Sulfur mustard toxicity: History, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics

Critical Reviews in Toxicology

Volumn 41, Issue 5, 2011, Pages 384-403

  Ghabili, Kamyar ^a   Agutter, Paul S ^b   Ghanei, Mostafa ^c   Ansarin, Khalil ^a   Panahi, Yunes ^c   Shoja, Mohammadali M ^d  

^a TABRIZ UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCES   (Iran)

^b Theoretical Medicine and Biology Group   (United Kingdom)

^c BAQIYATALLAH UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCES   (Iran)

^d INDIANA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Chemical weapon; mechanism; molecular; sulfur mustard; toxicity

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; AMINE; CHLORMETHINE; DNA; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE; MUSTARD GAS; NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE ADENOSINE DIPHOSPHATE RIBOSYLTRANSFERASE; NITRIC OXIDE; PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR; PROTEIN; PROTEIN P53; PURINE; PYRIMIDINE; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; SPHINGOMYELIN PHOSPHODIESTERASE; THIOL; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

ACUTE NONLYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA; APOPTOSIS; BREAST CANCER; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER RISK; CELL DEATH; CHEMICAL REACTION; CHEMICAL WARFARE; CROSS LINKING; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; CYTOSKELETON; DNA DAMAGE; DRUG EXCRETION; DRUG METABOLISM; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENZYME ACTIVATION; GENE EXPRESSION; GENOTOXICITY; HODGKIN DISEASE; HUMAN; HYDROLYSIS; INFLAMMATION; LYMPHOMA; MACROPHAGE ACTIVATION; MEMBRANE DAMAGE; MUTAGENICITY; NEUTROPHIL CHEMOTAXIS; NONHUMAN; OVARY CANCER; OXIDATION; PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY; PROTEIN MODIFICATION; PROTEIN PHOSPHORYLATION; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; SOLID TUMOR; SYNTHESIS; TOXICOKINETICS;

CHEMICAL WARFARE AGENTS; EYE; KINETICS; MUSTARD GAS; PHARMACOKINETICS; RESPIRATORY SYSTEM; SKIN;

EID: 79955783818     PISSN: 10408444     EISSN: 15476898     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2010.541224     Document Type: Review

References (240)

1. Abe Y, Sugisaki K, Dannenberg AM Jr. (1996). Rabbit vascular endothelial adhesion molecules: ELAM-1 is most elevated in acute infammation, whereas VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 predominate in chronic infammation. J Leukoc Biol 60:692-703. (Pubitemid 27041656)
2. Allon N, Amir A, Manisterski E, Rabinovitz I, Dachir S, Kadar T. (2009). Inhalation exposure to sulfur mustard in the guinea pig model: Clinical, biochemical and histopathological characterization of respiratory injuries. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 241:154-162.
3. Anderson DR, Holmes WW, Lee RB, Dalal SJ, Hurst CG, Maliner BI, Newmark J, Smith WJ. (2006). Sulfur mustard-induced neutropenia: Treatment with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor. Mil Med 171:448-453. (Pubitemid 43726384)
4. Arroyo CM, Schafer RJ, Kurt EM, Broomfeld CA, Carmichael AJ. (1999). Response of normal human keratinocytes to sulfur mustard (HD): Cytokine release using a non-enzymatic detachment procedure. Hum Exp Toxicol 18:1-11. (Pubitemid 29054466)
5. Ashby J, Tinwell H, Callander RD, Clare N. (1991). Genetic activity of the human carcinogen sulfur mustard toward Salmonella and the mouse bone marrow. Mutation Res 257:307-312.
6. Ashmore MH, Nathanail CP. (2008). A critical evaluation of the implications for risk based land management of the environmental chemistry of Sulphur Mustard. Environ Int 34:1192-1203.
7. Atkins KB, Lodhi IJ, Hurley LL, Hinshaw DB. (2000). NN-acetylcysteine and endothelial cell injury by sulfur mustard. J Appl Toxicol 20(Suppl. 1):S125-S128.
8. Auerbach C. (1943). Chemically induced mutations as rearrangements. Drosophila. Information Service 17:48-50.
9. Auerbach C, Moser H. (1950). Production of mutations by monochloro-mustards. Nature 166:1019-1020.
10. Auerbach C, Robson JM. (1946). Chemical production of mutations. Nature 157:302.
11. Auerbach C, Robson JM. (1947). Production of mutations by chemical substances. Proc Roy Soc Edin B 62:271-283.
12. Babbar N, Casero RA Jr. (2006). Tumor necrosis factor-alpha increases reactive oxygen species by inducing spermine oxidase in human lung epithelial cells: A potential mechanism for infammation-induced carcinogenesis. Cancer Res 66:11125-11130. (Pubitemid 46009938)
13. Ball CR, Roberts JJ. (1970). DNA repair after mustard gas alkylation by sensitive and resistant Yoshida sarcoma cells in vitro. Chem Biol Interact 2:321-329.
14. Ball CR, Roberts JJ. (1972). Estimation of interstrand DNA cross-linking resulting from mustard gas alkylation of HeLa cells. Chem Biol Interact 4:297-303.
15. Bartek J, Bartkova J, Lukas J. (2007). DNA damage signalling guards against activated oncogenes and tumour progression. Oncogene 26:7773-7779. (Pubitemid 350242463)
16. Beck NV, Carrick WA, Cooper DB, Muir B. (2001). Extraction of thiodiglycol from soil using pressurised liquid extraction. J Chromatogr A 907:221-227.
17. Beckman L, Nordenson I. (1986). Interaction between some common genotoxic agents. Hum Hered 36:397-401. (Pubitemid 17196556)
18. Beheshti J, Mark EJ, Akbaei HM, Aslani J, Ghanei M. (2006). Mustard lung secrets: Long term clinicopathological study following mustard gas exposure. Pathol Res Pract 202:739-744. (Pubitemid 44356424)
19. Berger MR, Habs M, Schmähl D. (1986). Long-term toxicology efects of prednimustine in comparison with chlorambucil, prednisolone, and chlorambucil plus prednisolone in Sprague-Dawley rats. Semin Oncol 13:8-13. (Pubitemid 16109198)
20. Bitomsky N, Hofmann TG. (2009). Apoptosis and autophagy: Regulation of apoptosis by DNA damage signalling -Roles of p53, p73 and HIPK2. FEBS J 276:6074-6083.
21. Black AT, Joseph LB, Casillas R P, Heck DE, Gerecke DR, Sinko PJ, Laskin DL, Laskin JD. (2010). Role of MAP kinases in regulating expression of antioxidants and infammatory mediators in mouse keratinocytes following exposure to the half mustard, 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfde. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 245:352-360.
22. Black RM, Brewster K, Clarke RJ, Hambrook JL, Harrison JM, Howells DJ. (1992). Biological fate of sulphur mustard, 1,1′-thiobis(2-chloroethane): Isolation and identifcation of urinary metabolites following intraperitoneal administration to rat. Xenobiotica 22:405-418.
23. Blaha M, Bowers W Jr, Kohl J, DuBose D, Walker J, Alkhyyat A, Wong G. (2000). Efects of CEES on infammatory mediators, heat shock protein 70A, histology and ultrastructure in two skin models. J Appl Toxicol 20(Suppl. 1):S101-S108.
24. Blayney DW, Longo DL, Young RC, Greene MH, Hubbard SM, Postal MC, Dufey PL, DeVita VT Jr. (1987). Decreasing risk of leukemia with prolonged followup after chemotherapy and radiotherapy for Hodgkin′s Hodgkin′s disease. N Engl J Med 316:710-714. (Pubitemid 17036476)
25. Boursnell JC, Cohen JA, Dixon M, Francis GE, Greville GD, Needham DM, Wormall A. (1946). Studies on mustard gas (β,βß,ß- dichlorodiethylsulphide) and some related compounds. 5. The fate of injected mustard gas (containing radioactive sulphur) in the animal body. Biochem J 40:756-764.
26. Boyland E, Horning ES. (1949). The induction of tumours with nitrogen mustards. Br J Cancer 3:118-123.
27. Bubici C, Papa S, Pham CG, Zazzeroni F, Franzoso G. (2006). The NF-kappaB-mediated control of ROS and JNK signaling. Histol Histopathol 21:69-80. (Pubitemid 43033716)
28. Byrne MP, Broomfeld CA, Stites WE. (1996). Mustard gas crosslinking of proteins through preferential alkylation of cysteines. J Protein Chem 15:131-136. (Pubitemid 26108854)
29. Callaway S, Pearce K. (1958). Protection against systemic poisoning by mustard gas, di(2-chloroethyl)sulphide, by sodium thiosulphate and thiocit in the albino rat. Br J Pharmacol 13:395-398.
30. Capizzi RL, Papirmeister B, Mullins JM, Cheng E. (1974). The detection of chemical mutagens using the L5178y-Asn-murine leukemia in vitro and in a host-mediated assay. Cancer Res 34:3073-3082.
31. Cerny LC, Cerny ER. (1997). The efect of biological media on the hydrolysis of mustard simulants. Biomed Sci Instrum 33: 535-540. (Pubitemid 28181542)
32. Chandel NS, Trzyna WC, McClintock DS, Schumacker PT. (2000). Role of oxidants in NF-kappa B activation and TNF-alpha gene transcription induced by hypoxia and endotoxin. J Immunol 165:1013-1021. (Pubitemid 30484771)
33. Chatterjee D, Mukherjee S, Smith MG, Das SK. (2003). Signal transduction events in lung injury induced by 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfde, a mustard analog. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 17:114-121. (Pubitemid 36575815)
34. Cliby WA, Roberts CJ, Cimprich KA, Stringer CM, Lamb JR, Schreiber SL, Friend SH. (1998). Overexpression of a kinase-inactive ATR protein causes sensitivity to DNA-damaging agents and defects in cell cycle checkpoints. EMBO J 17:159-169. (Pubitemid 28041057)
35. Colvin M, Chabner BA. (1990). Alkylating agents. In: Chabner BA, Collins JM, eds. Cancer Chemotherapy: Principles and Practice. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 276-313.
36. Cowan FM, Yourick JJ, Hurst CG, Broomfeld CA, Smith WJ. (1993). Sulfur mustard-increased proteolysis following in vitro and in vivo exposures. Cell Biol Toxicol 9:269-277.
37. Dabrowska MI, Becks LL, Lelli JL Jr, Levee MG, Hinshaw DB. (1996). Sulfur mustard induces apoptosis and necrosis in endothelial cells. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 141:568-583. (Pubitemid 27046384)
38. Dacre JC, Goldman M. (1996). Toxicology and pharmacology of the chemical warfare agent sulfur mustard. Pharmacol Rev 48:289-326.
39. Das SK, Mukherjee S, Smith MG, Chatterjee D. (2003). Prophylactic protection by N-acetylcysteine against the pulmonary injury induced by 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfde, a mustard analogue. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 17:177-184. (Pubitemid 36818193)
40. Davison C, Rozman RS, Smith PK. (1961). Metabolism of bis-bβ-chloroethyl sulfde (sulfur mustard gas). Biochem Pharmacol 7:65-74.
41. Detheux M, Jijakli H, Lison D. (1997). Efect of sulphur mustard on the expression of urokinase in cultured 3T3 fbroblasts. Arch Toxicol 71:243-249. (Pubitemid 27122880)
42. Devereaux A, Amundson DE, Parrish JS, Lazarus AA. (2002). Vesicants and nerve agents in chemical warfare: Decontamination and treatment strategies for a changed world. Postgrad Med 1:90-96. (Pubitemid 35204354)
43. Dillman JF 3rd, McGary KL, Schlager JJ. (2003). Sulfur mustard induces the formation of keratin aggregates in human epidermal keratinocytes. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 193:228-236. (Pubitemid 37476438)
44. Dillman JF 3rd, McGary KL, Schlager JJ. (2004). An inhibitor of p38 MAP kinase downregulates cytokine release induced by sulfur mustard exposure in human epidermal keratinocytes. Toxicol In Vitro 18:593-599. (Pubitemid 38900866)
45. Dillman JF 3rd, Phillips CS, Dorsch LM, Croxton MD, Hege AI, Sylvester AJ, Moran TS, Sciuto AM. (2005). Genomic analysis of rodent pulmonary tissue following bis-(2-chloroethyl) sulfde exposure. Chem Res Toxicol 18:28-34. (Pubitemid 40111089)
46. Dillman JF 3rd, Hege AI, Phillips CS, Orzolek LD, Sylvester AJ, Bossone C, Henemyre-Harris C, Kiser RC, Choi YW, Schlager JJ, Sabourin CL. (2006). Microarray analysis of mouse ear tissue exposed to bis-(2-chloroethyl)sulfde: Gene expression profles correlate with treatment efcacy and an established clinical endpoint. J Pharm Exp Ter 317:76-87.
47. Drasch G, Kretschmer E, Kauert G, von Meyer M. (1987). Concentrations of mustard gas [Bis(2-chloroethyl)sulfde] in the tissues of a victim of a vesicant exposure. J Forensic Sci 32:1788-1793. (Pubitemid 17167440)
48. Duchovic RJ, Vilensky JA. (2007). Mustard gas: Its pre-World War I history. J Chem Educ 84:944-948. (Pubitemid 46851870)
49. Easton D, Peto J, Doll R. (1988). Cancers of the respiratory tract in mustard gas workers. Br J Ind Med 45:652-659.
50. Einhorn N. (1978). Acute leukemia after chemotherapy. Cancer 41:444.
51. Emmler J, Hermanns MI, Steinritz D, Kreppel H, Kirkpatrick CJ, Bloch W, Szinicz L, Kehe K. (2007). Assessment of alterations in barrier functionality and induction of proinfammatory and cytotoxic efects after sulfur mustard exposure of an in vitro coculture model of the human alveolo-capillary barrier. Inhal Toxicol 19:657-665. (Pubitemid 46788943)
52. Enoch T, Norbury C. (1995). Cellular responses to DNA damage: Cell-cycle checkpoints, apoptosis and the roles of p53 and ATM. Trends. Biochem Sci 20:426-430.
53. Epstein J. (1984). Nitrogen mustard (mechlorethamine) and UVB photocarcinogenesis: A dose-response efect. J Invest Dermatol 83:320-322. (Pubitemid 14024374)
54. Everley PA, Dillman JF 3rd. (2010). A large-scale quantitative proteomic approach to identifying sulfur mustard-induced protein phosphorylation cascades. Chem Res Toxicol 23:20-25.
55. Evison D, Hinsley D, Rice P. (2002). Chemical weapons. BMJ 324:332-335.
56. Fahmy OG, Fahmy MJ. (1972). Mutagenic selectivity for the RNA-forming genes in relation to the carcinogenicity of alkylating agents and polycyclic aromatics. Cancer Res 32:550-557.
57. Fasth A, Sorbo B. (1973). Protective efect of thiosulphate and metabolic thiosulphate precursors against toxicity of nitrogen mustard (HN2). Biochem Pharmacol 22:1337-1351.
58. Feakes D. (2003). Global society and biological and chemical weapons. In: Kaldor M, Anheier H, Glasius M, eds. Global Civil Society Yearbook. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 87-117.
59. Fisher B, Rockette H, Fisher ER, Wickerham DL, Redmond C, Brown A. (1985). Leukemia in breast cancer patients following adjuvant chemotherapy or postoperative radiation: The NSABP experience. J Clin Oncol 3:1640-1658. (Pubitemid 16199216)
60. Fox BW, Fox M. (1973). The nature of the resistance to methylene dimethane sulphonate in the Yoshida sarcoma. Br J Cancer 28:81.
61. Francis GE, Richards DE, Wormall A. (1957). The mechanism of the reaction between di-(2-chloroethyl) sulphone (mustard-gas sulphone) and amino acids. Biochem J 66:142-144.
62. Gao X, Ray R, Xiao Y, Barker PE, Ray P. (2007). Inhibition of sulfur mustard-induced cytotoxicity and infammation by the macrolide antibiotic roxithromycin in human respiratory epithelial cells. BMC Cell Biol 8:17.
63. Gao X, Ray R, Xiao Y, Ray P. (2008). Suppression of inducible nitric oxide synthase expression and nitric oxide production by macrolide antibiotics in sulfur mustard-exposed airway epithelial cells. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 103:255-261.
64. Ghabili K, Agutter PS, Ghanei M, Ansarin K, Shoja MM. (2010). Mustard gas toxicity: The acute and chronic pathological efects. J Appl Toxicol 30:627-643.
65. Ghanei M, Harandi AA. (2007). Long term consequences from exposure to sulfur mustard: A review. Inhal Toxicol 19:451-456. (Pubitemid 46364767)
66. Ghanei M, Tazelaar HD, Chilosi M, Harandi AA, Peyman M, Akbari HM, Shamsaei H, Bahadori M, Aslani J, Mohammadi A. (2008). An international collaborative pathologic study of surgical lung biopsies from mustard gas-exposed patients. Respir Med 102:825-830.
67. Ghazanfari T, Sharifnia Z, Yaraee R, Pourfarzam S, Kariminia A, Mahlojirad M, Faghihzadeh S, Jalali-Nodoushan MR, Ardestani SK, Soroush MR, Amiri S, Hassan ZM, Ghavami S, Ghanei M. (2009a). Serum soluble Fas ligand and nitric oxide in long-term pulmonary complications induced by sulfur mustard: Sardasht-Iran Cohort Study. Int Immunopharmacol 9:1489-1493.
68. Ghazanfari T, Yaraee R, KiaSalari Z, Hedayati F, Ghasemi H, Pourfarzam S, Soroush MR, Faghihzadeh S. (2009b). Evaluation of serum levels of nitric oxide in chemical victims of Sardsht 20 years after sulfure mustard exposure [Persian]. Iran J War Public Health 1: 9-23.
69. Gilbert RM, Rowland S, Davison CL, Papirmeister B. (1975). Involvement of separate pathways in the repair of mutational and lethal lesions induced by a monofunctional sulfur mustard. Mutation Res 28:257-275.
70. Gilchrist HL. (1928). A Comparative Study of World War Casualties from Gas and Other Weapons. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Ofce.
71. Gilman A, Philips FS. (1946). The biological actions and therapeutic applications of the bβ-chloroethyl amines and sulfdes. Science 103:409-415.
72. Goodwin B. (1998). Keen As Mustard: Britain′s Britain′s Horrifc Chemical Warfare Experiments in Australia. St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press.
73. Gould NS, White CW, Day BJ. (2009). A role for mitochondrial oxidative stress in sulfur mustard analog 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfde-induced lung cell injury and antioxidant protection. J Pharmacol Exp Ter 328:732-739.
74. Graef I, Karnofsky DA, Jager VB, Krichesky B, Smith HW. (1948). The clinical and pathologic efects of the nitrogen and sulfur mustards in laboratory animals. Am J Pathol 24:1-47.
75. Gray PJ. (1989). A Literature Review on the Mechanism of Action of Sulphur and Nitrogen Mustard. Maribyrong, Australia: DSTO Materials Research Laboratory, Maribyrong. AD-A125-070.
76. Greene MH, Boice JD Jr, Greer BE, Blessing JA, Dembo AJ. (1982). Acute nonlymphocytic leukemia after therapy with alkylating agents for ovarian cancer. N Engl J Med 307:1416-1421.
77. Gross CL, Watson CV, Petrali J, Papirmeister B. (1981). Efect of sulfur mustards on lysosomes from rat liver in vitro. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 61:147-151. (Pubitemid 11029911)
78. Gross CL, Meier HL, Papirmeister B, Brinkley FB, Johnson JB. (1985). Sulfur mustard lowers nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide concentrations in human skin grafted to athymic nude mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 81:85-90. (Pubitemid 16234037)
79. Gross CL, Innace JK, Hovatter RC, Meier HL, Smith WJ. (1993). Biochemical manipulation of intracellular glutathione levels infuences cytotoxicity to isolated human lymphocytes by sulfur mustard. Cell Biol Toxicol 9:259-267.
80. Guthrie F. (1859). On some derivatives of the olefnes. Quart J Chem Soc 12:109-126.
81. Guthrie F. (1860). On some derivatives of the olefnes. Quart J Chem Soc 13:129-135.
82. Habraken Y, Ludlum D. (1989). Release of chloroethyl ethyl sulfde-modifed DNA bases by bacterial 3-methyladenine-DNA glycosylases I and II. Carcinogenesis 10:489-492. (Pubitemid 19089914)
83. Haince JF, Kozlov S, Dawson VL, Dawson TM, Hendzel MJ, Lavin MF, Poirier GG. (2007). Ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) signaling network is modulated by a novel poly(ADP-ribose)-dependent pathway in the early response to DNA-damaging agents. J Biol Chem 282:16441-16453. (Pubitemid 47100334)
84. Hambrook JL, Howells DJ, Schock C. (1993). Biological fate of sulphur mustard (1,1′-thiobis(2-chloroethane)): Uptake, distribution and retention of 35S in skin and in blood after cutaneous application of 35S-sulphur mustard in rat and comparison with human blood in vitro. Xenobiotica 23:537-561. (Pubitemid 23172554)
85. Han S, Espinoza LA, Liao H, Boulares AH, Smulson ME. (2004). Protection by antioxidants against toxicity and apoptosis induced by the sulphur mustard analog 2-chloroethylethyl sulphide (CEES) in Jurkat T cells and normal human lymphocytes. Br J Pharmacol 141:795-802. (Pubitemid 38446180)
86. Hosseini-Khalili A, Haines DD, Modirian E, Soroush M, Khateri S, Joshi R, Zendehdel K, Ghanei M, Giardina C. (2009). Mustard gas exposure and carcinogenesis of lung. Mutat Res 678:1-6.
87. Husain K, Dube SN, Sugendran K, Singh R, Das Gupta S, Somani SM. (1996). Efect of topically applied sulphur mustard on antioxidant enzymes in blood cells and body tissues of rats. J Appl Toxicol 16:245-248. (Pubitemid 26228558)
88. IARC. (1975). Some Aziridines, N-, S-and O-Mustards and Selenium. In: International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Lyon: IARC, 9:181-192.
89. Institute of Medicine. (1993). Veterans at Risk: The Health Efects of Mustard Gas and Lewisite. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
90. Ishida H, Ray R, Ray P. (2008). Sulfur mustard downregulates iNOS expression to inhibit wound healing in a human keratinocyte model. J Dermatol Sci 49:207-216. (Pubitemid 351179209)
91. Ivarsson U, Nilsson H, Santesson J. (1992). A FOA Briefng Book on Chemical Weapons: Treat, Efects, and Protection. Umeå: National Defence Research Establishment.
92. Jackson KE. (1936). The history of mustard gas. J Tennessee Acad Sci 11:98-106.
93. Jacques J. (1991). First victims of Yperite. New J Chem 15:3-4.
94. Jafari M. (2007). Dose-and time-dependent efects of sulfur mustard on antioxidant system in liver and brain of rat. Toxicology 231:30-39. (Pubitemid 46205031)
95. Jensen KA, Kirk I, Westergaard M. (1950). Mutagenic activity of some mustard gas compounds. Nature 166:1020-1021.
96. Jones GB. (1998). From mustard gas to medicines: The history of modern cancer chemotherapy. Chem Herit 15:8-9, 40-42.
97. Jowsey PA, Williams FM, Blain PG. (2009). DNA damage, signalling and repair after exposure of cells to the sulphur mustard analogue 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulphide. Toxicology 257:105-112.
98. Kaina B. (1998). Critical steps in alkylation-induced aberration formation. Mutat Res 404:119-124. (Pubitemid 29037830)
99. Kehe K, Szinicz L. (2005). Medical aspects of sulphur mustard poisoning. Toxicology 214:198-209. (Pubitemid 41406260)
100. Kehe K, Balszuweit F, Emmler J, Kreppel H, Jochum M, Tiermann H. (2008). Sulfur mustard research-strategies for the development of improved medical therapy. Eplasty 8:e32.
101. Kehe K, Balszuweit F, Steinritz D, Tiermann H. (2009a). Molecular toxicology of sulfur mustard-induced cutaneous infammation and blistering. Toxicology 263:12-19.
102. Kehe K, Tiermann H, Balszuweit F, Eyer F, Steinritz D, Zilker T. (2009b). Acute efects of sulfur mustard injury-Munich experiences. Toxicology 263:3-8.
103. Khateri S, Wangerin R. (2008). Denied Truths. Tehran: The Center for Women and Family Afairs.
104. Kohn KW, Steibigel NH, Spears CL. (1965). Cross-linking and repair of DNA in sensitive and resistant strains of E. coli treated with nitrogen mustard. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 53:1154-1160.
105. Koletsky AJ, Bertino JR, Farber LR, Prosnitz LR, Kapp DS, Fischer D, Portlock CS. (1986). Second neoplasms in patients with Hodgkin′s disease following combined modality therapy: The Yale experience. J Clin Oncol 4:311-317. (Pubitemid 16133084)
106. Lakshmana Rao P V, Vijayaraghavan R, Bhaskar AS. (1999). Sulphur mustard induced DNA damage in mice after dermal and inhalation exposure. Toxicology 139:39-51. (Pubitemid 29535370)
107. Langford AM, Hobbs MJ, Upshall DG, Blain PG, Williams FM. (1996). The efect of sulphur mustard on glutathione levels in rat lung slices and the infuence of treatment with arylthiols and cysteine esters. Hum Exp Toxicol 15:619-624. (Pubitemid 26283749)
108. Lardot C, Dubois V, Lison D. (1999). Sulfur mustard upregulates the expression of interleukin-8 in cultured human keratinocytes. Toxicol Lett 110:29-33. (Pubitemid 29502424)
109. Lawley PD, Brookes P. (1965). Molecular mechanism of the cytotoxic action of difunctional alkylating agents and of resistance to this action. Nature 206:480-483.
110. Lawley PD, Brookes P. (1968). Cytotoxicity of alkylating agents towards sensitive and resistant strains of Escherichia coli in relation to extent and mode of alkylation of cellular macromolecules and repair of alkylation lesions in deoxyribonucleic acids. Biochem J 109:433-447.
111. Lee WR. (1975). Comparison of the mutagenic efects of chemicals and ionizing radiation using Drosophila melanogaster test systems. In: Nygaard O F, Adler HI, Sinclair WK, eds. Radiation Research: Biomedical, Chemical, and Physical Perspectives. New York: Academic Press, 976-983.
112. Liu RN. (2008). Oxidative stress, plasminogen activator inhibitor 1, and lung fbrosis. Antioxid Redox Signal 10:303-319.
113. Loeber RL, Michaelson-Richie ED, Codreanu SG, Liebler DC, Campbell CR, Tretyakova NY. (2009). Proteomic analysis of DNA-protein cross-linking by antitumor nitrogen mustards. Chem Res Toxicol 22:1151-1162.
114. Ludlum DB, Metha JR, Steiner RF, DeWitt J. (1978). Physical properties of poly(3,N-4-ethenocytidylic acid). Biophys Chem 7:339-346.
115. Ludlum DB, Tong WP, Mehta JR, Kirk MC, Papirmeister B. (1984). Formation of O6-ethylthioethyldeoxyguanosine from the reaction of chloroethyl ethyl sulfde with deoxyguanosine. Cancer Res 44:5698-5701. (Pubitemid 15183581)
116. Ludlum DB, Kent S, Mehta JR. (1986). Formation of O6- ethylthioethylguanine in DNA by reaction with the sulfur mustard, chloroethyl sulfde, and its apparent lack of repair by O6-alkylguanine DNA alkyltransferase. Carcinogenesis 7:1203-1206. (Pubitemid 17127480)
117. Luening KG. (1951). Mustard gas and gynandromorph production in Drosophila melanogaster. Hereditas 37:488-500.
118. Lyon A. (2008). Iran′s Chemical Ali survivors still bear scars. Reuters [Online]. Available at: http://www.reuters.com/article/topNews/ idUSBLA84491620080709?feedType=RSS&feedName=topNews&r pc = 22&sp=true. Accessed on 26 February 2010.
119. Manning KP, Skegg DC, Stell PM, Doll R. (1981). Cancer of the larynx and other occupational hazards of mustard gas workers. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci 6:165-170. (Pubitemid 12198157)
120. Marshall VC. (1987). Case histories of toxic releases. In: Marshall VC, ed. Major Chemical Hazards. Chichester: Ellis Horwood, 326-380.
121. Martin LJ, Liu Z, Pipino J, Chestnut B, Landek MA. (2009). Molecular regulation of DNA damage-induced apoptosis in neurons of cerebral cortex. Cereb Cortex 19:1273-1293.
122. Mauro F, Elkind MM. (1968). Diferences in survival variations during the growth cycle of cultured Chinese hamster cells treated with sulfur mustard and X-rays. Cancer Res 28:1150-1155.
123. Medema J. (1986). Mustard gas: The science of H. Nucl Biol Chem Def Technol Int 1:66-71.
124. Medvedeva N, Polyak Y, Kuzikova I, Orlova O, Zharikov G. (2008). The efect of mustard gas on the biological activity of soil. Environ Res 106:289-295. (Pubitemid 351296199)
125. Meier HL, Gross CL, Papirmeister B. (1984). The use of human models for validating the biochemical mechanism of mustard-induced injury and for developing and evaluating therapeutic regimens to prevent mustard gas incapacitation. In: Proceedngs of the Army Science Conference. New York: West Point.
126. Meisenberg BR, Melaragno AJ, Monroy RL. (1993). Granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) for mustard-induced bone marrow suppression. Mil Med 158:470-474. (Pubitemid 23246289)
127. Micaily B, Moser C, Vonderheid EC, Koprowski C, Lightfoot D, Markoe A, Brady L. (1990). The radiation therapy of early stage cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 18:1333-1339. (Pubitemid 20234144)
128. Minsavage GD, Dillman JF 3rd. (2007). Bifunctional alkylating agent-induced p53 and nonclassical nuclear factor kappaB responses and cell death are altered by cafeic acid phenethyl ester: A potential role for antioxidant/electrophilic response-element signaling. J Pharmacol Exp Ter 321:202-212. (Pubitemid 46456995)
129. Miskin R, Reich E. (1980). Plasminogen activator: Induction of synthesis by DNA damage. Cell 19:217-224. (Pubitemid 10154226)
130. Mol MA, van den Berg RM, Benschop HP. (2008). Proteomic assessment of sulfur mustard-induced protein adducts and other protein modifcations in human epidermal keratinocytes. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 230:97-108.
131. Mol MA, van den Berg RM, Benschop HP. (2009). Involvement of caspases and transmembrane metalloproteases in sulphur mustard-induced microvesication in adult human skin in organ culture: Directions for therapy. Toxicology 258:39-46.
132. Momeni AZ, Enshaeih S, Meghdadi M, Amindjavaheri M. (1992). Skin manifestations of mustard gas. A clinical study of 535 patients exposed to mustard gas. Arch Dermatol 128:775-780.
133. Mukherjee TK, Mukhopadhyay S, Hoidal JR. (2005). The role of reactive oxygen species in TNFalpha-dependent expression of the receptor for advanced glycation end products in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Biochim Biophys Acta 1744:21 3-223.
134. Mukhopadhyay S, Rajaratnam V, Mukherjee S, Smith M, Das SK. (2006). Modulation of the expression of superoxide dismutase gene in lung injury by 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfde, a mustard analog. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 20:142-149. (Pubitemid 44036098)
135. Mukhopadhyay S, Mukherjee S, Smith M, Das SK. (2008). Activation of MAPK/AP-1 signaling pathway in lung injury induced by 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfde, a mustard gas analog. Toxicol Lett 181:112-117.
136. Mukhopadhyay S, Mukherjee S, Stone WL, Smith M, Das SK. (2009). Role of MAPK/AP-1 signaling pathway in the protection of CEES-induced lung injury by antioxidant liposome. Toxicology 261:143-151.
137. Murnane J P, Byfeld JE. (1981). Irreparable DNA cross-links and mammalian cell lethality with bifunctional alkylating agents. Chem Biol Interact 38:75-76.
138. Naghii MR. (2002). Sulfur mustard intoxication, oxidative stress, and antioxidants. Mil Med 167:573-575. (Pubitemid 34779088)
139. Nasrat GE. (1954). Some cytological observations on the delayed efect of mustard gas. Nature 174:968-969.
140. New York Academy of Sciences. (1969). Biological efects of alkylating agents. Ann N Y Acad Sci 163:589-1029.
141. Niemann A. (1860). Über die Einwirkung des braunen Chlorschwefels auf Elaylgas. Liebigs Ann Chem Pharmacie 113:288-292.
142. Nishimoto Y, Yamakido M, Ishioka S, Shigenobu T, Yukutake M. (1987). Epidemiological studies of lung cancer in Japanese mustard gas workers. Princess Takamatsu Symp 18:95-101.
143. Nishizuka S, Ramalingam S, Spurrier B, Washburn FL, Krishna R, Honkanen P, Young L, Tsutomu S, Steeg PS, Austin J. (2008). Quantitative protein network monitoring in response to DNA damage. J Proteome Res 7:803-808. (Pubitemid 351294044)
144. Nyska A, Lomnitski L, Maronpot R, Moomaw C, Brodsky B, Sintov A, Wormser U. (2001). Efects of iodine on inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 expression in sulfur mustard-induced skin. Arch Toxicol 74:768-774. (Pubitemid 32204524)
145. O′Neill O′,Neill HC, White CW, Veress LA, Hendry-Hofer TB, Loader JE, Min E, Huang J, Rancourt RC, Day BJ. (2010). Treatment with the catalytic metalloporphyrin AEOL 10150 reduces infammation and oxidative stress due to inhalation of the sulfur mustard analog 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfde. Free Radic Biol Med 48:1188-1196.
146. Papirmeister B, Davison CL. (1964). Elimination of sulfur mustard-induced products from DNA of Escherichia coli. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 17:608-617.
147. Papirmeister B, Westling AW, Schroer J. (1969). Mustard: The Relevance of DNA Damage to the Development of the Skin Lesion. Maryland: Medical Research Laboratory, Edgewood Arsenal.
148. Papirmeister B, Dorsey JK, Davison CL, Gross CL. (1970). Sensitization of DNA to endonuclease by adenine alkylation and its biological signifcance. Fed Proc 29:726.
149. Papirmeister B, Gross CL, Petrali JP, Hixson CJ. (1984a). Pathology produced by sulfur mustard in human skin grafts on athymic nude mice. I. Gross and light microscopic changes. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 3:371-392.
150. Papirmeister B, Gross CL, Petrali JP, Meier HL. (1984b). Pathology produced by sulfur mustard in human skin grafts on athymic nude mice. II. Ultrastructural changes. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 3:393-408. (Pubitemid 15111795)
151. Papirmeister B, Gross CL, Meier HL, Petrali JP, Johnson JB. (1985). Molecular basis for mustard-induced vesication. Fundam Appl Toxicol 5:S134-S149 (Pubitemid 16134975)
152. Papirmeister B, Feister AJ, Robinson SI, Ford RD. (1991). Medical Defense Against Mustard Gas: Toxic Mechanisms and Pharmacological Implications. Boca Ratob, FL: CRC Press.
153. Paromov V, Qui M, Yang H, Smith M, Stone WL. (2008). The infuence of N-acetyl-l-cysteine on oxidative stress and nitric oxide synthesis in stimulated macrophages treated with a mustard gas analogue. BMC Cell Biol 9:33.
154. Paull TT, Gellert M. (1999). Nbs1 potentiates ATP-driven DNA unwinding and endonuclease cleavage by the Mre11/Rad50 complex. Genes Dev 13:1276-1288. (Pubitemid 29250195)
155. Pérez-Caro M, Bermejo-Rodríguez C, González-Herrero I, Sánchez-Beato M, Piris MA, Sánchez-García I. (2008). Transcriptomal profling of the cellular response to DNA damage mediated by Slug (Snai2). Br J Cancer 98:480-488. (Pubitemid 351161232)
156. Plant JE, Roberts JJ. (1971). Extension of the pre-DNA synthetic phase of the cell cycle as a consequence of DNA alkylation in Chinese hamster cells: A possible mechanism of DNA repair. Chem Biol Interact 3:343-351.
157. Platteborze PL. (2003). Efects of sulfur mustard on transcription in human epidermal keratinocytes: Analysis by mRNA diferential display. J Appl Toxicol 23:249-254. (Pubitemid 36950294)
158. Pohanka M, Stetina R. (2009). Shift of oxidants and antioxidants levels in rats as a reaction to exposure to sulfur mustard. J Appl Toxicol 29:643-647.
159. Pohl C, Papritz M, Moisch M, Wübbeke C, Hermanns MI, Uboldi C, Dei-Anang J, Mayer E, Kirkpatrick CJ, Kehe K. (2009). Acute morphological and toxicological efects in a human bronchial coculture model after sulfur mustard exposure. Toxicol Sci 112:482-489.
160. Price CC, Gaucher GM, Konero P, Shibakowa R, Sowa JR, Yamaguchi M. (1968). Relative reactivities for monofunctional nitrogen mustard alkylation of nucleic acid components. Acta Biochim Biophys Hungarica 166:327-359.
161. Pu Y, Lin P, Vaughan FL, Bernstein IA. (1995). Appearance of interleukin 1 alpha relates DNA interstrand cross-links and cytotoxicity in cultured human keratinocytes exposed to bis-(2-chloroethyl) sulfde. J Appl Toxicol 15:477-482. (Pubitemid 3005844)
162. Ray R, Keyser B, Benton B, Daher A, Simbulan-Rosenthal CM, Rosenthal DS. (2008). Sulfur mustard induces apoptosis in cultured normal human airway epithelial cells: Evidence of a dominant caspase-8-mediated pathway and diferential cellular responses. Drug Chem Toxicol 31:137-148.
163. Rebholz B, Kehe K, Ruzicka T, Rupec RA. (2008). Role of NF-kappaB/ RelA and MAPK pathways in keratinocytes in response to sulfur mustard. J Invest Dermatol 128:1626-1632. (Pubitemid 351863593)
164. Reid EE. (1958). Organic Chemistry of Bivalent Sulfur. New York: Chemical Publishing.
165. Reid BD, Walker IG. (1966). Resistance to sulfur mustard: A comparison of some properties of strain L cells and a resistant subline. Cancer Res 26:1801-1805.
166. Reid BD, Walker IG. (1969). The response of mammalian cells to alkylating agents. II. On the mechanism of the removal of sulfur mustard-induced cross links. Biochim Biophys Acta 179:179-188.
167. Renshaw B. (1946). Mechanisms in production of cutaneous injuries by sulphur and nitrogen mustards. In: Chemical Warfare Agents and Related Chemical Problems. Washington DC: National Defense Research Commmittee of the Ofce of Scientifc Research and Development, 479-518.
168. Richardson GM. (1897). Obituary for Viktor Meyer. J Am Chem Soc 19:918-921.
169. Riches J, Read RW, Black RM. (2007). Analysis of the sulphur mustard metabolites thiodiglycol and thiodiglycol sulphoxide in urine using isotope-dilution gas chromatography-ion trap tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 845:114-120. (Pubitemid 44839306)
170. Ricketts KM, Santai CT, France JA, Graziosi AM, Doyel TD, Gazaway MY, Casillas RP. (2000). Infammatory cytokine response in sulfur mustard-exposed mouse skin. J Appl Toxicol 20:S73-S76
171. Rikimaru T, Nakamura M, Yano T, Beck G, Habicht GS, Rennie LL, Widra M, Hirshman CA, Boulay MG, Spannhake EW, et al. (1991). Mediators, initiating the infammatory response, released in organ culture by full-thickness human skin explants exposed to the irritant, sulfur mustard. J Investig Dermatol 96:888-897.
172. Roberts JJ, Warwick GP. (1963). Studies of the mode of action of alkylating agents. VI. The metabolism of bis-2-chloroethylsulphide (mustard gas) and related compounds. Biochem Pharmacol 12: 1329-1334.
173. Roberts JJ, Kotsaki-Kovatsi VP. (1986). Potentiation of sulfur mustard or cisplatin-induced toxicity by cafeine in Chinese hamster cells correlates with formation of DNA double-strand breaks during replication on a damaged template. Mutation Res 165:207-220. (Pubitemid 16076327)
174. Roberts JJ, Warwick GP. (1963). Studies of the mode of action of alkylating agents. VI. The metabolism of bis-2-chloroethylsulphide (mustard gas) and related compounds. Biochem Pharmacol 12:1329-1334.
175. Roberts JJ, Brent TP, Crathorn AR. (1968). Mechanism of the cytotoxic action of alkylating agents on mammalian cells. In: Campbell PN, ed. Interaction of Drugs and Subcellular Components in Animal Cells. Boston: Little, Brown, 5-27.
176. Roberts JJ, Brent TP, Crathorn AR. (1971). Evidence for the inactivation and repair of the mammalian DNA template after alkylation by mustard gas and half mustard gas. Eur J Cancer 7:515-524.
177. Roberts JJ, Friedlos F, Scott D, Ormerod MG, Rawlings CJ. (1986). The unique sensitivity of Walker rat tumour cells to difunctional agents is associated with a failure to recover from inhibition of DNA synthesis and increased chromosome damage. Mutation Res 166:169-181. (Pubitemid 17183649)
178. Rogers J V, Choi YW, Kiser RC, Babin MC, Casillas RP, Schlager JJ, Sabourin CL. (2004). Microarray analysis of gene expression in murine skin exposed to sulfur mustard. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 18:289-299. (Pubitemid 40165432)
179. Rosenthal DS, Simbulan-Rosenthal CM, Iyer S, Spoonde A, Smith W, Ray R, Smulson ME. (1998). Sulfur mustard induces markers of terminal diferentiation and apoptosis in keratinocytes via a Ca2+calmodulin and caspase-dependent pathway. J Investig Dermatol 111: 64-71. (Pubitemid 28309210)
180. Ross WCJ. (1962). Biological Alkylating Agents: Fundamental Chemistry and Design of Compounds for Selective Toxicity. London: Butterworths.
181. Ruimi N, Petrova RD, Agbaria R, Sussan S, Wasser SP, Reznick AZ, Mahajna J. (2010). Inhibition of TNF#-induced iNOS expression in HSV-tk transduced 9L glioblastoma cell lines by Marasmius oreades substances through NF-#B-and MAPK-dependent mechanisms. Mol Biol Rep 37:3801-3812.
182. Sabourin CL, Petrali JP, Casillas RP. (2000). Alterations in infammatory cytokine gene expression in sulfur mustard-exposed mouse skin. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 14:291-302.
183. Sabourin CL, Danne MM, Buxton KL, Casillas RP, Schlager JJ. (2002). Cytokine, chemokine and matrix metalloproteinase response after sulfur mustard injury to weanling pig skin. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 16:263-272. (Pubitemid 36097621)
184. Sabourin CL, Rogers J V, Choi YW, Kiser RC, Casillas RP, Babin MC, Schlager JJ. (2004). Time-and dose-dependent analysis of gene expression using microarrays in sulfur mustard-exposed mice. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 18:300-312. (Pubitemid 40165433)
185. Sasser LB, Cushing JA, Dacre JC. (1996). Two-generation reproduction study of sulfur mustard in rats. Reprod Toxicol 10:311-319. (Pubitemid 26310260)
186. Savage JR, Breckon G. (1981). Diferential efects of sulfur mustard on S phase cells of primary fbroblast cultures from Syrian hamsters Mesocricetus auratus. Mutation Res 84:375-387. (Pubitemid 12248992)
187. Schardein JL. (1985). Cancer chemotherapeutic agents. In: Schardein JL. Chemically Induced Birth Defects. New York: Dekker, 467-520.
188. Schlager JJ, Hart BW. (2000). Stress gene activity in HepG2 cells after sulfur mustard exposure. J Appl Toxicol 20:395-405.
189. Schneider M, Poth EJ, Levin WC. (1948). Nitrogen mustard in the treatment of Hodgkin′s disease; a case report with discussion. Tex Rep Biol Med 6:117-122.
190. Schonwald S. (1992). Mustard gas. PSR Quarterly 2:92-97.
191. Scott D, Bigger TR. (1972). The induction of chromosomal aberrations by sulphur mustard in marsupial lymphocytes. Chromosomes Today 3:162-176.
192. Scott D, Fox M, Fox BW. (1974). The relationship between chromosomal aberrations, survival, and DNA repair in tumour cell lines of diferential sensitivity to X-rays and sulphur mustard. Mutation Res 22:207-221.
193. Sharma M, Vijayaraghavan R, Ganesan K. (2008). Comparison of toxicity of selected mustard agents by percutaneous and subcutaneous routes. Indian J Exp Biol 46:822-830.
194. Sharma DR, Sunkaria A, Bal A, Bhutia YD, Vijayaraghavan R, Flora SJ, Gill KD. (2009). Neurobehavioral impairments, generation of oxidative stress and release of pro-apoptotic factors after chronic exposure to sulphur mustard in mouse brain. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 240:208-218.
195. Shohrati M, Ghanei M, Shamspour N, Jafari M. (2008a). Activity and function in lung injuries due to sulphur mustard. Biomarkers 13:728-733.
196. Shohrati M, Ghanei M, Shamspour N, Jafari M, Aslani J, Faskhami-Norozi A. (2008b). Efect of long-term pulmonary complications due to sulfur mustard on activation of enzymes in antioxidant system [Persian]. Kowsar Med J 13:65-70.
197. Shohrati M, Ghanei M, Shamspour N, Jafari M, Khasmakhi MN. (2009). Extra-cellular superoxide dismutase activity in lung injuries due to sulfur mustard [Persian]. J Qazvin Uni Med Sci 12:5-11.
198. Sidell FR, Hurst CG. (1992). Clinical considerations in mustard gas poisoning. In: Somani SM, ed. Chemical Warfare Agents. San Diego: Academic Press.
199. Sinha Roy S, Mukherjee S, Kabir S, Rajaratnam V, Smith M, Das SK. (2005). Inhibition of cholinephosphotransferase activity in lung injury induced by 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfde, a mustard analog. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 19:289-297. (Pubitemid 41654263)
200. Smith CN, Lindsay CD, Hambrook JL. (2001). An in vitro comparison of the cytotoxicity of sulphur mustard in melanoma and keratinocyte cell lines. Hum Exp Toxicol 20:483-490. (Pubitemid 34030755)
201. Smith WJ, Saunders KM, Ruddle SE, Gross CL. (1993). Cytometric analysis of DNA changes induced by sulfur mustard. J Toxicol Cutan Ocul Toxicol 12:337-343.
202. Sobels FH. (1962). Rates of forward and reverse mutation in Drosophila after exposure to mustard gas and X-rays. Genetica 33:31-44.
203. Sobels FH, Van Steenis H. (1957). Chemical induction of crossing-over in Drosophila males. Nature 179:29-31.
204. Somani SM, Babu SR. (1989). Toxicodynamics of sulfur mustard. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ter Toxicol 27:419-435. (Pubitemid 19225356)
205. Steinritz D, Emmler J, Hintz M, Worek F, Kreppel H, Szinicz L, Kehe K. (2007). Apoptosis in sulfur mustard treated A549 cell cultures. Life Sci 80:2199-2201. (Pubitemid 46818252)
206. Steinritz D, Elischer A, Balszuweit F, Gonder S, Heinrich A, Bloch W, Tiermann H, Kehe K. (2009). Sulphur mustard induces time-and concentration-dependent regulation of NO-synthesizing enzymes. Toxicol Lett 188:263-269.
207. Stevens CM, Mylroie A. (1950). Mutagenic activity of pß-chloroalkyl amines and sulphides.Nature 166:1019.
208. Strieter RM, Kunkel SL. (1994). Acute lung injury: The role of cytokines in the elicitation of neutrophils. J Investig Med 42:640-651.
209. Szoltysek K, Pietranek K, Kalinowska-Herok M, Pietrowska M, Kimmel M, Widlak P. (2008). TNFalpha-induced activation of NFkappaB protects against UV-induced apoptosis specifcally in p53-profcient cells. Acta Biochim Pol 55:741-748.
210. Tchounwou PB, Wilson BA, Ishaque AB, Schneider J. (2001). Transcriptional activation of stress genes and cytotoxicity in human liver carcinoma cells (HepG2) exposed to 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, 2,4-dinitrotoluene, and 2,6-dinitrotoluene. Environ Toxicol 6:209-216.
211. Tsuruta J, Sugisaki K, Dannenberg AM, Yoshimura T, Abe Y, Mounts P. (1996). The cytokines NAP-1(IL-8), MCP-1, IL-1beta and GRO in rabbit infammatory skin lesions produced by the chemical irritant sulfur mustard. Infammation 20:293-318. (Pubitemid 26246170)
212. Tu HC, Ren D, Wang GX, Chen DY, Westergard TD, Kim H, Sasagawa S, Hsieh JJ, Cheng E. H. (2009). The p53-cathepsin axis cooperates with ROS to activate programmed necrotic death upon DNA damage. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:1093-1098.
213. Tucker MA, Coleman CN, Cox RS. (1988). Risk of second cancers after treatment for Hodgkin's Hodgkin's disease. N Eng J Med 318:76-81. (Pubitemid 18029298)
214. Van Der Schans GP, Noort D, Mars-Groenendijk RH, Fidder A, Chau LF, de Jong LP, Benschop HP. (2002). Immunochemical detection of sulfur mustard adducts with keratins in the stratum corneum of human skin. Chem Res Toxicol 15:21-25. (Pubitemid 34106086)
215. Vickery HB. (1975). Hans Tacher Clarke: A Biographical Memoir. Washington DC: National Academy of Sciences.
216. Vidakovi M, Poznanovi G, Bode J. (2005). DNA break repair: Refned rules of an already complicated game. Biochem Cell Biol 83:365-373. (Pubitemid 41297204)
217. Vijayaraghavan R, Kulkarni A, Pant SC, Kumar P, Rao PV, Gupta N, Gautam A, Ganesan K. (2005). Diferential toxicity of sulfur mustard administered through percutaneous, subcutaneous, and oral routes. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 202:180-188. (Pubitemid 40040557)
218. Vojvodic V, Milosavljevic Z, Boskovic B, Bojanic N. (1985). The protective efect of diferent drugs in rats poisoned by sulphur and nitrogen mustards. Fundam Appl Toxicol 5:S160-S168 (Pubitemid 16134977)
219. Vycludic W. (1985). Detection of mustard gas bis (2-chloroethyl)-sulfde in urine. Foren Sci Int 28:131-136.
220. Walker IG. (1966). Sulfur mustard: Reaction with L-cells treated with 5-fuorodeoxyuridine. Science 151:99-101.
221. Walker IG, Reid BD. (1971). Some properties of substrains of L-cells with a decreased sensitivity to bis(2-chloroethyl)sulfde. Cancer Res 31:510-515.
222. Walker IG, Smith J F. (1969). Protection of L-cells by thiols and against the toxicity of sulfur mustard. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 47:143-151.
223. Ward JR, Seider RP. (1984). Activation energy for the hydrolysis of bis(-2-chloroethyl) sulfde. Termochimica Acta 81:343-348.
224. Warren JS, Yabrof KR, Mandel DM, Johnson KJ, Ward PA. (1990). Role of O2-in neutrophil recruitment into sites of dermal and pulmonary vasculitis. Free Radic Biol Med 8:163-172.
225. Watson AP, Grifn GD. (1992). Toxicity of vesicant agents scheduled for destruction by the Chemical Stockpile Disposal Program. Environ Health Perspect 98:259-280. (Pubitemid 23061815)
226. Werrlein RJ, Madren-Whalley JS. (2000). Efects of sulfur mustard on the basal cell adhesion complex. J Appl Toxicol 1 (Suppl. 20):S115-S123.
227. West CJ. (1919). History of mustard gas. Science 49:412-417.
228. Wheeler GP. (1962). Studies related to the mechanisms of action of cytotoxic alkylating agents: A review. Cancer Res 22:651-688.
229. Wheeler GP. (1967). Some biochemical efects of alkylating agents. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 26:885-892.
230. Wilde PE, Upshall DG. (1994). Cysteine esters protect cultured rodent lung slices from sulphur mustard. Hum Exp Toxicol 13:743-748. (Pubitemid 24351884)
231. Woessner JF Jr, Dannenberg AM Jr, Pula PJ, Selzer MG, Ruppert CL, Higuchi K, Kajiki A, Nakamura M, Dahms NM, Kerr JS, et al. (1990). Extracellular collagenase, proteoglycanase and products of their activity, released in organ culture by intact dermal infammatory lesions produced by sulfur mustard. J Invest Dermatol 95: 717-726.
232. World Health Organization (1970). Health Aspects of Chemical and Biological Weapons: Report of a WHO Group of Consultants. WHO, Geneva.: WHO. Available at: http://www.who.int/csr/ delibepidemics/en/TableofContents.pdf. Accessed on 30 May 2010.
233. Wormser U, Brodsky B, Proscura E, Foley JF, Jones T, Nyska A. (2005). Involvement of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in sulfur mustard-induced skin lesion; efect of topical iodine. Arch Toxicol 79:660-670. (Pubitemid 41618949)
234. Wulf HC, Aasted A, Darre E, Niebuhr E. (1985). Sister chromatid exchanges in fshermen exposed to leaking mustard gas shells ([letter).]. Lancet 1:690-691. (Pubitemid 15134834)
235. Yanagida J, Hozawa S, Ishioka S, Maeda H, Takahashi K, Oyama T, Takahashi M, Hakoda M, Akiyama M, Yamakido M. (1988). Somatic mutation in peripheral lymphocytes of former workers at the Okuno-jima poison gas factory. Jap J Cancer Res 79:1276-1283. (Pubitemid 20019404)
236. Yaren H, Mollaoglu H, Kurt B, Korkmaz A, Oter S, Topal T, Karayilanoglu T. (2007). Lung toxicity of nitrogen mustard may be mediated by nitric oxide and peroxynitrite in rats. Res Vet Sci 83: 116-122. (Pubitemid 46648015)
237. Yourick JJ, Dawson JS, Benton CD, Craig ME, Mitcheltree LW. (1993). Pathogenesis of 2,2′-dichlorodiethyl sulfde in hairless guinea pigs. Toxicology 84:185-197.
238. Zhang P, Ng P, Caridha D, Leach RA, Asher LV, Novak MJ, Smith WJ, Zeichner SL, Chiang PK. (2002). Gene expressions in Jurkat cells poisoned by a sulphur mustard vesicant and the induction of apoptosis. Br J Pharmacol 137:245-252.
239. Zhang Y, Xiong Y, Yarbrough WG. (1998). ARF promotes MDM2 degradation and stabilizes p53: ARF-INK4a locus deletion impairs both the Rb and p53 tumor suppression pathways. Cell 92:725-734. (Pubitemid 28155312)
240. Zhang Z, Riviere JE, Monteiro-Riviere NA. (1995). Evaluation of protective efects of sodium thiosulfate, cysteine, niacinamide and indomethacin on sulfur mustard-treated isolated perfused porcine skin. Chem Biol Interact 96:249-262.