Systematic review on the role of neurocognitive deficits in first-degree relatives of schizophrenic patients;Revisione sistematica sul ruolo dei deficit neurocognitivi nei familiari di primo grado dei pazienti schizofrenici

Rivista di Psichiatria

Volumn 45, Issue 5, 2010, Pages 271-289

  Scala, Silvia ^a   Lasalvia, Antonio ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VERONA   (Italy)

Author keywords

First degree relatives; Neuropsychological functions; Schizophrenia; Vulnerability

Indexed keywords

ATTENTION; BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATABASE; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; GENETIC ANALYSIS; HEREDITY; HUMAN; MEMORY; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; PHENOTYPE; RELATIVE; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SAMPLE SIZE; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW;

COGNITION DISORDERS; FAMILY HEALTH; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES; SCHIZOPHRENIA;

EID: 78651386367     PISSN: 00356484     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (204)

1. Murray RM, Lewis SW. Is schizophrenia a neurodevelopmental disorder? BMJ 1987; 295: 681-2.
2. Weinberger DR. Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987; 44: 660-69.
3. Lencz T, Cornblatt B, Bilder RM. Neurodevelopmental models of schizophrenia: pathophysiologic synthesis and directions for intervention research. Psychopharmacol Bull 2001; 35: 95-125.
4. Fatemi SH, Folsom TD. The Neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia, revisited. Schizophr Bull 2009; 35: 528-48.
5. Lakhan SE, Vieira KF. Schizophrenia pathophysiology: are we any closer to a complete model? Ann Gen Psychiatry 2009; 8: 1-8.
6. Lewis DA, Levitt P. Schizophrenia as a disorder of neurodevelopment. Annu Rev Neurosci 2002; 25: 409-32.
7. Rapoport JL, Addington AM, Frangou S; Psych MRC. The neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia: update. Mol Psychiatry 2005; 10: 434-49.
8. Pukrop R, Schultze-Lutter F, Ruhrmann S, Brockhaus-Dumke A, Tendolkar I, Bechdolf A, et al. Neurocognitive functioning in subjects at risk for a first episode of psychosis compared with first- and multiple-episode schizophrenia. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2006; 28: 1388-407. (Pubitemid 44578245)
9. Owens DGC, Johnstone EC. Precursor and prodromata of schizophrenia: findings from the Edinburgh high-risk study and their literature context. Psychol Med 2006; 36: 1501-14.
10. McGue M, Gottesman II, Rao DC. The transmission of schizophrenia under a multifactorial threshold model. Am J Hum Genet 1983; 35: 1161-78. (Pubitemid 14201169)
11. Cannon TD, Kaprio J, Lonnqvist J, Huttunen M, Koskenvuo M. The genetic epidemiology of schizophrenia in a Finnish twin cohort: a population-based modeling study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998; 55: 67-74. (Pubitemid 28069041)
12. Cardno AG, Marshall EJ, Coid B, Macdonald AM, Ribchester TR, Davies NJ, et al. Heritability estimates for psychotic disorders: the Maudsley twin psychosis series. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999; 56: 162-8. (Pubitemid 29081391)
13. Crow T. Genes for schizophrenia. Lancet 2003; 361: 1829-30.
14. Lencz T, Morgan TV, Athanasiou M, Dain B, Reed CR, Kane JM, et al. Converging evidence for a pseudoautosomal cytokine receptor gene locus in schizophrenia. Mol Psychiatry 2007; 12, 572-80. (Pubitemid 46816774)
15. Myin-Germeys I, Krabbendam L, Delespaul PA, van Os J. Do life events have their effect on psychosis by influencing the emotional reactivity to daily life stress. Psychol Med 2003; 33: 327-33. (Pubitemid 36221464)
16. Glaser JP, van Os J, Portegijs PJ, Myin-Germeys I. Childhood trauma and emotional reactivity to daily life stress in adult frequent attenders of general practitioners. J Psychosom Res 2006; 61: 229-36. (Pubitemid 44137372)
17. Anglin DM, Cohen PR, Chen H. Duration of early maternal separation and prediction of schizotypal symptoms from early adolescence to midlife. Schizophr Res 2008; 103: 143-50.
18. Lim C, Chong SA, Keefe RS. Psychosocial factors in the neurobiology of schizophrenia: a selective review. Ann Acad Med Singapore 2009; 38: 402-6.
19. Zubin J, Spring B. Vulnerability: a new view of schizophrenia. J Abnorm Psychol 1977; 86: 103-26.
20. Walker EF, Diforio D. Schizophrenia: a neural diathesis-stress model. Psychol Rev 1997; 104: 667-85.
21. Weinberger DR, Lipska BK. Cortical maldevelopment, antipsychotic drugs, and schizophrenia: a search for common ground. Schizophr Res 1995; 16: 87-110.
22. Davies N, Russell A, Jones P, Murray RM. Which characteristics of schizophrenia predate psychosis? J Psychiatr Res 1998; 32: 121-31.
23. Woods BT. Is schizophrenia a progressive neurodevelopmental disorder? Toward a unitary pathogenetic mechanism. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 1661-70.
24. Agid O, Shapira B, Zislin J, Ritsner M, Hanin B, Murad H, et al. Environment and vulnerability to major psychiatric illness: a case control study of early parental loss in major depression, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Mol Psychiatry 1999; 4: 163-72. (Pubitemid 29163979)
25. Myin-Germeys I, van Os J. Stress-reactivity in psychosis: evidence for an affective pathway to psychosis. Clin Psychol Rev 2007; 27: 409-24. (Pubitemid 46420798)
26. van Winkel R, Stefanis NC, Myin-Germeys I. Psychosocial Stress and Psychosis. A review of the neurobiological mechanisms and the evidence for gene-stress interaction. Schizophr Bull 2008; 34: 1095-105.
27. Moffitt TE, Caspi A, Rutter M. Strategy for investigating interactions between measured genes and measured environments. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005; 62: 473-81. (Pubitemid 40637222)
28. Collip D, Myin-Germeys I, van Os J. Does the concept of "sensitization" provide a plausible mechanism for the putative link between the environment and schizophrenia? Schizophr Bull 2008; 34: 220-5.
29. Allen NC, Bagade S, McQueen MB, Ioannidis JP, Kavvoura FK, Khoury MJ, et al. Systematic meta-analyses and field synopsis of genetic association studies in schizophrenia: the SzGene database. Nat Genet 2008; 40: 827-34. (Pubitemid 351913655)
30. Gottesman II, Gould TD. The endophenotype concept in psychiatry: etymology and strategic intentions. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160: 636-45.
31. Tosato S, Lasalvia A. The contribution of epidemiology to defining the most appropriate approach to genetic research on schizophrenia. Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc 2009; 18: 81-90.
32. Jablensky A. Subtyping schizophrenia: implications for genetic research. Mol Psychiatry 2006; 11: 815-36. (Pubitemid 44299104)
33. Cannon TD. The inheritance of intermediate phenotypes for schizophrenia. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2005; 18: 135-40.
34. Goldberg TE, Gold JM. Neurocognitive deficits in schizophrenia. In: Hirsch SR, Weinberger DR (eds). Schizophrenia. Cambridge: Blackwell Science, Oxford, 1995.
35. Heinrichs RW, Zakzanis KK. Neurocognitive deficit in schizophrenia: a quantitative review of the evidence. Neuropsychology 1998; 12: 426-45.
36. Aleman A, Hijman R, de Haan EH, Kahn RS. Memory impairment in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 1358-66.
37. Fioravanti M, Carlone O, Vitale B, Cinti ME, Clare L. A meta-analysis of cognitive deficits in adults with a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Neuropsychol Rev 2005; 15: 73-95. (Pubitemid 41428110)
38. Bilder RM, Goldman RS, Robinson D, Reiter G, Bell L, Bates JA, et al. Neuropsychology of first-episode schizophrenia: initial characterization and clinical correlates. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157: 549-59. (Pubitemid 30191193)
39. Censits DM, Ragland JD, Gur RC, Gur RE. Neuropsychological evidence supporting a neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia: a longitudinal study. Schizophr Res 1997; 24: 289-98.
40. Bedwell JS, Keller B, Smith AK, Hamburger S, Kumra S, Rapoport JL. Why does postpsychotic IQ decline in childhood-onset schizophrenia? Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 1996-97.
41. Pickup GJ. Relationship between theory of mind and executive function in schizophrenia: a systematic review. Psychopathology 2008; 41: 206-13.
42. Green MF. What are the functional consequences of neurocognitive deficits in schizophrenia? Am J Psychiatry 1996; 153: 321-30.
43. Green MF, Kern RS, Braff DL, Mintz J. Neurocognitive deficits and functional outcome in schizophrenia: are we measuring the 'right stuff'? Schizophr Bull 2000; 26: 119-36.
44. Milev P, Ho BC, Arndt S, Andreasen N. Predictive values of neurocognition and negative symptoms on functional outcome in schizophrenia: a longitudinal first-episode study with 7-year follow-up. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162: 495-506. (Pubitemid 40343916)
45. Goldberg TE, Karson CN, Leleszi JP, Weinberger DR. Intellectual impairment in adolescent psychosis. A controlled psychometric study. Schizophr Res 1988; 1: 261-6.
46. Asarnow JR. Annotation: childhood-onset schizophrenia. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1994; 35: 1345-71.
47. Kenny JT, Friedman L, Findling RL, Swales TP, Strauss ME, Jesberger JA, et al. Cognitive impairment in adolescents with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154: 1613-5.
48. Gold JM, Hahn B, Strauss GP, Waltz JA. Turning it upside down: areas of preserved cognitive function in schizophrenia. Neuropsychol Rev 2009; 19: 294-311.
49. Flor-Henry P. Neuropsychology and psychopathology: a progress report. Neuropsychol Rev 1990; 1: 103-23.
50. Lewis R. Should cognitive deficit be a diagnostic criterion for schizophrenia? J Psychiatry Neurosci 2004; 29: 102-13.
51. Gold JM. Is cognitive impairment in schizophrenia ready for diagnostic prime time? World Psychiatry 2008; 7: 32-3.
52. Kremen WS, Stephen U, Faraone V, Seidman LJ, Pepple JR, Tsuang MT. Neuropsychological risk indicators for schizophrenia: a preliminary study of female relatives of schizophrenic and bipolar probands. Psychiatry Res 1998; 79: 227-40.
53. Goldberg TE, Egan MF, Gscheidle T, Coppola R, Weickert T, Kolachana BS, et al. Executive subprocesses in working memory: relationship to catechol-O-methyltransferase Val158Met genotype and schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003; 60: 889-96.
54. Heinrichs RW. The primacy of cognition in schizophrenia. Am Psychol 2005; 60: 229-42.
55. Green M. Cognitive impairment and functional outcome in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2006; 67: 3-8. (Pubitemid 44369648)
56. Hoff AL, Svetina C, Maurizio AM, Crow TJ, Spokes K, DeLisi LE. Familial cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2005; 133: 43-9.
57. Dickinson D, Ragland JD, Gold JM, Gur RC. General and specific cognitive deficits in schizophrenia: Goliath defeats David? Biol Psychiatry 2008; 64: 823-7.
58. Kraepelin E [1919]. Dementia praecox and paraphrenia. New York: Krieger, 1971.
59. Bleuler E. Dementia Praecox oder Gruppe der Schiwphrenien. Leipzig: Franz Deutiche, 1911.
60. Falconer DS. The inheritance of liability to certain diseases, estimated from the incidence among relatives. Ann Hum Genet 1966; 29: 51-76.
61. Meehl PE. Schizotaxia revisited. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989; 46: 935-44.
62. Cannon TD, Huttunen MO, Lonnqvist J, Tuulio-Henriksson A, Pirkola T, Glahn D, et al. The inheritance of neuropsychological dysfunction in twins discordant for schizophrenia. Am J Hum Genet 2000; 67: 369-82.
63. Tsuang MT, Stone WS, Faraone SV. Genes, environment and schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 2001; 40: 18-24.
64. Sullivan PF, Kendler KS, Neale MC. Schizophrenia as a complex trait: evidence from a meta-analysis of twin studies. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003; 60: 1187-92.
65. Bellani M, Brambilla P. Is there a neurobiological basis of insight in schizophrenia? Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc 2008; 17: 28-30.
66. Bellani M, Fagnani C, Brambilla P. Twin studies in psychotic disorders. Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc 2009; 18: 195-9.
67. Rujescu D, Collier D. Dissecting the many genetic faces of schizophrenia. Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc 2009; 18: 91-5.
68. Faraone SV, Seidman LJ, Kremen WS, Toomey R, Pepple JR, Tsuang MT. Neuropsychological functioning among the nonpsychotic relatives of schizophrenic patients: a 4-year follow-up study. J Abnorm Psychol 1999; 108: 176-81.
69. Faraone SV, Seidman LJ, Kremen WS, Toomey R, Pepple JR, Tsuang MT. Neuropsychologic functioning among the nonpsychotic relatives of schizophrenic patients: the effect of genetic loading. Biol Psychiatry 2000; 48: 120-6.
70. Cannon TD, Bearden CE, Hollister JM, Rosso IM, Sanchez LE, Hadley T. Childhood cognitive functioning in schizophrenia patients and their unaffected siblings: a prospective cohort study. Schizophr Bull 2000; 26: 379-93.
71. Egan MF, Goldberg TE, Gscheidle T, Weirich M, Rawlings R, Hyde TM, et al. Relative Risk for cognitive impairments in siblings of patients with schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2001; 50: 98-107.
72. Tuulio-Henriksson A, Haukka J, Partonen T, Varilo T, Paunio T, Ekelund J, et al. Heritability and number of quantitative trait loci of neurocognitive functions in families with schizophrenia. Am J Med Genet 2002; 114: 483-90.
73. Kremen WS, Seidman LJ, Faraone SV, Toomey R, Tsuang MT. Heterogeneity of schizophrenia: a study of individual neuropsychological profiles. Schizophr Res 2004; 71: 307-21.
74. Trandafir A, Méary A, Schurhoff F, Leboyer M, Szoke A. Memory tests in first-degree adult relatives of schizophrenic patients: a meta-analysis. Schizophr Res 2006; 81: 217-26.
75. Saykin AJ, Gur RC, Gur RE, Mozley PD, Mozley LH, Resnick SM, et al. Neuropsychological function in schizophrenia. Selective impairment in memory and learning. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991; 48: 618-24.
76. Saykin AJ, Shtasel DL, Gur RE, Kester DB, Mozley LH, Stafiniak P, et al. Neuropsychological deficits in neuroleptic naive patients with first-episode schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994; 51: 124-31.
77. Seidman LJ, Cassens GP, Kremen WS, Pepple JR. Neuropsychology of schizophrenia. In: White RF (ed). Clinical syndromes in adult neuropsychology: the practitioner's handbook. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1992.
78. Appels MCM, Sitskoorn MM, Westers P, Lems E, Kahn RS. Cognitive dysfunctions in parents of schizophrenic patients parallel the deficits found in patients. Schizophr Res 2003; 63: 285-93.
79. Sponheim SR, Steele VR, MCGuire KA. Verbal memory patients and biological relatives of schizophrenia patients: intact implicit memory, impaired explicit recollection. Schizophr Res 2004; 71: 339-48.
80. Hill SK, Harris MS, Herbener ES, Pavuluri M, Sweeney JA. Neurocognitive allied phenotypes for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Schizophr Bull 2008; 34: 743-59.
81. Seidman LJ, Kremen W, Koren D, Faraone S, Goldstein J, Tsuang M. A comparative profile analysis of neuropsychological functioning in patients with schizophrenia and bipolar psychoses. Schizophr Res 2002; 53: 31-44.
82. Toulopoulou T, Rabe-Hesketh S, King H, Murray RM, Morris RG. Episodic memory in schizophrenic patients and their relatives. Schizophr Res 2003; 63; 261-71.
83. Wittorf A, Klingberg S, Wiedemann G. Secondary verbal memory: a potential endophenotype of schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res 2004; 38: 601-12.
84. Sitskoorn MM, Aleman A, Ebisch SJ, Appels M, Kahn R. Cognitive deficits in relatives of patients with schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophr Res 2004; 71: 285-95.
85. Snitz BE, Macdonald AWIII, Carter CS. Cognitive deficits in unaffected first-degree relatives of schizophrenia patients: a meta-analytic review of putative endophenotypes. Schizophr Bull 2006; 32: 179-94.
86. Glahn DC, Therman S, Manninen M, Huttunen M, Kaprio J, Lonnqvist J, et al. Spatial working memory as an endophenotype for schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2003; 53: 624-6.
87. Cirillo MA, Seidman LJ. Verbal declarative memory dysfunction in schizophrenia: from clinical assessment to genetics and brain mechanisms. Neuropsychol Rev 2003; 13: 43-77.
88. Skelley SL, Goldberg TE, Egan MF, Weinberger DR, Gold JM. Verbal and visual memory: characterizing the clinical and intermediate phenotype in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2008; 105: 78-85.
89. van Erp TG, Therman S, Pirkola T, Tuulio-Henriksson A, Glahn DC, Bachman P, et al. Verbal recall and recognition in twins discordant for schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2008; 159: 271-80.
90. Baas D, van't WM, Aleman A, Kahn RS. Social judgment in clinically stable patients with schizophrenia and healthy relatives: behavioural evidence of social brain dysfunction. Psychol Med 2008; 38: 747-54.
91. Conklin HM, Curtis CE, Calkins ME, Iacono WG. Working memory functioning in schizophrenia patients and their first-degree relatives: cognitive functioning shedding light on etiology. Neuropsychologia 2005; 43: 930-42.
92. Whyte MC, McIntosh AM, Johnstone EC, Lawrie SM. Declarative memory in unaffected adult relatives of patients with schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Res 2005; 78: 13-26.
93. Ross RG, Wagner B, Heinlein S, Zerbe GO. The stability of inhibitory and working memory deficits in children and adolescents who are children of parents with schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2008; 34: 47-51.
94. Horan WP, Braff DL, Nuechterlein KH, Sugar CA, Cadenhead KS, Calkins ME, et al. Verbal working memory impairments in individuals with schizophrenia and their first-degree relatives: findings from the Consortium on the Genetics of Schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2008; 103: 218-28.
95. Gold JM, Carpenter C, Randolph C, Goldberg TE, Weinberger DR. Auditory working memory and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997; 54: 159-65.
96. Tuulio-Henriksson A, Arajarvi R, Partonen T, Haukka J, Varilo T, Schreck M, et al. Familial loading associates with impairment in visual span among healthy siblings of schizophrenia patients. Biol Psychiatry 2003; 54: 623-28.
97. Toulopoulou T, Picchioni M, Rijsdijk F, Hua-Hall M, Ettinger U, Sham P, et al. Substantial genetic overlap between neurocognition and schizophrenia: genetic modeling in twin samples. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007; 64: 1348-55.
98. Harvey P, Winters K, Weintraub S, Neale JM. Distractibility in children vulnerable to psychopathology. J Abnorm Psychol 1981; 90: 298-304.
99. Conklin HM, Curtis CE, Katsanis J, Iacono WG. Verbal working memory impairment in schizophrenia patients and their first degree relatives: evidence from the digit span task. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157: 275-7. (Pubitemid 30080912)
100. Zilles D, Burke S, Schneider-Axmann T, Falkai P, Gruber O. Diagnosis-specific effect of familial loading on verbal working memory in schizophrenia. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2009; 259: 309-15.
101. Park S, Holzman PS, Goldman-Rakic PS. Spatial working memory deficits in the relatives of schizophrenic patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995; 52: 821-8.
102. Saperstein AM, Fuller RL, Avila MT, Adami H, McMahon RP, Thaker GK, et al. Spatial working memory as a cognitive endophenotype of schizophrenia: assessing risk for pathophysiological dysfunction. Schizophr Bull 2006; 32: 498-506. (Pubitemid 43992324)
103. Barrantes-Vidal N, Aguilera M, Campanera S, Fatjó-Vilas M, Guitart M, Miret S, et al. Working memory in siblings of schizophrenia patients. Schizophr Res 2007; 95: 70-5. (Pubitemid 47313656)
104. Bertish H, Fava J, Kattan A, DeLisi LE. Preliminary neuropsychological findings in individuals at high risk or schizophrenia. Early Interv Psychiatry 2008; 2: 45-9.
105. O'Connor M, Harris JM, McIntosh AM, Owens DG, Lawrie SM, Johnstone EC. Specific cognitive deficits in a group at genetic high risk of schizophrenia. Psychol Med 2009; 39: 1649-55.
106. Erlenmeyer-Kimling L, Rock D, Roberts SA, Janal M, Kestenbaum C, Cornblatt B, et al. Attention, memory, and motor skills as childhood predictors of schizophrenia-related psychoses: the New York High-Risk Project. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157: 1416-22.
107. Brewer WJ, Francey SM, Wood SJ, Jackson HJ, Pantelis C, Phillips LJ, et al. Memory impairments identified in people at ultra-high risk for psychosis who later develop first-episode psychosis. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162: 71-8. (Pubitemid 40095675)
108. Làdavas E, Berti A. Neuropsicologia. Bologna: Il Mulino, 1999.
109. Rosvold HE, Mirsky AF, Sarason I, Bransome ED, Beck LH. A continuous performance test of brain damage. J Consult Psychol 1956; 20: 343-50.
110. Cornblatt BA, Lenzenweger MF, Erlenmeyer-Kimling L. The continuous performance test, identical pairs version: II. Contrasting attentional profiles in schizophrenic and depressed patients. Psychiatry Res 1989; 29: 65-85.
111. Cornblatt BA, Keilp JG. Impaired attention, genetics, and the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1994; 20: 31-46.
112. Keefe RS, Silverman JM, Mohs RC, Siever LJ, Harvey PD, Friedman L, et al. Eye tracking, attention, and schizotypal symptoms in nonpsychotic relatives of patients with schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997; 54: 169-76. (Pubitemid 27074305)
113. Nuechterlein KH, Asarnow R, Subotnik KL, Fogelson DL, Ventura J, Torquato RD, et al. Neurocognitive vulnerability factors for schizophrenia: convergence across genetic risk studies and longitudinal trait/state studies. In: Lenzenweger MF, Dworkin RH (eds). Origins and development of schizophrenia: advances in experimental psychopathology. Washington: American Psychological Association DC, 1998.
114. Bellani M, Brambilla P. The use and meaning of the continuous performance test in schizophrenia. Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc 2008; 17: 188-91.
115. Chen WJ, Liu SK, Chang CJ, Lien YJ, Chang YH, Hwu HG. Sustained attention deficit and schizotypal personality features in nonpsychotic relatives of schizophrenic patients. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 1214-20.
116. Braff DL, Greenwood TA, Swerdlow NR, Light GA, Schork NJ; the Investigators of The COGS. Advances in endophenotyping schizophrenia. World Psychiatry 2008; 7: 11-8.
117. Walker E. Attentional and neuromotor functions of schizophrenics, schizoaffectives, and patients with other affective disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1981; 38: 1355-8. (Pubitemid 12252550)
118. Bowen L, Wallace CJ, Glynn SM, Nuechterlein KH, Lutzker JR, Kuehnel TG, et al. Schizophrenics' cognitive functioning and performance in interpersonal interactions and skills training procedures. J Psychiatr Res 1994; 28: 289-301. (Pubitemid 24195534)
119. Cornblatt B, Obuchowski M, Roberts S, Pollak S, Erlenmeyer-Kimling L. Cognitive and behavioral precursors of schizophrenia. Dev Psychopathol 1999; 11: 487-508.
120. Mirsky AF, Yardley SL, Jones BP, Walsh D, Kendler KS. Analysis of the attention deficit in schizophrenia: a study of patients and their relatives in Ireland. J Psychiatr Res 1995; 29: 23-42.
121. Laurent A, Saoud M, Bougerol T, d'Amato T, Anchisi AM, Biloa-Tang M. Attentional deficits in patients with schizophrenia and in their non-psychotic first-degree relatives. Psychiatry Res 1999; 89: 147-59.
122. Laurent A, Biloa-Tang M, Bougerol T, Duly D, Anchisi AM, Bosson JL, et al. Executive/attentional performance and measures of schizotypy in patients with schizophrenia and in their nonpsychotic first-degree relatives. Schizophr Res 2000; 46: 269-83.
123. Laurent A, Gilvarry C, Russell A, Murray R. Personality dimensions and neuropsychological performance in first-degree relatives of patients with schizophrenia and affective psychosis. Schizophr Res 2002; 55: 239-48. (Pubitemid 34607378)
124. Chen WJ, Faraone SV. Sustained attention deficits as markers of genetic susceptibility to schizophrenia. Am J Med Genet (Seminars in Medical Genetics) 2000; 97: 52-7.
125. Vollema MG, Postma B. Neurocognitive correlates of schizotypy in first degree relatives of schizophrenia patients. Schizophr Bull 2002; 28: 367-77. (Pubitemid 36193857)
126. Avila MT, Robles O, Hong LE, Blaxton TA, Myers CS, Wonodi I, et al. Deficits on the Continuous Performance Test within the schizophrenia spectrum and the mediating effects of family history of schizophrenia. J Abnorm Psychol 2006; 115: 771-8. (Pubitemid 44747805)
127. Birkett P, Sigmundsson T, Sharma T, Toulopoulou T, Griffiths TD, Reveley A, et al. Executive function and genetic predisposition to schizophrenia: the Maudsley family study. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2008; 147: 285-93. (Pubitemid 351536790)
128. Cosway R, Byrne M, Clafferty R, Hodges A, Grant E, Morris J. Sustained attention in young people at risk for schizophrenia. Psychol Med 2002; 30: 1111-21.
129. Liu Z, Zhao J, Tam WCC. Attention and executive function impairments in unaffected siblings of patients with schizophrenia. Hong Kong J Psychiatry 2003; 13: 8-11.
130. Hughes C, Kumari V, Das M, Zachariah E, Ettinger U, Sumich A, et al. Cognitive functioning in siblings discordant for schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2005; 111: 185-92.
131. Caparrós B, Barrantes-Vidal N, Viñas F, Obiols J. Attention, memory and verbal learning and their relation to schizotypal traits in unaffected parents of schizophrenic patients. Int J Clin Health Psychol 2008; 8: 37-52.
132. Egeland J, Rund BR, Sundet K, Landrø NI, Asbjørnsen A, Lund A, et al. Attention profile in schizophrenia compared with depression: differential effects of processing speed, selective attention and vigilance. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2003; 108: 276-84.
133. Klemm S, Schmidt B, Knappe S, Blanz B. Impaired working speed and executive functions as frontal lobe dysfunctions in young first-degree relatives of schizophrenic patients. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2006; 15: 400-8.
134. Gamer E, Gallant D, Grunebaum HU, Cohler BJ. Children of psychotic mothers: performance of 3-year-old children on tests of attention. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1977; 34: 592-7.
135. Winters KC, Stone AA, Weintraub S, Neale JM. Cognitive and attentional deficits in children vulnerable to psychopathology. J Abnorm Child Psychol 1981; 9: 435-53.
136. Filbey FM, Toulopoulou T, Morris RG, McDonald C, Bramon E, Walshe M, et al. Selective attention deficits reflect increased genetic vulnerability to schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2008; 101: 169-75.
137. Smith CW, Cornblatt B. Attention deficits in the development of schizophrenia: recent evidence from genetic high-risk and prodromal studies. Current Psychosis & Therapeutics Reports 2005; 3: 152-6.
138. Francey SM, Jackson HJ, Phillips LJ, Wood SJ, Yung AR, McGorry PD. Sustained attention in young people at high risk of psychosis does not predict transition to psychosis. Schizophr Res 2005; 79: 127-36.
139. Laurent A, Moreaud O, Bosson JL, Naegele B, Boucharlat J, Saoud M, et al. Neuropsychological functioning among nonpsychotic siblings and parents of schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry Res 1999; 87: 147-57.
140. Dollfus S, Lombardo C, Bénali K, Halbecq I, Abadie P, Marié RM, et al. Executive/attentional cognitive functions in schizophrenic patients and their parents: a preliminary study. Schizophr Res 2002; 53: 93-9.
141. Genderson MR, Dickinson D, Diaz-Asper CM, Egan MF, Weinberger DR, Goldberg TE. Factor analysis of neurocognitive tests in a large sample of schizophrenic probands, their siblings, and healthy controls. Schizophr Res 2007; 94: 231-9.
142. Ma X, Wang Q, Sham PC, Liu X, Rabe-Hesketh S, Sun X, et al. Neurocognitive deficits in first-episode schizophrenic patients and their first-degree relatives. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2007; 144: 407-16.
143. Szoke A, Schurhoff F, Mathieu F, Meary A, Ionescu S, Leboyer M. Tests of executive functions in first-degree relatives of schizophrenic patients: a meta-analysis. Psychol Med 2005; 35: 771-82.
144. Heaton RK. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources, 1981.
145. Stratta P, Daneluzzo E, Mattei P, Bustini M, Casacchia M, Rossi A. No deficit in Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance of schizophrenic patients' first-degree relatives. Schizophr Res 1997; 26: 147-51.
146. Egan MF, Goldberg TE, Gscheidle T, Weirich M, Bigelow LB, Weinberger DR. Relative risk of attention deficits in siblings of patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157: 1309-16.
147. Birkett P, Sigmundsson T, Sharma T, Toulopoulou T, Griffiths TD, Reveley A, et al. Reaction time and sustained attention in schizophrenia and its genetic predisposition. Schizophr Res 2007; 95: 76-85.
148. Gschwandtner U, Aston J, Borgwardt S, Drewe M, Feinendegen C, Lacher D, et al. Neuropsychological and neurophysiological findings in individuals suspected to be at risk for schizophrenia: preliminary results from the Basel early detection of psychosis study - Fruherkennung von Psychosen (FEPSY). Acta Psychiatr Scand 2003; 108: 152-5.
149. Reitan RM. Validity of the Trail Making Test as an indicator of organic damage. Percept Mot Skills 1958; 8: 271-6.
150. Stroop JR. Studies of interferences in serial verbal reactions. J Exp Psychol 1935; 18: 643-62.
151. Zalla T, Joyce C, Szoke A, Schurhoff F, Pillon B, Komano O, et al. Executive dysfunctions as potential markers of familial vulnerability to bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2004; 121: 207-17.
152. Thompson J, Watson J, Steinhauer S, Goldstein G, Pogue-Geile MF. Indicators of genetic liability to schizophrenia: a sibling study of neuropsychological performance. Schizophr Bull 2005; 31: 85-96. (Pubitemid 41214359)
153. Kuha A, Tuulio-Henriksson A, Eerola M, Perälä J, Suvisaari J, Partonen T, et al. Impaired executive performance in healthy siblings of schizophrenia patients in a population-based study. Schizophr Res 2007; 92: 142-50. (Pubitemid 46561223)
154. Bhatia T, Garg K, Pogue-Geile M, Nimgaonkar VL, Deshpande SN. Executive functions and cognitive deficits in schizophrenia: comparisons between probands, parents and controls in India. J Postgrad Med 2009; 55: 3-7.
155. Quiñones RM, Calderín YC, Domínguez M, Bravo TM, Berazaín AR, García A, et al. Heritability of Trail Making Test performance in multiplex schizophrenia families: implications for the search for an endophenotype. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2009; 259: 475-81.
156. Wechsler D. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1981.
157. Fisher PJ, Turic D, Williams NM, McGuffin P, Asherson P, Ball D, et al. DNA pooling identifies QTLs on chromosome 4 for general cognitive ability in children. Hum Mol Genet 1999; 8: 915-22. (Pubitemid 29189060)
158. Bouchard TJ Jr, McGue M. Genetic and environmental influences on human psychological differences. J Neurobiol 2003; 54: 4-45. (Pubitemid 36050067)
159. Reichenberg A, Weiser M, Rapp MA, Rabinowitz J, Caspi A, Schmeidler J, et al. Elaboration on premorbid intellectual performance in schizophrenia: premorbid intellectual decline and risk for schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005; 62: 1297-304. (Pubitemid 41746607)
160. Woodberry KA, Giuliano AJ, Seidman LJ. Premorbid IQ in schizophrenia: a meta-analytic review. Am J Psychiatry 2008; 165: 579-87.
161. Engle RW, Tuholski SW, Laughlin JE, Conway AR. Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach. J Exp Psychol Gen 1999; 128: 309-31.
162. Colom R, Rebollo I, Palacios A, Juan-Espinosa M, Kyllonen PC. Working memory is (almost) perfectly predicted by g. Intelligence 2004; 32: 277-96. (Pubitemid 38807891)
163. Kremen WS, Seidman LJ, Faraone SV, Tsuang MT. Intelligence quotient and neuropsychological profiles in patients with schizophrenia and normal volunteers. Biol Psychiatry 2001; 50: 453-62.
164. Krabbendam L, Marcelis M, Delespaul P, Jolles J, van Os J. Single or multiple familial cognitive risk factors in schizophrenia. Am J Med Genet B 2001; 105: 183-8. (Pubitemid 32290585)
165. Toulopoulou T, Morris RG, Rabe-Hesketh S, Murray RM. Selectivity of verbal memory deficit in schizophrenic patients and their relatives. Am J Med Genet 2003; 116: 1-7. (Pubitemid 37063605)
166. Toomey R, Faraone SV, Seidman LJ, Kremen WS, Pepple JR, Tsuang MT. Association of neuropsychological vulnerability markers in relatives of schizophrenic patients. Schizophr Res 1998: 31: 89-98. (Pubitemid 28307949)
167. MacDonald AW 3rd, Goghari VM, Hicks BM, Flory JD, Carter CS, Manuck SB. A convergent-divergent approach to context processing, general intellectual functioning, and the genetic liability to schizophrenia. Neuropsychology 2005; 19: 814-21.
168. Aukes MF, Alizadeh BZ, Sitskoorn MM, Kemner C, Ophoff RA, Kahn RS. Genetic overlap among intelligence and other candidate endophenotypes for schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2009; 65: 527-34.
169. Husted JA, Lim S, Chow EWC, Greenwood C, Bassett AS. Heritability of neurocognitive traits in familial schizophrenia. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2009; 150: 845-53.
170. Kravariti E, Toulopoulou T, Mapua-Filbey F, Schulze K, Walshe M, Sham P, et al. Intellectual asymmetry and genetic liability in first-degree relatives of probands with schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 2006; 188: 186-7. (Pubitemid 43171077)
171. Byrne M, Clafferty BA, Cosway R, Grant E, Hodges A, Whalley HC, et al. Neuropsychology, genetic liability, and psychotic symptoms in those at high risk of schizophrenia. J Abnorm Psychol 2003; 112: 38-48. (Pubitemid 36249842)
172. Mcintosh AM, Harrison LK, Forrester K, Lawrie SM, Johnstone EC. Neuropsychological impairments in people with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder and their unaffected relatives. Br J Psychiatry 2005; 186: 378-85.
173. Faraone SV, Kremen WS, Lyons MJ, Pepple JR, Seidman LJ, Tsuang MT. Diagnostic accuracy and linkage analysis: how useful are schizophrenia spectrum phenotypes? Am J Psychiatry 1995; 152: 1286-90.
174. Maziade M, Rouleau N, Gingras N, Boutin P, Paradis ME, Jomphe V, et al. Shared neurocognitive dysfunctions in young offspring at extreme risk for schizophrenia or bipolar disorder in eastern Quebec multigenerational families. Schizophr Bull 2008; 35: 919-30.
175. Stone WS, Faraone SV, Seidman LJ, Green AI, Wojcik JD, Tsuang MT. Concurrent validation of schizotaxia: a pilot study. Biol Psychiatry 2001; 50: 434-40.
176. Hoti F, Tuulio-Henriksson A, Haukka J, Partonen T, Holmström L, Lönnqvist J. Family-based clusters of cognitive test performance in familial schizophrenia. BMC Psychiatry 2004; 4: 20.
177. Chen L, Rice TK, Thompson PA, Barch DM, Csernansky JG. Familial aggregation of clinical and neurocognitive features in sibling pairs with and without schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2009; 111: 159-66.
178. Robles O, Blaxton T, Adami H, Arango C, Thaker G, Gold J. Non verbal delayed recognition in the relatives of schizophrenia patients with or without schizophrenia spectrum. Biol Psychiatry 2008; 63: 498-504.
179. Delawalla Z, Barch DM, Fisher Eastep JL, Thomason ES, Hanewinkel MJ, Thompson PA. Factors mediating cognitive deficits and psychopathology among siblings of individuals with schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2006; 32: 525-37.
180. Myles-Worsley M, Park S. Spatial working memory deficits in schizophrenia patients and their first degree relatives from Palau, Micronesia. Am J Med Genet 2002; 114: 609-15.
181. Kéri S, Janka Z. Critical evaluation of cognitive dysfunctions as endophenotypes of schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2004; 110: 83-91.
182. Emery J Fu, Cadenhead KS. Progress in the prospective study of the schizophrenia prodrome. Current Psychosis & Therapeutics Reports 2005; 3: 169-75.
183. Saoud M, d'Amato T, Gutknecht C, Triboulet P, Bertaud JP, Marie-Cardine M, et al. Neuropsychological deficit in siblings discordant for schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2000; 26: 893-902.
184. Malaspina D, Goetz RR, Yale S, Berman A, Friedman JH, Tremeau F, et al. Relation of familial schizophrenia to negative symptoms but not to the deficit syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157: 994-1003.
185. Kirkpatrick B, Buchanan RW, Ross DE, Carpenter W. A separate disease within the syndrome of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001; 58: 165-71.
186. Joyce EM, Roiser JP. Cognitive heterogeneity in schizophrenia. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2007; 20: 268-72.
187. Perry W, Heaton RK, Potterat E, Roebuck T, Minassian A, Braff DL. Working memory in schizophrenia: transient "online" storage versus executive functioning. Schizophr Bull 2001; 27: 157-76.
188. Ceaser AE, Goldberg TE, Egan MF, McMahon RP, Weinberger DR, Gold JM. Set-shifting ability and schizophrenia: a marker of clinical illness or an intermediate phenotype? Biol Psychiatry 2008; 64: 782-8.
189. Nuechterlein KH, Barch DM, Gold JM, Goldberg TE, Green MF, Heaton RK. Identification of separable cognitive factors in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2004; 72: 29-39.
190. Gur RE, Calkins ME, Gur RC, Horan WP, Neuchterlein KH, Seidman LJ, et al. The CoGS: neurocognitive endophenotypes. Schizophr Bull 2007; 33: 49-68.
191. rd, Pogue-Geile MF, Johnson MK, Carter CS. A specific deficit in context processing in the unaffected siblings of patients with schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003; 60: 57-65.
192. Glahn DC, Gur RC, Ragland JD, Censits DM, Gur RE. Reliability, performance characteristics, construct validity, and an initial clinical application of a Visual Object Learning Test (VOLT). Neuropsychology 1997; 11: 602-12.
193. Kurtz MM, Ragland JD, Moberg PJ, Gur RC. The Penn Conditional Exclusion Test: a new measure of executive-function with alternate forms of repeat administration. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2004; 19: 191-201.
194. Raune D, Kuipers E, Bebbington P. Stressful and intrusive life events preceding first episode psychosis. Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc 2009; 18: 221-8.
195. Read J, Bentall RP, Fosse R. Time to abandon the bio-bio-bio model of psychosis: exploring the epigenetic and psychological mechanisms by which adverse life events lead to psychotic symptoms. Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc 2009; 18: 299-310.
196. Champagne FA, Curley JP. Epigenetic mechanisms mediating the long-term effects of maternal care on development. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2009; 33: 593-600.
197. Danese A. Genetic opportunities for psychiatric epidemiology: on life stress and depression. Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc 2008; 17: 201-10.
198. van Os J, Murray R. Gene-environment interactions in schizophrenia. Introduction. Schizophr Bull 2008; 34: 1064-5.
199. Sitskoorn MM, Ebisch SJ, Appels M, Nuyen J, Kahn RS. Memory profiles in parents of patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2004; 128: 27-37.
200. Pukrop R, Ruhrmann S, Schultze-Lutter F, Bechdolf A, Brockhaus-Dumke A, Klosterkötter J. Neurocognitive indicators for a conversion to psychosis: comparison of patients in a potentially initial prodromal state who did or did not convert to a psychosis. Schizophr Res 2007; 92: 116-25.
201. Falconer DS. The inheritance of liability to diseases with variable age of onset, with particular reference to diabetes mellitus. Ann Hum Genet 1967; 31: 1-20.
202. Keating M, Dunn C, Atkinson D, Timothy K, Vincent GM, Leppert M. Consistent linkage of the long-QT syndrome to the Harvey ras-1 locus on chromosome 11. Am J Hum Genet 1991; 6: 1335-9.
203. Ricciardi A, Mc Callister V, Dazzan P. Is early intervention in psychosis effective? Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc 2008; 17: 227-33.
204. Killaspy H, Johnson S, King M, Bebbington P. Developing mental health services in response to research evidence. Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc 2008; 17: 47-56.