Emerging Therapies for Atherosclerosis Prevention and Management

Cardiology Clinics

Volumn 29, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 123-135

  Chyu, Kuang Yuh ^a   Shah, Prediman K ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Atherosclerosis; High density lipoprotein; Immunomodulation; Inflammation; Low density lipoprotein

Indexed keywords

AMG 145; ANACETRAPIB; APOLIPOPROTEIN A1; ATORVASTATIN; AVASIMIBE; CHOLESTEROL ACYLTRANSFERASE INHIBITOR; CHOLESTEROL ESTER TRANSFER PROTEIN INHIBITOR; DALCETRAPIB; DARAPLADIB; EPROTIROME; ETC 216; EZETIMIBE; FIBRIC ACID DERIVATIVE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; K 604; LAROPIPRANT; LIVER X RECEPTOR AGONIST; LOMITAPIDE; MICROSOMAL TRIGLYCERIDE TRANSFER PROTEIN INHIBITOR; MIPOMERSEN; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; NICOTINIC ACID; PACTIMIBE; PLACEBO; PRAVASTATIN; SIMVASTATIN; STANOL ESTER; TORCETRAPIB; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG; VARESPLADIB;

ACUTE CORONARY SYNDROME; ADD ON THERAPY; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CHOLESTEROL TRANSPORT; COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; CORONARY ARTERY ATHEROSCLEROSIS; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG POTENTIATION; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG SELECTIVITY; DRUG TARGETING; DRUG TOLERABILITY; FAMILIAL HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; FLU LIKE SYNDROME; FLUSHING; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HEART DISEASE; HEART PROTECTION; HUMAN; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; INJECTION SITE REACTION; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; LIFESTYLE; LOW DRUG DOSE; MONOTHERAPY; MUSCULOSKELETAL DISEASE; NONHUMAN; PRIMARY PREVENTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PRURITUS; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SIDE EFFECT; SKIN DISEASE; VIRAL GENE THERAPY;

ATHEROSCLEROSIS; HUMANS; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL-COA REDUCTASE INHIBITORS; HYPOLIPIDEMIC AGENTS; LIPIDS; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 78751631383     PISSN: 07338651     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ccl.2010.10.003     Document Type: Review

References (107)

1. Yusuf S., Reddy S., Ounpuu S., et al. Global burden of cardiovascular diseases: part I: general considerations, the epidemiologic transition, risk factors, and impact of urbanization. Circulation 2001, 104(22):2746-2753.
2. Yusuf S., Reddy S., Ounpuu S., et al. Global burden of cardiovascular diseases: part II: variations in cardiovascular disease by specific ethnic groups and geographic regions and prevention strategies. Circulation 2001, 104(23):2855-2864.
3. Shah P.K. Molecular mechanisms of plaque instability. Curr Opin Lipidol 2007, 18(5):492-499.
4. Chyu K.Y., Shah P.K. The role of inflammation in plaque disruption and thrombosis. Rev Cardiovasc Med 2001, 2(2):82-91.
5. Andersson J., Libby P., Hansson G.K. Adaptive immunity and atherosclerosis. Clin Immunol 2010, 134(1):33-46.
6. Hansson G.K. Inflammatory mechanisms in atherosclerosis. J Thromb Haemost 2009, (7 Suppl 1):328-331.
7. Third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation 2002, 106(25):3143-3421.
8. Grundy S.M., Cleeman J.I., Merz C.N., et al. Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004, 44(3):720-732.
9. Soutar A.K., Naoumova R.P. Mechanisms of disease: genetic causes of familial hypercholesterolemia. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med 2007, 4(4):214-225.
10. Plat J., Mensink R.P. Plant stanol and sterol esters in the control of blood cholesterol levels: mechanism and safety aspects. Am J Cardiol 2005, 96(1A):15D-22D.
11. Plat J., Mensink R.P. Increased intestinal ABCA1 expression contributes to the decrease in cholesterol absorption after plant stanol consumption. FASEB J 2002, 16(10):1248-1253.
12. Garcia-Calvo M., Lisnock J., Bull H.G., et al. The target of ezetimibe is Niemann-Pick C1-Like 1 (NPC1L1). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005, 102(23):8132-8137.
13. Becker J.C., Kolanus W., Lonnemann C., et al. Human natural killer clones enhance in vitro antibody production by tumour necrosis factor alpha and gamma interferon. Scand J Immunol 1990, 32:153-162.
14. Kerzner B., Corbelli J., Sharp S., et al. Efficacy and safety of ezetimibe coadministered with lovastatin in primary hypercholesterolemia. Am J Cardiol 2003, 91(4):418-424.
15. Kastelein J.J., Akdim F., Stroes E.S., et al. Simvastatin with or without ezetimibe in familial hypercholesterolemia. N Engl J Med 2008, 358(14):1431-1443.
16. Ballantyne C.M., Houri J., Notarbartolo A., et al. Effect of ezetimibe coadministered with atorvastatin in 628 patients with primary hypercholesterolemia: a prospective, randomized, double-blind trial. Circulation 2003, 107(19):2409-2415.
17. Rossebo A.B., Pedersen T.R., Boman K., et al. Intensive lipid lowering with simvastatin and ezetimibe in aortic stenosis. N Engl J Med 2008, 359(13):1343-1356.
18. Peto R., Emberson J., Landray M., et al. Analyses of cancer data from three ezetimibe trials. N Engl J Med 2008, 359(13):1357-1366.
19. Cannon C.P., Giugliano R.P., Blazing M.A., et al. Rationale and design of IMPROVE-IT (IMProved Reduction of Outcomes: Vytorin Efficacy International Trial): comparison of ezetimbe/simvastatin versus simvastatin monotherapy on cardiovascular outcomes in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Am Heart J 2008, 156(5):826-832.
20. Califf R.M., Lokhnygina Y., Cannon C.P., et al. An update on the IMProved reduction of outcomes: Vytorin Efficacy International Trial (IMPROVE-IT) design. Am Heart J 2010, 159(5):705-709.
21. Chang T.Y., Li B.L., Chang C.C., et al. Acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferases. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2009, 297(1):E1-E9.
22. Accad M., Smith S.J., Newland D.L., et al. Massive xanthomatosis and altered composition of atherosclerotic lesions in hyperlipidemic mice lacking acyl CoA: cholesterol acyltransferase 1. J Clin Invest 2000, 105(6):711-719. [see comments].
23. Fazio S., Major A.S., Swift L.L., et al. Increased atherosclerosis in LDL receptor-null mice lacking ACAT1 in macrophages. J Clin Invest 2001, 107(2):163-171.
24. Kusunoki J., Hansoty D.K., Aragane K., et al. Acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase inhibition reduces atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Circulation 2001, 103(21):2604-2609.
25. Bell T.A., Brown J.M., Graham M.J., et al. Liver-specific inhibition of acyl-coenzyme a:cholesterol acyltransferase 2 with antisense oligonucleotides limits atherosclerosis development in apolipoprotein B100-only low-density lipoprotein receptor -/- mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2006, 26(8):1814-1820.
26. Ikenoya M., Yoshinaka Y., Kobayashi H., et al. A selective ACAT-1 inhibitor, K-604, suppresses fatty streak lesions in fat-fed hamsters without affecting plasma cholesterol levels. Atherosclerosis 2007, 191(2):290-297.
27. Tardif J.C., Gregoire J., L'Allier P.L., et al. Effects of the acyl coenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase inhibitor avasimibe on human atherosclerotic lesions. Circulation 2004, 110(21):3372-3377.
28. Nissen S.E., Tuzcu E.M., Brewer H.B., et al. Effect of ACAT inhibition on the progression of coronary atherosclerosis. N Engl J Med 2006, 354(12):1253-1263.
29. Meuwese M.C., de G.E., Duivenvoorden R., et al. ACAT inhibition and progression of carotid atherosclerosis in patients with familial hypercholesterolemia: the CAPTIVATE randomized trial. JAMA 2009, 301(11):1131-1139.
30. Wetterau J.R., Gregg R.E., Harrity T.W., et al. An MTP inhibitor that normalizes atherogenic lipoprotein levels in WHHL rabbits. Science 1998, 282(5389):751-754.
31. Samaha F.F., McKenney J., Bloedon L.T., et al. Inhibition of microsomal triglyceride transfer protein alone or with ezetimibe in patients with moderate hypercholesterolemia. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med 2008, 5(8):497-505.
32. Visser M.E., Kastelein J.J., Stroes E.S. Apolipoprotein B synthesis inhibition: results from clinical trials. Curr Opin Lipidol 2010, 21(4):319-323.
33. Raal F.J., Santos R.D., Blom D.J., et al. Mipomersen, an apolipoprotein B synthesis inhibitor, for lowering of LDL cholesterol concentrations in patients with homozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2010, 375(9719):998-1006.
34. Kling J. Safety signal dampens reception for mipomersen antisense. Nat Biotechnol 2010, 28(4):295-297.
35. Cohen J.C., Boerwinkle E., Mosley T.H., et al. Sequence variations in PCSK9, low LDL, and protection against coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med 2006, 354(12):1264-1272.
36. Lambert G., Charlton F., Rye K.A., et al. Molecular basis of PCSK9 function. Atherosclerosis 2009, 203(1):1-7.
37. Chan J.C., Piper D.E., Cao Q., et al. A proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 neutralizing antibody reduces serum cholesterol in mice and nonhuman primates. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009, 106(24):9820-9825.
38. Berkenstam A., Kristensen J., Mellstrom K., et al. The thyroid hormone mimetic compound KB2115 lowers plasma LDL cholesterol and stimulates bile acid synthesis without cardiac effects in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008, 105(2):663-667.
39. Tancevski I., Wehinger A., Demetz E., et al. The thyromimetic T-0681 protects from atherosclerosis. J Lipid Res 2009, 50(5):938-944.
40. Tancevski I., Demetz E., Eller P., et al. The liver-selective thyromimetic T-0681 influences reverse cholesterol transport and atherosclerosis development in mice. PLoS One 2010, 5(1):e8722.
41. Shah P.K., Kaul S., Nilsson J., et al. Exploiting the vascular protective effects of high-density lipoprotein and its apolipoproteins: an idea whose time for testing is coming, part I. Circulation 2001, 104(19):2376-2383.
42. Shah P.K., Kaul S., Nilsson J., et al. Exploiting the vascular protective effects of high-density lipoprotein and its apolipoproteins: an idea whose time for testing is coming, part II. Circulation 2001, 104(20):2498-2502.
43. Yin K., Liao D.F., Tang C.K. ATP-Binding Membrane Cassette Transporter A1 (ABCA1): a possible link between Inflammation and reverse cholesterol transport. Mol Med 2010, 16(9-10):438-449.
44. Yvan-Charvet L., Wang N., Tall A.R. Role of HDL, ABCA1, and ABCG1 transporters in cholesterol efflux and immune responses. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2010, 30(2):139-143.
45. Angeli V., Llodra J., Rong J.X., et al. Dyslipidemia associated with atherosclerotic disease systemically alters dendritic cell mobilization. Immunity 2004, 21(4):561-574.
46. Pu D.R., Liu L. HDL slowing down endothelial progenitor cells senescence: a novel anti-atherogenic property of HDL. Med Hypotheses 2008, 70(2):338-342.
47. Mineo C., Shaul P.W. Role of high-density lipoprotein and scavenger receptor B type I in the promotion of endothelial repair. Trends Cardiovasc Med 2007, 17(5):156-161.
48. Kimura T., Tomura H., Mogi C., et al. Role of scavenger receptor class B type I and sphingosine 1-phosphate receptors in high density lipoprotein-induced inhibition of adhesion molecule expression in endothelial cells. J Biol Chem 2006, 281(49):37457-37467.
49. Seetharam D., Mineo C., Gormley A.K., et al. High-density lipoprotein promotes endothelial cell migration and reendothelialization via scavenger receptor-B type I. Circ Res 2006, 98(1):63-72.
50. Oslakovic C., Krisinger M.J., Andersson A., et al. Anionic phospholipids lose their procoagulant properties when incorporated into high density lipoproteins. J Biol Chem 2009, 284(9):5896-5904.
51. Fryirs M., Barter P.J., Rye K.A. Cholesterol metabolism and pancreatic beta-cell function. Curr Opin Lipidol 2009, 20(3):159-164.
52. Fryirs M.A., Barter P.J., Appavoo M., et al. Effects of high-density lipoproteins on pancreatic beta-cell insulin secretion. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2010, 30(8):1642-1648.
53. Kruit J.K., Brunham L.R., Verchere C.B., et al. HDL and LDL cholesterol significantly influence beta-cell function in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Curr Opin Lipidol 2010, 21(3):178-185.
54. Smith J.D. Dysfunctional HDL as a diagnostic and therapeutic target. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2010, 30(2):151-155.
55. Sirtori C.R., Calabresi L., Franceschini G., et al. Cardiovascular status of carriers of the apolipoprotein A-I(Milano) mutant: the Limone sul Garda study. Circulation 2001, 103(15):1949-1954.
56. Franceschini G., Calabresi L., Chiesa G., et al. Increased cholesterol efflux potential of sera from ApoA-IMilano carriers and transgenic mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1999, 19:1257-1262.
57. Sanyal S., Kuvin J.T., Karas R.H. Niacin and laropiprant. Drugs Today (Barc) 2010, 46(6):371-378.
58. Jun M., Foote C., Lv J., et al. Effects of fibrates on cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2010, 375(9729):1875-1884.
59. Barter P.J., Caulfield M., Eriksson M., et al. Effects of torcetrapib in patients at high risk for coronary events. N Engl J Med 2007, 357(21):2109-2122.
60. Nicholls S.J., Tuzcu E.M., Brennan D.M., et al. Cholesteryl ester transfer protein inhibition, high-density lipoprotein raising, and progression of coronary atherosclerosis: insights from ILLUSTRATE (Investigation of Lipid Level Management Using Coronary Ultrasound to Assess Reduction of Atherosclerosis by CETP Inhibition and HDL Elevation). Circulation 2008, 118(24):2506-2514.
61. Bots M.L., Visseren F.L., Evans G.W., et al. Torcetrapib and carotid intima-media thickness in mixed dyslipidaemia (RADIANCE 2 study): a randomised, double-blind trial. Lancet 2007, 370(9582):153-160.
62. Schwartz G.G., Olsson A.G., Ballantyne C.M., et al. Rationale and design of the dal-OUTCOMES trial: efficacy and safety of dalcetrapib in patients with recent acute coronary syndrome. Am Heart J 2009, 158(6):896-901.
63. Cannon C.P., Dansky H.M., Davidson M., et al. Design of the DEFINE trial: determining the EFficacy and tolerability of CETP INhibition with AnacEtrapib. Am Heart J 2009, 158(4):513-519.
64. McNeill E. RVX-208, a stimulator of apolipoprotein AI gene expression for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Curr Opin Investig Drugs 2010, 11(3):357-364.
65. Bailey D., Jahagirdar R., Gordon A., et al. RVX-208: a small molecule that increases apolipoprotein A-I and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in vitro and in vivo. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010, 55(23):2580-2589.
66. Waksman R., Torguson R., Kent K.M., et al. A first-in-man, randomized, placebo-controlled study to evaluate the safety and feasibility of autologous delipidated high-density lipoprotein plasma infusions in patients with acute coronary syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010, 55(24):2727-2735.
67. Sherman C.B., Peterson S.J., Frishman W.H. Apolipoprotein A-I mimetic peptides: a potential new therapy for the prevention of atherosclerosis. Cardiol Rev 2010, 18(3):141-147.
68. Bloedon L.T., Dunbar R., Duffy D., et al. Safety, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of oral apoA-I mimetic peptide D-4F in high-risk cardiovascular patients. J Lipid Res 2008, 49(6):1344-1352.
69. Bielicki J.K., Zhang H., Cortez Y., et al. A new HDL mimetic peptide that stimulates cellular cholesterol efflux with high efficiency greatly reduces atherosclerosis in mice. J Lipid Res 2010, 51(6):1496-1503.
70. Kaul S., Coin B., Hedayiti A., et al. Rapid reversal of endothelial dysfunction in hypercholesterolemic apolipoprotein E-null mice by recombinant apolipoprotein A-I(Milano)-phospholipid complex. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004, 44(6):1311-1319.
71. Kaul S., Rukshin V., Santos R., et al. Intramural delivery of recombinant apolipoprotein A-IMilano/phospholipid complex (ETC-216) inhibits in-stent stenosis in porcine coronary arteries. Circulation 2003, 107(20):2551-2554.
72. Shah P.K., Yano J., Reyes O., et al. High-dose recombinant apolipoprotein A-I(milano) mobilizes tissue cholesterol and rapidly reduces plaque lipid and macrophage content in apolipoprotein e-deficient mice. Potential implications for acute plaque stabilization. Circulation 2001, 103(25):3047-3050.
73. Shah P.K., Nilsson J., Kaul S., et al. Effects of recombinant apolipoprotein A-I(Milano) on aortic atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Circulation 1998, 97(8):780-785.
74. Nissen S.E., Tsunoda T., Tuzcu E.M., et al. Effect of recombinant ApoA-I Milano on coronary atherosclerosis in patients with acute coronary syndromes: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2003, 290(17):2292-2300.
75. Wang L., Sharifi B.G., Pan T., et al. Bone marrow transplantation shows superior atheroprotective effects of gene therapy with apolipoprotein A-I Milano compared with wild-type apolipoprotein A-I in hyperlipidemic mice. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006, 48(7):1459-1468.
76. Tardif J.C., Gregoire J., L'Allier P.L., et al. Effects of reconstituted high-density lipoprotein infusions on coronary atherosclerosis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2007, 297(15):1675-1682.
77. Shaw J.A., Bobik A., Murphy A., et al. Infusion of reconstituted high-density lipoprotein leads to acute changes in human atherosclerotic plaque. Circ Res 2008, 103(10):1084-1091.
78. Santamarina-Fojo S., Haudenschild C. Role of hepatic and lipoprotein lipase in lipoprotein metabolism and atherosclerosis: studies in transgenic and knockout animal models and somatic gene transfer. Int J Tissue React 2000, 22(2-3):39-47.
79. Badellino K.O., Rader D.J. The role of endothelial lipase in high-density lipoprotein metabolism. Curr Opin Cardiol 2004, 19(4):392-395.
80. Sharifi B.G., Wu K., Wang L., et al. AAV serotype-dependent apolipoprotein A-I(Milano) gene expression. Atherosclerosis 2005, 181(2):261-269.
81. Corson M.A. Emerging inflammatory markers for assessing coronary heart disease risk. Curr Cardiol Rep 2009, 11(6):452-459.
82. Wilensky R.L., Shi Y., Mohler E.R., et al. Inhibition of lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 reduces complex coronary atherosclerotic plaque development. Nat Med 2008, 14(10):1059-1066.
83. Serruys P.W., Garcia-Garcia H.M., Buszman P., et al. Effects of the direct lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A(2) inhibitor darapladib on human coronary atherosclerotic plaque. Circulation 2008, 118(11):1172-1182.
84. Suckling K. Phospholipase A(2)s: developing drug targets for atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis 2010, 212(2):357-366.
85. Ebara T., Ramakrishnan R., Steiner G., et al. Chylomicronemia due to apolipoprotein CIII overexpression in apolipoprotein E-null mice. Apolipoprotein CIII-induced hypertriglyceridemia is not mediated by effects on apolipoprotein E. J Clin Invest 1997, 99:2672-2681.
86. Rosenson R.S., Hislop C., McConnell D., et al. Effects of 1-H-indole-3-glyoxamide (A-002) on concentration of secretory phospholipase A2 (PLASMA study): a phase II double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2009, 373(9664):649-658.
87. Zhao C., Dahlman-Wright K. Liver X receptor in cholesterol metabolism. J Endocrinol 2010, 204(3):233-240.
88. Watanabe Y., Jiang S., Takabe W., et al. Expression of the LXRalpha protein in human atherosclerotic lesions. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005, 25(3):622-627.
89. Joseph S.B., McKilligin E., Pei L., et al. Synthetic LXR ligand inhibits the development of atherosclerosis in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002, 99(11):7604-7609.
90. Terasaka N., Hiroshima A., Koieyama T., et al. T-0901317, a synthetic liver X receptor ligand, inhibits development of atherosclerosis in LDL receptor-deficient mice. FEBS Lett 2003, 536(1-3):6-11.
91. Claudel T., Leibowitz M.D., Fievet C., et al. Reduction of atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E knockout mice by activation of the retinoid X receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001, 98(5):2610-2615.
92. Repa J.J., Liang G., Ou J., et al. Regulation of mouse sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c gene (SREBP-1c) by oxysterol receptors, LXRalpha and LXRbeta. Genes Dev 2000, 14(22):2819-2830.
93. Schultz J.R., Tu H., Luk A., et al. Role of LXRs in control of lipogenesis. Genes Dev 2000, 14(22):2831-2838.
94. Grefhorst A., Elzinga B.M., Voshol P.J., et al. Stimulation of lipogenesis by pharmacological activation of the liver X receptor leads to production of large, triglyceride-rich very low density lipoprotein particles. J Biol Chem 2002, 277(37):34182-34190.
95. Kratzer A., Buchebner M., Pfeifer T., et al. Synthetic LXR agonist attenuates plaque formation in apoE-/- mice without inducing liver steatosis and hypertriglyceridemia. J Lipid Res 2009, 50(2):312-326.
96. Shah P.K., Chyu K.Y., Fredrikson G.N., et al. Immunomodulation of atherosclerosis with a vaccine. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med 2005, 2(12):639-646.
97. Nilsson J., Hansson G.K. Autoimmunity in atherosclerosis: a protective response losing control?. J Intern Med 2008, 263(5):464-478.
98. Hansson G.K., Libby P. The immune response in atherosclerosis: a double-edged sword. Nat Rev Immunol 2006, 6(7):508-519.
99. Nilsson J., Hansson G.K., Shah P.K. Immunomodulation of atherosclerosis: implications for vaccine development. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005, 25(1):18-28.
100. Ameli S., Hultgardh-Nilsson A., Regnstrom J., et al. Effect of immunization with homologous LDL and oxidized LDL on early atherosclerosis in hypercholesterolemic rabbits. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1996, 16:1074-1079.
101. Chyu K.Y., Reyes O.S., Zhao X., et al. Timing affects the efficacy of LDL immunization on atherosclerotic lesions in apo E (-/-) mice. Atherosclerosis 2004, 176(1):27-35.
102. Nilsson J., Calara F., Regnstrom J., et al. Immunization with homologous oxidized low density lipoprotein reduces neointimal formation after balloon injury in hypercholesterolemic rabbits. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997, 30:1886-1891.
103. Chyu K.Y., Zhao X., Reyes O.S., et al. Immunization using an Apo B-100 related epitope reduces atherosclerosis and plaque inflammation in hypercholesterolemic apo E (-/-) mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005, 338(4):1982-1989.
104. Fredrikson G.N., Soderberg I., Lindholm M., et al. Inhibition of atherosclerosis in ApoE-Null mice by immunization with ApoB-100 peptide sequences. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2003, 23(5):879-884.
105. Fredrikson G.N., Hedblad B., Berglund G., et al. Identification of immune responses against aldehyde-modified peptide sequences in ApoB associated with cardiovascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2003, 23(5):872-878.
106. Schiopu A., Bengtsson J., Soderberg I., et al. Recombinant human antibodies against aldehyde-modified apolipoprotein B-100 peptide sequences inhibit atherosclerosis. Circulation 2004, 110:2047-2052.
107. Schiopu A., Frendeus B., Jansson B., et al. Recombinant antibodies to an oxidized low-density lipoprotein epitope induce rapid regression of atherosclerosis in apobec-1(-/-)/low-density lipoprotein receptor(-/-) mice. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007, 50(24):2313-2318.