.
44. Naslund E., Bogefors J., Skogar S., et al. GLP-1 slows solid gastric emptying and inhibits insulin, glucagon, and PYY release in humans. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 1999, 277:R910-R916.
45. Chaudhri O.B., Salem V., Murphy K.G., et al. Gastrointestinal satiety signals. Annu Rev Physiol 2008, 70:239-255.
46. Sturm K., Parker B., Wishart J., et al. Energy intake and appetite are related to antral area in healthy young and older subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 2004, 80:656-667.
47. Xu X., Zhu H., Chen J.D. Pyloric electrical stimulation reduces food intake by inhibiting gastric motility in dogs. Gastroenterology 2005, 128:43-50.
48. Little T.J., Russo A., Meyer J.H., et al. Free fatty acids have more potent effects on gastric emptying, gut hormones, and appetite than triacylglycerides. Gastroenterology 2007, 133:1124-1131.
49. O'Donovan D., Feinle-Bisset C., Wishart J., et al. Lipase inhibition attenuates the acute effects of oral fat on food intake in healthy subjects. Br J Nutr 2003, 90:849-852.
50. Borovicka J., Schwizer W., Guttmann G., et al. Role of lipase in the regulation of postprandial gastric acid secretion and emptying of fat in humans: a study with orlistat, a highly specific lipase inhibitor. Gut 2000, 46:774-781.
51. Feinle C., Rades T., Otto B., et al. Fat digestion modulates gastrointestinal sensations induced by gastric distention and duodenal lipid in humans. Gastroenterology 2001, 120:1100-1107.
52. Feltrin K.L., Little T.J., Meyer J.H., et al. Effects of intraduodenal fatty acids on appetite, antropyloroduodenal motility, and plasma CCK and GLP-1 in humans vary with their chain length. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2004, 287:R524-R533.
53. Hunt J.N., Knox M.T. A relation between the chain length of fatty acids and the slowing of gastric emptying. J Physiol (Lond) 1968, 194:327-336.
54. McLaughlin J., Grazia-Luca M., Jones M.N., et al. Fatty acid chain length determines cholecystokinin secretion and effect on human gastric motility. Gastroenterology 1999, 116:46-53.
55. Meyer J.H., Hlinka M., Tabrizi Y., et al. Chemical specificities and intestinal distributions of nutrient-driven satiety. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 1998, 275:R1293-R1307.
56. Freeland K.R., Wolever T.M. Acute effects of intravenous and rectal acetate on glucagon-like peptide-1, peptide YY, ghrelin, adiponectin and tumour necrosis factor-alpha. Br J Nutr 2010, 103:460-466.
57. Tanaka T., Katsuma S., Adachi T., et al. Free fatty acids induce cholecystokinin secretion through GPR120. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2008, 377:523-527.
58. Hirasawa A., Tsumaya K., Awaji T., et al. Free fatty acids regulate gut incretin glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion through GPR120. Nat Med 2005, 11:90-94.
59. Edfalk S., Steneberg P., Edlund H. Gpr40 is expressed in enteroendocrine cells and mediates free fatty acid stimulation of incretin secretion. Diabetes 2008, 57:2280-2287.
60. Lan H., Vassileva G., Corona A., et al. GPR119 is required for physiological regulation of glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion but not for metabolic homeostasis. J Endocrinol 2009, 201:219-230.
61. Lauffer L.M., Iakoubov R., Brubaker P.L. GPR119 is essential for oleoylethanolamide-induced glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion from the intestinal enteroendocrine L-cell. Diabetes 2009, 58:1058-1066.
62. Liou A.P., Lu X., Sei Y., et al. The G-protein-coupled receptor GPR40 directly mediates long-chain fatty acid-induced secretion of cholecystokinin. Gastroenterology 2011, 140:903-912.
63. Chen M., Yang Y., Braunstein E., et al. Gut expression and regulation of FAT/CD36: possible role in fatty acid transport in rat enterocytes. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2001, 281:E916-E923.
64. Schwartz G.J., Fu J., Astarita G., et al. The lipid messenger OEA links dietary fat intake to satiety. Cell Metab 2008, 8:281-288.
65. Lobo M.V., Huerta L., Ruiz-Velasco N., et al. Localization of the lipid receptors CD36 and CLA-1/SR-BI in the human gastrointestinal tract: towards the identification of receptors mediating the intestinal absorption of dietary lipids. J Histochem Cytochem 2001, 49:1253-1260.
66. Fu J., Gaetani S., Oveisi F., et al. Oleylethanolamide regulates feeding and body weight through activation of the nuclear receptor PPAR-alpha. Nature 2003, 425:90-93.
67. Glatzle J., Darcel N., Rechs A.J., et al. Apolipoprotein (apo) A-IV stimulates duodenal vagal afferent fiber activity to inhibit gastric motility via a CCK-1 receptor dependent pathway. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2004, 287:R354-R359.
68. Glatzle J., Kalogeris T.J., Zittel T.T., et al. Chylomicron components mediate intestinal lipid-induced inhibition of gastric motor function. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2002, 282:G86-G91.
69. Miyauchi S., Hirasawa A., Ichimura A., et al. New frontiers in gut nutrient sensor research: free fatty acid sensing in the gastrointestinal tract. J Pharmacol Sci 2010, 112:19-24.
70. Overton H.A., Babbs A.J., Doel S.M., et al. Deorphanization of a G protein-coupled receptor for oleoylethanolamide and its use in the discovery of small-molecule hypophagic agents. Cell Metab 2006, 3:167-175.
71. Fu J., Kim J., Oveisi F., et al. Targeted enhancement of oleoylethanolamide production in proximal small intestine induces across-meal satiety in rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2008, 295:R45-R50.
72. Fu J., Oveisi F., Gaetani S., et al. Oleoylethanolamide, an endogenous PPAR-alpha agonist, lowers body weight and hyperlipidemia in obese rats. Neuropharmacology 2005, 48:1147-1153.
73. Rodriguez de Fonseca F., Navarro M., Gomez R., et al. An anorexic lipid mediator regulated by feeding. Nature 2001, 414:209-212.
74. Randich A., Tyler W.J., Cox J.E., et al. Responses of celiac and cervical vagal afferents to infusions of lipids in the jejunum or ileum of the rat. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2000, 278:R34-R43.
75. Lo C.M., Ma L., Zhang D.M., et al. Mechanism of the induction of brain c-Fos-positive neurons by lipid absorption. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2007, 292:R268-R273.
76. Raybould H.E., Meyer J.H., Tabrizi Y., et al. Inhibition of gastric emptying in response to intestinal lipid is dependent on chylomicron formation. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 1998, 274:R1834-R1838.
77. Meyer J.H., Hlinka M., Khatibi A., et al. Role of small intestine in caloric compensations to oil premeals in rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 1998, 275:R1320-R1333.
78. Lal S., McLaughlin J., Barlow J., et al. Cholecystokinin pathways modulate sensations induced by gastric distension in man. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2004, 287:G72-G79.
79. Matzinger D., Degen L., Drewe J., et al. The role of long chain fatty acids in regulating food intake and cholecystokinin release in humans. Gut 2000, 46:688-693.
80. Lassman D.J., McKie S., Gregory L.J., et al. Defining the role of CCK in the lipid induced human brain activation matrix. Gastroenterology 2010, 138:1514-1524.
81. Lissner L., Heitmann B.L. Dietary fat and obesity: evidence from epidemiology. Eur J Clin Nutr 1995, 49:79-90.
82. Zhang X.J., Zhou L.H., Ban X., et al. Decreased expression of CD36 in circumvallate taste buds of high-fat diet induced obese rats. Acta Histochem 2010, 10.1016/j.acthis.2010.09.007.
83. Covasa M., Ritter R.C. Adaptation to high-fat diet reduces inhibition of gastric emptying by CCK and intestinal oleate. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2000, 278:R166-R170.
84. Covasa M., Ritter R.C. Reduced sensitivity to the satiation effect of intestinal oleate in rats adapted to high-fat diet. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 1999, 277:R279-R285.
85. Covasa M., Grahn J., Ritter R.C. Reduced hindbrain and enteric neuronal response to intestinal oleate in rats maintained on high-fat diet. Auton Neurosci 2000, 84:8-18.
86. Covasa M., Ritter R.C. Rats maintained on high-fat diets exhibit reduced satiety in response to CCK and bombesin. Peptides 1998, 19:1407-1415.
87. Covasa M., Marcuson J.K., Ritter R.C. Diminished satiation in rats exposed to elevated levels of endogenous or exogenous cholecystokinin. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2001, 280:R331-R337.
88. Spannagel A.W., Nakano I., Tawil T., et al. Adaptation to fat markedly increases pancreatic secretory response to intraduodenal fat in rats. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 1996, 270:G128-G135.
89. Artmann A., Petersen G., Hellgren L.I., et al. Influence of dietary fatty acids on endocannabinoid and N-acylethanolamine levels in rat brain, liver and small intestine. Biochim Biophys Acta 2008, 1781:200-212.
90. Savastano D.M., Covasa M. Adaptation to a high-fat diet leads to hyperphagia and diminished sensitivity to cholecystokinin in rats. J Nutr 2005, 135:1953-1959.
91. Donovan M.J., Paulino G., Raybould H.E. Activation of hindbrain neurons in response to gastrointestinal lipid is attenuated by high fat, high energy diets in mice prone to diet-induced obesity. Brain Res 2009, 1248:136-140.
92. Lissner L., Levitsky D.A., Strupp B.J., et al. Dietary fat and the regulation of energy intake in human subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 1987, 46:886-892.
93. Cunningham K.M., Daly J., Horowitz M., et al. Gastrointestinal adaptation to diets of differing fat composition in human volunteers. Gut 1991, 32:483-486.
94. Boyd K.A., O'Donovan D.G., Doran S., et al. High-fat diet effects on gut motility, hormone, and appetite responses to duodenal lipid in healthy men. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2003, 285:G188-G196.
95. French S.J., Murray B., Rumsey R.D., et al. Adaptation to high-fat diets: effects on eating behaviour and plasma cholecystokinin. Br J Nutr 1995, 73:179-189.
96. Little T.J., Feltrin K.L., Horowitz M., et al. A high-fat diet raises fasting plasma CCK but does not affect upper gut motility, PYY, and ghrelin, or energy intake during CCK-8 infusion in lean men. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2008, 294:R45-R51.
97. Castiglione K.E., Read N.W., French S.J. Adaptation to high-fat diet accelerates emptying of fat but not carbohydrate test meals in humans. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2002, 282:R366-R371.
98. Golay A., Bobbioni E. The role of dietary fat in obesity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1997, 61(SUPPL.):960S-967S.
99. Rolls B.J. Carbohydrates, fats, and satiety. Am J Clin Nutr 1995, 61:960S-7S. SUPPL..
100. Mela D.J., Sacchetti D.A. Sensory preferences for fats: relationships with diet and body composition. Am J Clin Nutr 1991, 53:908-915.
101. Miller W.C., Lindeman A.K., Wallace J., et al. Diet composition, energy intake, and exercise in relation to body fat in men and women. Am J Clin Nutr 1990, 52:426-430.
102. Zahorska-Markiewicz B., Jonderko K., Lelek A., et al. Gastric emptying in obesity. Hum Nutr Clin Nutr 1986, 40:309-313.
103. Chiloiro M., Caroli M., Guerra V., et al. Gastric emptying in normal weight and obese children-an ultrasound study. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1999, 23:1303-1306.
104. Wright R.A., Krinsky S., Fleeman C., et al. Gastric emptying and obesity. Gastroenterology 1983, 84:747-751.
105. Horowitz M., Collins P.J., Shearman D.J. Effect of increasing the caloric/osmotic content of the liquid component of a mixed solid and liquid meal on gastric emptying in obese subjects. Hum Nutr Clin Nutr 1986, 40:51-56.
106. Kim D.Y., Camilleri M., Murray J.A., et al. Is there a role for gastric accommodation and satiety in asymptomatic obese people?. Obes Res 2001, 9:655-661.
107. Geliebter A. Gastric distension and gastric capacity in relation to food intake in humans. Physiol Behav 1988, 44:665-668.
108. Delgado-Aros S., Cremonini F., Castillo J.E., et al. Independent influences of body mass and gastric volumes on satiation in humans. Gastroenterology 2004, 126:432-440.
109. Wisen O., Johansson C. Gastrointestinal function in obesity: motility, secretion, and absorption following a liquid test meal. Metabolism 1992, 41:390-395.
110. Lin H.C., Doty J.E., Reedy T.J., et al. Inhibition of gastric emptying by sodium oleate depends on length of intestine exposed to nutrient. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 1990, 259:G1031-G1036.
111. Little T.J., Doran S., Meyer J.H., et al. The release of GLP-1 and ghrelin, but not GIP and CCK, by glucose is dependent upon the length of small intestine exposed. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2006, 291:E647-E655.
112. Baranowska B., Radzikowska M., Wasilewska-Dziubinska E., et al. Disturbed release of gastrointestinal peptides in anorexia nervosa and in obesity. Diabetes Obes Metab 2000, 2:99-103.
113. Lieverse R.J., Jansen J.B., Masclee A.A., et al. Effect of a low dose of intraduodenal fat on satiety in humans: studies using the type A cholecystokinin receptor antagonist loxiglumide. Gut 1994, 35:501-505.
114. French S.J., Murray B., Rumsey R.D., et al. Preliminary studies on the gastrointestinal responses to fatty meals in obese people. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1993, 17:295-300.
115. Ranganath L.R., Beety J.M., Morgan L.M., et al. Attenuated GLP-1 secretion in obesity: cause or consequence?. Gut 1996, 38:916-919.
116. Verdich C., Toubro S., Buemann B., et al. The role of postprandial releases of insulin and incretin hormones in meal-induced satiety-effect of obesity and weight reduction. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2001, 25:1206-1214.
117. Feinle C., Chapman I.M., Wishart J., et al. Plasma glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) responses to duodenal fat and glucose infusions in healthy and obese men. Peptides 2002, 23:1491-1495.
118. Batterham R.L., Cohen M.A., Ellis S.M., et al. Inhibition of food intake in obese subjects by peptide YY3-36. N Engl J Med 2003, 349:941-948.
119. le Roux C.W., Batterham R.L., Aylwin S.J., et al. Attenuated peptide YY release in obese subjects is associated with reduced satiety. Endocrinology 2006, 147:3-8.
120. Shiiya T., Nakazato M., Mizuta M., et al. Plasma ghrelin levels in lean and obese humans and the effect of glucose on ghrelin secretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002, 87:240-244.
121. Tschop M., Weyer C., Tataranni P.A., et al. Circulating ghrelin levels are decreased in human obesity. Diabetes 2001, 50:707-709.
122. English P.J., Ghatei M.A., Malik I.A., et al. Food fails to suppress ghrelin levels in obese subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002, 87:2984.
123. Lieverse R.J., Jansen J.B., Masclee A.M., et al. Satiety effects of cholecystokinin in humans. Gastroenterology 1994, 106:1451-1454.
124. Lieverse R.J., Jansen J.B., Masclee A.A., et al. Satiety effects of a physiological dose of cholecystokinin in humans. Gut 1995, 36:176-179.
125. Flint A., Raben A., Ersboll A.K., et al. The effect of physiological levels of glucagon-like peptide-1 on appetite, gastric emptying, energy and substrate metabolism in obesity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2001, 25:781-792.
126. Näslund E., Barkeling B., King N., et al. Energy intake and appetite are suppressed by glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in obese men. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1999, 23:304-311.
127. Rolls B.J., Kim-Harris S., Fischman M.W., et al. Satiety after preloads with different amounts of fat and carbohydrate: implications for obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 1994, 60:476-487.
128. Speechly D.P., Buffenstein R. Appetite dysfunction in obese males: evidence for role of hyperinsulinaemia in passive overconsumption with a high fat diet. Eur J Clin Nutr 2000, 54:225-233.
129. Covasa M. Deficits in gastrointestinal responses controlling food intake and body weight. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2010, 299:R1423-R1439.
130. Corvilain B., Abramowicz M., Fery F., et al. Effect of short-term starvation on gastric emptying in humans: relationship to oral glucose tolerance. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 1995, 269:G512-G517.
131. Brennan I.M., Seimon R.V., Luscombe-Marsh N.D., et al. Effects of acute dietary restriction on gut motor, hormone and energy intake responses to duodenal fat in obese men. Int J Obes (Lond) 2011, 35:448-456.
132. Roth C.L., Enriori P.J., Harz K., et al. Peptide YY is a regulator of energy homeostasis in obese children before and after weight loss. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005, 90:6386-6391.
133. Cummings D.E., Weigle D.S., Frayo R.S., et al. Plasma ghrelin levels after diet-induced weight loss or gastric bypass surgery. N Engl J Med 2002, 346:1623-1630.
134. Mattes R.D. Fat preference and adherence to a reduced-fat diet. Am J Clin Nutr 1993, 57:373-381.
135. Woods S.C. Gastrointestinal satiety signals I. An overview of gastrointestinal signals that influence food intake. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2004, 286:G7-G13.