Endocrine disrupting chemicals and the developmental programming of adipogenesis and obesity

Birth Defects Research Part C - Embryo Today: Reviews

Volumn 93, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 34-50

  Janesick, Amanda ^a   Blumberg, Bruce ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Adipogenesis; EDC; Endocrine disrupter; Epigenetics; MSCs; Multipotent stromal cells; Nuclear receptor; Obesity; Obesogen; PPAR ; Stem cells; Transgenerational

Indexed keywords

2,4 THIAZOLIDINEDIONE DERIVATIVE; ATAXIN 1; BETA1 INTEGRIN; CD24 ANTIGEN; CD34 ANTIGEN; ENDOCRINE DISRUPTOR; ESTROGEN DERIVATIVE; HEXACHLOROBENZENE; LIPID; OLANZAPINE; ORGANOTIN COMPOUND; PERFLUOROOCTANOIC ACID; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; THYROID HORMONE; TRIACYLGLYCEROL; TRIBUTYLTIN; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; XENOBIOTIC AGENT;

ADIPOCYTE; ADIPOGENESIS; BODY FAT; BODY MASS; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL LINEAGE; CELL MATURATION; DRUG USE; ENERGY BALANCE; ENERGY EXPENDITURE; EPIGENETICS; HEALTH STATUS; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMAN; LIPID METABOLISM; MATERNAL SMOKING; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; PRENATAL EXPOSURE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REGULATORY MECHANISM; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; THYROID FUNCTION; THYROID HORMONE METABOLISM; THYROID HORMONE SYNTHESIS; TRIACYLGLYCEROL BLOOD LEVEL; WHITE ADIPOSE TISSUE;

ADIPOCYTES; ADIPOGENESIS; ANIMALS; BODY COMPOSITION; BODY WEIGHT; ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS; ENERGY INTAKE; ENERGY METABOLISM; EPIGENESIS, GENETIC; FEMALE; FETAL DEVELOPMENT; HUMANS; JAPAN; OBESITY; PPAR GAMMA; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL EXPOSURE DELAYED EFFECTS; REPUBLIC OF KOREA; STEM CELLS;

EID: 79952808057     PISSN: 1542975X     EISSN: 15429768     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/bdrc.20197     Document Type: Review

References (210)

1. Ahima RS, Flier JS. 2000. Leptin. Annu Rev Physiol 62: 413-437.
2. Al Mamun A, Lawlor DA, Alati R, et al. 2006. Does maternal smoking during pregnancy have a direct effect on future offspring obesity? Evidence from a prospective birth cohort study. Am J Epidemiol 164: 317-325.
3. Alkhouri N, Gornicka A, Berk MP, et al. 2010. Adipocyte apoptosis, a link between obesity, insulin resistance, and hepatic steatosis. J Biol Chem 285: 3428-3438.
4. Anway MD, Cupp AS, Uzumcu M, Skinner MK. 2005. Epigenetic transgenerational actions of endocrine disruptors and male fertility. Science 308: 1466-1469.
5. Anway MD, Rekow SS, Skinner MK. 2008. Transgenerational epigenetic programming of the embryonic testis transcriptome. Genomics 91: 30-40.
6. Anway MD, Skinner MK. 2006. Epigenetic transgenerational actions of endocrine disruptors. Endocrinology 147( 6 Suppl): S43-S49.
7. Arner E, Westermark PO, Spalding KL, et al. 2010. Adipocyte turnover: relevance to human adipose tissue morphology. Diabetes 59: 105-109.
8. Arsenescu V, Arsenescu RI, King V, et al. 2008. Polychlorinated biphenyl-77 induces adipocyte differentiation and proinflammatory adipokines and promotes obesity and atherosclerosis. Environ Health Perspect 116: 761-768.
9. Azuara V, Perry P, Sauer S, Spivakov M, Jorgensen HF, John RM, Gouti M, Casanova M, Warnes G, Merkenschlager M, Fisher AG. 2006. Chromatin signatures of pluripotent cell lines. Nat Cell Biol 8: 532-538.
10. Barker DJP. 1994. Programming the baby. London: BMJ Publishing Group.
11. Ben-Jonathan N, Hugo ER, Brandebourg TD. 2009. Effects of bisphenol A on adipokine release from human adipose tissue: implications for the metabolic syndrome. Mol Cell Endocrinol 304: 49-54.
12. Berken GH, Weinstein DO, Stern WC. 1984. Weight gain. A side-effect of tricyclic antidepressants. J Affect Disord 7: 133-138.
13. Bernstein BE, Mikkelsen TS, Xie X, et al. 2006. A bivalent chromatin structure marks key developmental genes in embryonic stem cells. Cell 125: 315-326.
14. Bility MT, Thompson JT, McKee RH, et al. 2004. Activation of mouse and human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) by phthalate monoesters. Toxicol Sci 82: 170-182.
15. Bilkovski R, Schulte DM, Oberhauser F, et al. 2010. Role of WNT-5a in the determination of human mesenchymal stem cells into preadipocytes. J Biol Chem 285: 6170-6178.
16. Blumberg B. 2010. Obesogens, stem cells and the maternal programming of obesity. J Dev Origins Health Disease doi:10.1017/S2040174410000589.
17. Bromer JG, Wu J, Zhou Y, Taylor HS. 2009. Hypermethylation of homeobox A10 by in utero diethylstilbestrol exposure: an epigenetic mechanism for altered developmental programming. Endocrinology 150: 3376-3382.
18. Bunyan J, Murrell EA, Shah PP. 1976. The induction of obesity in rodents by means of monosodium glutamate. Br J Nutr 35: 25-39.
19. Burgers WA, Fuks F, Kouzarides T. 2002. DNA methyltransferases get connected to chromatin. Trends Genet 18: 275-277.
20. Butte NF, Christiansen E, Sorensen TI. 2007. Energy imbalance underlying the development of childhood obesity. Obesity (Silver Spring) 15: 3056-3066.
21. Chandra V, Huang P, Hamuro Y, et al. 2008. Structure of the intact PPAR-gamma-RXR-alpha nuclear receptor complex on DNA. Nature 456: 350-356.
22. Chen JQ, Brown TR, Russo J. 2009. Regulation of energy metabolism pathways by estrogens and estrogenic chemicals and potential implications in obesity associated with increased exposure to endocrine disruptors. Biochim Biophys Acta 1793: 1128-1143.
23. Cornelius P, MacDougald OA, Lane MD. 1994. Regulation of adipocyte development. Annu Rev Nutr 14: 99-129.
24. Crisan M, Yap S, Casteilla L, et al. 2008. A perivascular origin for mesenchymal stem cells in multiple human organs. Cell Stem Cell 3: 301-313.
25. Crossno JT, Jr, Majka SM, Grazia T, et al. 2006. Rosiglitazone promotes development of a novel adipocyte population from bone marrow-derived circulating progenitor cells. J Clin Invest 116: 3220-3228.
26. da Silva Meirelles L, Caplan AI, Nardi NB. 2008. In search of the in vivo identity of mesenchymal stem cells. Stem Cells 26: 2287-2299.
27. da Silva Meirelles L, Chagastelles PC, Nardi NB. 2006. Mesenchymal stem cells reside in virtually all post-natal organs and tissues. J Cell Sci 119(Pt 11): 2204-2213.
28. Dahlman I, Mejhert N, Linder K, et al. 2010. Adipose tissue pathways involved in weight loss of cancer cachexia. Br J Cancer 102: 1541-1548.
29. de Ferranti S, Mozaffarian D. 2008. The perfect storm: obesity, adipocyte dysfunction, and metabolic consequences. Clin Chem 54: 945-955.
30. Diamanti-Kandarakis E, Bourguignon JP, Giudice LC, et al. 2009. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals: an Endocrine Society scientific statement. Endocr Rev 30: 293-342.
31. Evans RM, Barish GD, Wang YX. 2004. PPARs and the complex journey to obesity. Nat Med 10: 355-361.
32. Fava M. 2000. Weight gain and antidepressants. J Clin Psychiatry 61( Suppl 11): 37-41.
33. Feige JN, Gelman L, Rossi D, et al. 2007. The endocrine disruptor monoethyl-hexyl-phthalate is a selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma modulator that promotes adipogenesis. J Biol Chem 282: 19152-19166.
34. Fischbach C, Spruss T, Weiser B, et al. 2004. Generation of mature fat pads in vitro and in vivo utilizing 3-D long-term culture of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. Exp Cell Res 300: 54-64.
35. Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, Curtin LR. 2010. Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999-2008. JAMA 303: 235-241.
36. Fraga MF, Ballestar E, Paz MF, et al. 2005. Epigenetic differences arise during the lifetime of monozygotic twins. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102: 10604-10609.
37. Friedman JM. 2009. Obesity: Causes and control of excess body fat. Nature 459: 340-342.
38. Fu M, Sun T, Bookout AL, et al. 2005. A nuclear receptor atlas: 3T3-L1 adipogenesis. Mol Endocrinol 19: 2437-2450.
39. Gluckman PD, Hanson MA. 2004. Living with the past: evolution, development, and patterns of disease. Science 305: 1733-1736.
40. Gluckman PD, Hanson MA, Spencer HG. 2005. Predictive adaptive responses and human evolution. Trends Ecol Evol 20: 527-533.
41. Glucksman ML, Hirsch J. 1968. The response of obese patients to weight reduction: a clinical evaluation of behavior. Psychosom Med 30: 1-11.
42. Glucksman ML, Hirsch J. 1969. The response of obese patients to weight reduction. 3. The perception of body size. Psychosom Med 31: 1-7.
43. Glucksman ML, Hirsch J, McCully RS, et al. 1968. The response of obese patients to weight reduction. II. A quantitative evaluation of behavior. Psychosom Med 30: 359-373.
44. Gorin AA, Crane MM. 2009. the obesogenic environment. In: Jelalian E, Steele RG, editors. Handbook of childhood and adolescent obesity. US: Springer. pp 145-161.
45. Greene ME, Pitts J, McCarville MA, et al. 2000. PPARgamma: observations in the hematopoietic system. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat 62: 45-73.
46. Grun F, Blumberg B. 2006. Environmental obesogens: organotins and endocrine disruption via nuclear receptor signaling. Endocrinology 147( 6 Suppl): S50-S55.
47. Grun F, Blumberg B. 2009a. Endocrine disrupters as obesogens. Mol Cell Endocrinol 304: 19-29.
48. Grun F, Blumberg B. 2009b. Minireview: the case for obesogens. Mol Endocrinol 23: 1127-1134.
49. Grun F, Watanabe H, Zamanian Z, et al. 2006. Endocrine-disrupting organotin compounds are potent inducers of adipogenesis in vertebrates. Mol Endocrinol 20: 2141-2155.
50. Gupta RK, Arany Z, Seale P, et al. 2010. Transcriptional control of preadipocyte determination by Zfp423. Nature 464: 619-623.
51. Gustafson B, Gogg S, Hedjazifar S, et al. 2009. Inflammation and impaired adipogenesis in hypertrophic obesity in man. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab v297: E999-D1003.
52. Habib ZA, Havstad SL, Wells K, et al. 2010. Thiazolidinedione use and the longitudinal risk of fractures in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95: 592-600.
53. Hager A, Sjostrm L, Arvidsson B, et al. 1977. Body fat and adipose tissue cellularity in infants: a longitudinal study. Metabolism 26: 607-614.
54. Hager A, Sjorstrom L, Arvidsson B, et al. 1978. Adipose tissue cellularity in obese school girls before and after dietary treatment. Am J Clin Nutr 31: 68-75.
55. Hajkova P, Erhardt S, Lane N, et al. 2002. Epigenetic reprogramming in mouse primordial germ cells. Mech Dev 117: 15-23.
56. Hales CN, Barker DJ. 2001. The thrifty phenotype hypothesis. Br Med Bull 60: 5-20.
57. Hallgren S, Sinjari T, Hakansson H, Darnerud PO. 2001. Effects of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) on thyroid hormone and vitamin A levels in rats and mice. Arch Toxicol 75: 200-208.
58. Hatch EE, Nelson JW, Qureshi MM, et al. 2008. Association of urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations with body mass index and waist circumference: a cross-sectional study of NHANES data, 1999-2002. Environ Health 7: 27. doi:10.1186/1476-069X-7-27
59. Heintzman ND, Hon GC, Hawkins RD, et al. 2009. Histone modifications at human enhancers reflect global cell-type-specific gene expression. Nature 459: 108-112.
60. Heintzman ND, Ren B. 2009. Finding distal regulatory elements in the human genome. Curr Opin Genet Dev 19: 541-549.
61. Heintzman ND, Stuart RK, Hon G, et al. 2007. Distinct and predictive chromatin signatures of transcriptional promoters and enhancers in the human genome. Nat Genet 39: 311-318.
62. Heinz S, Benner C, Spann N, et al. 2010. Simple combinations of lineage-determining transcription factors prime cis-regulatory elements required for macrophage and B cell identities. Mol Cell 38: 576-589.
63. Herbstman JB, Sjodin A, Apelberg BJ, et al. 2008. Birth delivery mode modifies the associations between prenatal polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) and polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) and neonatal thyroid hormone levels. Environ Health Perspect 116: 1376-1382.
64. Hetherington AW, Ranson SW. 1942. The spontaneous activity and food intake of rats with hypothalamic lesions. Am J Physiol 136: 609-617.
65. Hill JO, Peters JC. 1998. Environmental contributions to the obesity epidemic. Science 280: 1371-1374.
66. Hines EP, White SS, Stanko JP, et al. 2009. Phenotypic dichotomy following developmental exposure to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in female CD-1 mice: low doses induce elevated serum leptin and insulin, and overweight in mid-life. Mol Cell Endocrinol 304: 97-105.
67. Hiromori Y, Nishikawa J, Yoshida I, et al. 2009. Structure-dependent activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) gamma by organotin compounds. Chem Biol Interact 180: 238-244.
68. Hirsch J, Knittle JL. 1970. Cellularity of obese and nonobese human adipose tissue. Fed Proc 29: 1516-1521.
69. Hofstetter CP, Schwarz EJ, Hess D, et al. 2002. Marrow stromal cells form guiding strands in the injured spinal cord and promote recovery. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99: 2199-2204.
70. Hoogduijn MJ, Rakonczay Z, Genever PG. 2006. The effects of anticholinergic insecticides on human mesenchymal stem cells. Toxicol Sci 94: 342-350.
71. Hoppe AA, Carey GB. 2007. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers as endocrine disruptors of adipocyte metabolism. Obesity (Silver Spring) 15: 2942-2950.
72. Hugo ER, Brandebourg TD, Woo JG, et al. 2008. Bisphenol A at environmentally relevant doses inhibits adiponectin release from human adipose tissue explants and adipocytes. Environ Health Perspect 116: 1642-1647.
73. Hurst CH, Waxman DJ. 2003. Activation of PPARalpha and PPARgamma by environmental phthalate monoesters. Toxicol Sci 74: 297-308.
74. Inadera H, Shimomura A. 2005. Environmental chemical tributyltin augments adipocyte differentiation. Toxicol Lett 159: 226-234.
75. Janesick A, Blumberg B. 2011. The role of environmental obesogens in the obesity epidemic. In: Lustig RH, editor. Obesity before birth. US: Springer. pp 383-399.
76. Janesick A, Blumberg B. 2010. Adipocytes as target cells for endocrine disruption. In: Diamanti-Kandarakis E, Gore AC, editors. Endocrine disrupters and puberty. New York, NY: Humana Press/Springer.
77. Janesick A, Blumberg B. PPARg as the target of obesogens. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol (in press).
78. Jin Q, Zhang F, Yan T, et al. 2010. C/EBPalpha regulates SIRT1 expression during adipogenesis. Cell Res 20: 470-479.
79. Jirtle RL, Skinner MK. 2007. Environmental epigenomics and disease susceptibility. Nat Rev Genet 8: 253-262.
80. Johns G, Leask A. 2009 May 31. Expert: It's your fault if you're a fatty. The New Zealand Herald.
81. Jpenberg I, Jeannin E, Wahli W, Desvergne B. 1997. Polarity and specific sequence requirements of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)/retinoid X receptor heterodimer binding to DNA. A functional analysis of the malic enzyme gene PPAR response element. J Biol Chem 272: 20108-20117.
82. Kaati G, Bygren LO, Pembrey M, Sjostrom M. 2007. Transgenerational response to nutrition, early life circumstances and longevity. Eur J Hum Genet 15: 784-790.
83. Kahn CR. 2008. MEDICINE: can we nip obesity in its vascular bud? Science 322: 542-543.
84. Kanayama T, Kobayashi N, Mamiya S, et al. 2005. Organotin compounds promote adipocyte differentiation as agonists of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma/retinoid X receptor pathway. Mol Pharmacol 67: 766-774.
85. Karmaus W, Osuch JR, Eneli I, et al. 2009. Maternal levels of dichlorodiphenyl-dichloroethylene (DDE) may increase weight and body mass index in adult female offspring. Occup Environ Med 66: 143-149.
86. Kershaw EE, Flier JS. 2004. Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89: 2548-2556.
87. Kim EH, Surh YJ. 2008. The role of 15-deoxy-delta(12, 14)-prostaglandin J(2), an endogenous ligand of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, in tumor angiogenesis. Biochem Pharmacol 76: 1544-1553.
88. Kim JB, Wright HM, Wright M, Spiegelman BM. 1998. ADD1/SREBP1 activates PPARgamma through the production of endogenous ligand. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95: 4333-4337.
89. Kim JY, van de Wall E, Laplante M, et al. 2007. Obesity-associated improvements in metabolic profile through expansion of adipose tissue. J Clin Invest 117: 2621-2637.
90. Kinzel B. 2010. Targeting Obesity, Sorrell Proposes 'Soda Tax' Montpelier, Vt.: Vermont Public Radio.
91. Kirchner S, Kieu T, Chow C, et al. 2010. Prenatal exposure to the environmental obesogen tributyltin predisposes multipotent stem cells to become adipocytes. Mol Endocrinol 24: 526-539.
92. Kirchner S, Ramirez M, Chow C, Blumberg B. 2011. Bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (BADGE) favors adipogenic differentiation of multipotent stromal stem cells (MSCs) through a peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (PPARγ)-independent mechanism. submitted for publication.
93. Klimentidis YC, Beasley TM, Lin HY, et al. 2010. Canaries in the coal mine: a cross-species analysis of the plurality of obesity epidemics. Proc Biol Sci.
94. Klont RE, Brocks L, Eikelenboom G. 1998. Muscle fibre type and meat quality. Meat Sci 49( Suppl 1): S219-S229.
95. Knittle JL. 1972. Obesity in childhood: a problem in adipose tissue cellular development. J Pediatr 81: 1048-1059.
96. Knittle JL, Timmers K, Ginsberg-Fellner F, et al. 1979. The growth of adipose tissue in children and adolescents. Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies of adipose cell number and size. J Clin Invest 63: 239-246.
97. Koebnick C, Smith N, Coleman KJ, et al. 2010. Prevalence of extreme obesity in a multiethnic cohort of children and adolescents. J Pediatr 157: 26-31 e22.
98. Koh YJ, Kang S, Lee HJ, et al. 2007. Bone marrow-derived circulating progenitor cells fail to transdifferentiate into adipocytes in adult adipose tissues in mice. J Clin Invest 117: 3684-3695.
99. Kubo M, Ijichi N, Ikeda K, et al. 2009. Modulation of adipogenesis-related gene expression by estrogen-related receptor gamma during adipocytic differentiation. Biochim Biophys Acta 1789: 71-77.
100. Kumar N, Solt LA, Wang Y, et al. 2010. Regulation of adipogenesis by natural and synthetic REV-ERB ligands. Endocrinology 151: 3015-3025.
101. Kuzawa CW. 1998. Adipose tissue in human infancy and childhood: an evolutionary perspective. Am J Phys Anthropol Suppl 27: 177-209.
102. Lan F, Bayliss PE, Rinn JL, et al. 2007. A histone H3 lysine 27 demethylase regulates animal posterior development. Nature 449: 689-694.
103. Larsen TM, Toubro S, Astrup A. 2003. PPARgamma agonists in the treatment of type II diabetes: is increased fatness commensurate with long-term efficacy? Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 27: 147-161.
104. Lau DC, Shillabeer G, Wong KL, et al. 1990. Influence of paracrine factors on preadipocyte replication and differentiation. Int J Obes 14( Suppl 3): 193-201.
105. le Maire A, Grimaldi M, Roecklin D, et al. 2009. Activation of RXR-PPAR heterodimers by organotin environmental endocrine disruptors. EMBO Rep 10: 367-373.
106. Lefterova MI, Steger DJ, Zhuo D, et al. 2010. Cell-specific determinants of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma function in adipocytes and macrophages. Mol Cell Biol 30: 2078-2089.
107. Lehmann JM, Moore LB, Smith-Oliver TA, et al. 1995. An antidiabetic thiazolidinedione is a high affinity ligand for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR gamma). J Biol Chem 270: 12953-12956.
108. Li L, Xie X, Qin J, et al. 2009. The nuclear orphan receptor COUP-TFII plays an essential role in adipogenesis, glucose homeostasis, and energy metabolism. Cell Metab 9: 77-87.
109. Liu ZJ, Zhuge Y, Velazquez OC. 2009. Trafficking and differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells. J Cell Biochem 106: 984-991.
110. Lu C, Cheng SY. 2010. Thyroid hormone receptors regulate adipogenesis and carcinogenesis via crosstalk signaling with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. J Mol Endocrinol 44: 143-154.
111. Luff AR, Goldspink G. 1967. Large and small muscles. Life Sci 6: 1821-1826.
112. Lustig RH. 2006. Childhood obesity: behavioral aberration or biochemical drive? Reinterpreting the First Law of Thermodynamics. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 2: 447-458.
113. Marques BG, Hausman DB, Martin RJ. 1998. Association of fat cell size and paracrine growth factors in development of hyperplastic obesity. Am J Physiol 275(6 Pt 2): R1898-R1908.
114. Martinez M. 2010. San Francisco overrides mayoral veto, bans Happy Meals with toys.
115. Masuno H, Iwanami J, Kidani T, et al. 2005. Bisphenol a accelerates terminal differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells into adipocytes through the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathway. Toxicol Sci 84: 319-327.
116. Matsuyama S, Oki Y, Yokoki Y. 1973. Obesity induced by monosodium glutamate in mice. Natl Inst Anim Health Q (Tokyo) 13: 91-101.
117. McCormick DP, Sarpong K, Jordan L, et al. 2010. Infant obesity: are we ready to make this diagnosis? J Pediatrics 157: 15-19.
118. Mikkelsen TS, Ku M, Jaffe DB, et al. 2007. Genome-wide maps of chromatin state in pluripotent and lineage-committed cells. Nature 448: 553-560.
119. Mohamed-Ali V, Pinkney JH, Coppack SW. 1998. Adipose tissue as an endocrine and paracrine organ. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 22: 1145-1158.
120. Morganstein DL, Wu P, Mane MR, et al. 2010. Human fetal mesenchymal stem cells differentiate into brown and white adipocytes: a role for ERRalpha in human UCP1 expression. Cell Res 20: 434-444.
121. Muhlhausler B, Smith SR. 2009. Early-life origins of metabolic dysfunction: role of the adipocyte. Trends Endocrinol Metab 20: 51-57.
122. Nemeroff CB. 1997. Dosing the antipsychotic medication olanzapine. J Clin Psychiatry 58( )Suppl 10: 45-49.
123. Newbold RR, Padilla-Banks E, Jefferson WN. 2009. Environmental estrogens and obesity. Mol Cell Endocrinol 304: 84-89.
124. Newburgh LH, Johnston MW. 1930. The nature of obesity. J Clin Invest 8: 197-213.
125. Nielsen R, Pedersen TA, Hagenbeek D, et al. 2008. Genome-wide profiling of PPARgamma:RXR and RNA polymerase II occupancy reveals temporal activation of distinct metabolic pathways and changes in RXR dimer composition during adipogenesis. Genes Dev 22: 2953-2967.
126. Noer A, Lindeman LC, Collas P. 2009. Histone H3 modifications associated with differentiation and long-term culture of mesenchymal adipose stem cells. Stem Cells Dev 18: 725-736.
127. Ohoka N, Kato S, Takahashi Y, et al. 2009. The orphan nuclear receptor RORalpha restrains adipocyte differentiation through a reduction of C/EBPbeta activity and perilipin gene expression. Mol Endocrinol 23: 759-771.
128. Oken E, Huh SY, Taveras EM, et al. 2005. Associations of maternal prenatal smoking with child adiposity and blood pressure. Obes Res 13: 2021-2028.
129. Orlic D, Kajstura J, Chimenti S, et al. 2001. Bone marrow cells regenerate infarcted myocardium. Nature 410: 701-705.
130. Park KW, Halperin DS, Tontonoz P. 2008. Before they were fat: adipocyte progenitors. Cell Metab 8: 454-457.
131. Park KW, Waki H, Choi SP, et al. 2010. The small molecule phenamil is a modulator of adipocyte differentiation and PPARgamma expression. J Lipid Res 51: 2775-2784.
132. Paul KB, Hedge JM, Devito MJ, Crofton KM. 2010. Developmental triclosan exposure decreases maternal and neonatal thyroxine in rats. Environ Toxicol Chem 29: 2840-2844.
133. Pearson AM. 1990. Muscle growth and exercise. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 29: 167-196.
134. Picard F, Kurtev M, Chung N, et al. 2004. Sirt1 promotes fat mobilization in white adipocytes by repressing PPAR-gamma. Nature 429: 771-776.
135. Power C, Jefferis BJ. 2002. Fetal environment and subsequent obesity: a study of maternal smoking. Int J Epidemiol 31: 413-419.
136. Rabin RC. 2008 January 22. In the Fatosphere, Big Is In, or at Least Accepted. The New York Times.
137. Rehfeldt C, Fiedler I, Wegner J. 1987. Changes in the microstructure of muscle tissue in laboratory mice, cattle and swine during growth. Z Mikrosk Anat Forsch 101: 669-680.
138. Robertson KD, Ait-Si-Ali S, Yokochi T, et al. 2000. DNMT1 forms a complex with Rb, E2F1 and HDAC1 and represses transcription from E2F-responsive promoters. Nat Genet 25: 338-342.
139. Rodeheffer MS, Birsoy K, Friedman JM. 2008. Identification of white adipocyte progenitor cells in vivo. Cell 135: 240-249.
140. Rodriguez JP, Montecinos L, Rios S, et al. 2000. Mesenchymal stem cells from osteoporotic patients produce a type I collagen-deficient extracellular matrix favoring adipogenic differentiation. J Cell Biochem 79: 557-565.
141. Rodriguez PE, Sanchez MS. 2010. Maternal exposure to triclosan impairs thyroid homeostasis and female pubertal development in wistar rat offspring. J Toxicol Environ Health A 73: 1678-1688.
142. Roh TY, Cuddapah S, Cui K, Zhao K. 2006. The genomic landscape of histone modifications in human T cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103: 15782-15787.
143. Rosen CJ, Bouxsein ML. 2006. Mechanisms of disease: is osteoporosis the obesity of bone? Nat Clin Pract Rheumatol 2: 35-43.
144. Rosen ED, MacDougald OA. 2006. Adipocyte differentiation from the inside out. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 7: 885-896.
145. Rosen ED, Sarraf P, Troy AE, et al. 1999. PPAR gamma is required for the differentiation of adipose tissue in vivo and in vitro. Mol Cell 4: 611-617.
146. Rosen ED, Walkey CJ, Puigserver P, Spiegelman BM. 2000. Transcriptional regulation of adipogenesis. Genes Dev 14: 1293-1307.
147. Rosenbaum AJ, Grande DA, Dines JS. 2008. The use of mesenchymal stem cells in tissue engineering: a global assessment. Organogenesis 4: 23-27.
148. Rosenbaum M, Leibel RL. 2010. Adaptive thermogenesis in humans. Int J Obes (Lond) 34( Suppl 1): S47-S55.
149. Ross SE, Hemati N, Longo KA, et al. 2000. Inhibition of adipogenesis by Wnt signaling. Science 289: 950-953.
150. Rubenstrunk A, Hanf R, Hum DW, et al. 2007. Safety issues and prospects for future generations of PPAR modulators. Biochim Biophys Acta 1771: 1065-1081.
151. Rubin BS, Murray MK, Damassa DA, et al. 2001. Perinatal exposure to low doses of bisphenol A affects body weight, patterns of estrous cyclicity, and plasma LH levels. Environ Health Perspect 109: 675-680.
152. Rubin BS, Soto AM. 2009. Bisphenol A: Perinatal exposure and body weight. Mol Cell Endocrinol 304: 55-62.
153. Rupnick MA, Panigrahy D, Zhang CY, et al. 2002. Adipose tissue mass can be regulated through the vasculature. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99: 10730-10735.
154. Ryan KK, Haller AM, Sorrell JE, et al. 2010. Perinatal exposure to bisphenol-a and the development of metabolic syndrome in CD-1 mice. Endocrinology 151: 2603-2612.
155. Saito T, Abe D, Sekiya K. 2009. Flavanone exhibits PPARgamma ligand activity and enhances differentiation of 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 380: 281-285.
156. Sakurai K, Kawazuma M, Adachi T, et al. 2004. Bisphenol A affects glucose transport in mouse 3T3-F442A adipocytes. Br J Pharmacol 141: 209-214.
157. Salans LB, Cushman SW, Weismann RE. 1973. Studies of human adipose tissue. Adipose cell size and number in nonobese and obese patients. J Clin Invest 52: 929-941.
158. Sargis RM, Johnson DN, Choudhury RA, Brady MJ. 2010. Environmental endocrine disruptors promote adipogenesis in the 3T3-L1 cell line through glucocorticoid receptor activation. Obesity (Silver Spring) 18: 1283-1288.
159. Seale P, Bjork B, Yang W, et al. 2008. PRDM16 controls a brown fat/skeletal muscle switch. Nature 454: 961-967.
160. Seo JB, Moon HM, Kim WS, et al. 2004. Activated liver X receptors stimulate adipocyte differentiation through induction of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma expression. Mol Cell Biol 24: 3430-3444.
161. Shao D, Lazar MA. 1997. Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma, CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein alpha, and cell cycle status regulate the commitment to adipocyte differentiation. J Biol Chem 272: 21473-21478.
162. Sheldon W. 1940. The varieties of human physique: an introduction to constitutional psychology. New York: Harper & Bros.
163. Sheldon WH, Dupertuis CW, McDermott E. 1954. Atlas of men: a guide for somatotyping the adult male at all ages. J Am Med Assoc 156: 1294-c-1295.
164. Shillabeer G, Forden JM, Lau DC. 1989. Induction of preadipocyte differentiation by mature fat cells in the rat. JClin Invest 84: 381-387.
165. Shim WS, Do MY, Kim SK, et al. 2006. The long-term effects of rosiglitazone on serum lipid concentrations and body weight. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 65: 453-459.
166. Shockley KR, Rosen CJ, Churchill GA, Lecka-Czernik B. 2007. PPARgamma2 regulates a molecular signature of marrow mesenchymal stem cells. PPAR Res 2007: 81219.
167. Siersbaek R, Nielsen R, Mandrup S. 2010. PPARgamma in adipocyte differentiation and metabolism-novel insights from genome-wide studies. FEBS Lett.
168. Sims EA, Horton ES. 1968. Endocrine and metabolic adaptation to obesity and starvation. Am J Clin Nutr 21: 1455-1470.
169. Skinner MK, Guerrero-Bosagna C. 2009. Environmental signals and transgenerational epigenetics. Epigenomics 1: 111-117.
170. Slotkin TA. 2010. Does early-life exposure to organophosphate insecticides lead to prediabetes and obesity? Reprod Toxicol.
171. Smink A, Ribas-Fito N, Garcia R, et al. 2008. Exposure to hexachlorobenzene during pregnancy increases the risk of overweight in children aged 6 years. Acta Paediatr 97: 1465-1469.
172. Smith CJ, Vasta V, Degerman E, et al. 1991. Hormone-sensitive cyclic GMP-inhibited cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase in rat adipocytes. Regulation of insulin- and cAMP-dependent activation by phosphorylation. J Biol Chem 266: 13385-13390.
173. Somm E, Schwitzgebel VM, Vauthay DM, et al. 2008. Prenatal nicotine exposure alters early pancreatic islet and adipose tissue development with consequences on the control of body weight and glucose metabolism later in life. Endocrinology 149: 6289-6299.
174. Sorisky A, Magun R, Gagnon AM. 2000. Adipose cell apoptosis: death in the energy depot. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 24( Suppl 4): S3-S7.
175. Spalding KL, Arner E, Westermark PO, et al. 2008. Dynamics of fat cell turnover in humans. Nature 453: 783-787.
176. Spiegelman BM, Flier JS. 2001. Obesity and the regulation of energy balance. Cell 104: 531-543.
177. Stahlhut RW, van Wijgaarden E, Dye TD, et al. 2007. Concentrations of urinary phthalate metabolites are associated with increased waist circumferece and insulin resistance in adult U.S. males. Environ Health Perspect 115: 876-882.
178. Stern JS, Batchelor BR, Hollander N, et al. 1972. Adipose-cell size and immunoreactive insulin levels in obese and normal-weight adults. Lancet 2: 948-951.
179. Student AK, Hsu RY, Lane MD. 1980. Induction of fatty acid synthetase synthesis in differentiating 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. J Biol Chem 255: 4745-4750.
180. Styner M, Sen B, Xie Z, et al. 2010. Indomethacin promotes adipogenesis of mesenchymal stem cells through a cyclooxygenase independent mechanism. J Cell Biochem 111: 1042-1050.
181. Sutanto MM, Ferguson KK, Sakuma H, et al. 2010. The silencing mediator of retinoid and thyroid hormone receptors (SMRT) regulates adipose tissue accumulation and adipocyte insulin sensitivity in vivo. J Biol Chem 285: 18485-18495.
182. Takacs ML, Abbott BD. 2007. Activation of mouse and human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (α, β/δ, γ) by perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonate. Toxicol Sci 95: 108-117.
183. Takada I, Kouzmenko AP, Kato S. 2009. Wnt and PPARgamma signaling in osteoblastogenesis and adipogenesis. Nat Rev Rheumatol 5: 442-447.
184. Takahashi N, Goto T, Taimatsu A, et al. 2009. Bixin regulates mRNA expression involved in adipogenesis and enhances insulin sensitivity in 3T3-L1 adipocytes through PPARgamma activation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 390: 1372-1376.
185. Tang QQ, Otto TC, Lane MD. 2004. Commitment of C3H10T1/2 pluripotent stem cells to the adipocyte lineage. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101: 9607-9611.
186. Tang W, Zeve D, Suh JM, et al. 2008. White fat progenitor cells reside in the adipose vasculature. Science 322: 583-586.
187. Taveras EM, Rifas-Shiman SL, Belfort MB, et al. 2009. Weight status in the first 6 months of life and obesity at 3 years of age. Pediatrics 123: 1177-1183.
188. Timmons JA, Wennmalm K, Larsson O, et al. 2007. Myogenic gene expression signature establishes that brown and white adipocytes originate from distinct cell lineages. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104: 4401-4406.
189. Tontonoz P, Hu E, Spiegelman BM. 1994. Stimulation of adipogenesis in fibroblasts by PPAR gamma 2, a lipid-activated transcription factor. Cell 79: 1147-1156.
190. Tontonoz P, Nagy L, Alvarez JG, et al. 1998. PPARgamma promotes monocyte/macrophage differentiation and uptake of oxidized LDL. Cell 93: 241-252.
191. Tontonoz P, Spiegelman BM. 2008. Fat and beyond: the diverse biology of PPARgamma. Annu Rev Biochem 77: 289-312.
192. Van Harmelen V, Reynisdottir S, Eriksson P, et al. 1998. Leptin secretion from subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue in women. Diabetes 47: 913-917.
193. Van Inwegen RG, Robison GA, Thompson WJ. 1975. Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases and thyroid hormones. J Biol Chem 250: 2452-2456.
194. Vanden Heuvel JP, Thompson JT, Frame SR, Gillies PJ. 2006. Differential activation of nuclear receptors by perfluorinated fatty acid analogs and natural fatty acids: a comparison of human, mouse, and rat peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha, -beta, and -gamma, liver X receptor-beta, and retinoid X receptor-alpha. Toxicol Sci 92: 476-489.
195. Vazquez-Vela ME, Torres N, Tovar AR. 2008. White adipose tissue as endocrine organ and its role in obesity. Arch Med Res 39: 715-728.
196. Verhulst SL, Nelen V, Hond ED, et al. 2009. Intrauterine exposure to environmental pollutants and body mass index during the first 3 years of life. Environ Health Perspect 117: 122-126.
197. Verma S, Rajaratnam JH, Denton J, et al. 2002. Adipocytic proportion of bone marrow is inversely related to bone formation in osteoporosis. J Clin Pathol 55: 693-698.
198. Viguerie N, Millet L, Avizou S, et al. 2002. Regulation of human adipocyte gene expression by thyroid hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87: 630-634.
199. Walkey CJ, Spiegelman BM. 2008. A functional peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma ligand-binding domain is not required for adipogenesis. J Biol Chem 283: 24290-24294.
200. Walley AJ, Asher JE, Froguel P. 2009. The genetic contribution to non-syndromic human obesity. Nat Rev Genet 10: 431-442.
201. Wang J, Lazar MA. 2008. Bifunctional role of Rev-erbalpha in adipocyte differentiation. Mol Cell Biol 28: 2213-2220.
202. Wegner J, Albrecht E, Fiedler I, et al. 2000. Growth- and breed-related changes of muscle fiber characteristics in cattle. J Anim Sci 78: 1485-1496.
203. Wei G, Wei L, Zhu J, et al. 2009. Global mapping of H3K4me3 and H3K27me3 reveals specificity and plasticity in lineage fate determination of differentiating CD4+ T cells. Immunity 30: 155-167.
204. Wertheimer E, Shapiro B. 1948. The physiology of adipose tissue. Physiol Rev 28: 451-464.
205. Wood RJ. 2008. Vitamin D and adipogenesis: new molecular insights. Nutr Rev 66: 40-46.
206. Wu Z, Bucher NL, Farmer SR. 1996. Induction of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma during the conversion of 3T3 fibroblasts into adipocytes is mediated by C/EBPbeta, C/EBPdelta, and glucocorticoids. Mol Cell Biol 16: 4128-4136.
207. Yang Y, Shang W, Zhou L, et al. 2007. Emodin with PPARgamma ligand-binding activity promotes adipocyte differentiation and increases glucose uptake in 3T3-Ll cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 353: 225-230.
208. Zhang X, Ji J, Yan G, et al. 2010. Sildenafil promotes adipogenesis through a PKG pathway. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 396: 1054-1059.
209. Zhang Y, Proenca R, Maffei M, et al. 1994. Positional cloning of the mouse obese gene and its human homologue. Nature 372: 425-432.
210. Zhao Y, Bruemmer D. 2010. NR4A orphan nuclear receptors: transcriptional regulators of gene expression in metabolism and vascular biology. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 30: 1535-1541.