Investigating the Effects and Effectiveness of L2 Instruction

The Handbook of Language Teaching

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 726-755

  De Graaff, Rick ^a   Housen, Alex ^b  

^a UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^b VRIJE UNIVERSITEIT BRUSSEL   (Belgium)

Author keywords

"form focused instruction" (FFI); Constraining learner factor learner's developmental stage or proficiency level; Content and language integrated learning (CLIL); Effect of instruction research and research designs; Factors moderating effectiveness of L2 instruction; Investigating effects of L2 instruction; Preference for rule based perspective in learner; Second language (L2) instruction and language learning by mechanisms of learning manipulation; Second language acquisition (SLA) role and effectiveness of instruction; Types of L2 knowledge

Indexed keywords

EID: 78650132654     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781444315783.ch38     Document Type: Chapter

References (173)

1. Alanen, R. (1995). Input enhancement and rule presentation in second language acquisi-tion R. Schmidt (ed.). Attention and awareness in foreign language learning and teaching (pp. 259-302). Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.
2. Allen, L. Q. (2000). Form-meaning connections and the French causative. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 22, 1, 69-84.
3. Baker, C. (2006). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism, 4th edn. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
4. Bialystok, E. (1994). Analysis and control in the development of second language profi-ciency. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 16, 2, 157-68.
5. Bialystok, E. (1997). The structure of age: In search of barriers to SLA. Second Language Research 13, 2, 116-37.
6. Birdsong, D. & Molis, M. (2001). On the evidence for maturational constraints in second language acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language 44, 2, 235-49.
7. Bouton, L. F. (1994). Can NNS skill in interpreting implicatures in American English be improved through explicit instruction? A pilot study L. F. Bouton & Y. Kachru (eds.). Pragmatics and language learning, (vol. 5, pp. 88-109). University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign: Division of English as an International Language.
8. Bouton, L. F. & Kachru, Y. (eds.) (1994). Pragmatics and language learning (vol. 5). University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign: Division of English as an International Language.
9. Breen, M. P. & Candlin, C. (1980). The essentials of a communicative curriculum inlanguage teaching. Applied linguistics, 1, 2, 89-112.
10. Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
11. Cronbach, L. & Snow, R. (1977). Aptitudes and instructional methods. New York: Irvington.
12. Crookes, G. & Gass, S. (eds.) (1993). Tasks and language learning: Integrating theory and practice. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
13. DeCoo, W. (1996). The induction-deduction opposition: Ambiguities and complexities of the didactic reality. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 34, 1, 95-118.
14. DeKeyser, R. M. (1994). How implicit can adult second language learning be. AILA Review 11, 83-96.
15. DeKeyser, R. M. (1995). Learning second language grammar rules: An experiment with a miniature linguistic system. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 17, 3, 379-410.
16. DeKeyser, R. M. (1997). Beyond explicit rule learning: automatizing second language morphosyntax. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 2, 195-221.
17. DeKeyser, R. M. (1998). Beyond focus on form: Cognitive perspectives on learning and practicing second language grammar C. J. Doughty & J. Williams (eds.). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 42-63). New York: Cambridge University Press.
18. DeKeyser, R. M. (2000). The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 22, 4, 499-533.
19. DeKeyser, R. M. (2001). Automaticity and automatization P. Robinson (ed.). Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 125-51). New York: Cambridge University Press.
20. DeKeyser, R. M. (2003). Implicit and explicit learning C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long(eds.). The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 313-49). Oxford: Blackwell.
21. DeKeyser, R. M. & Juffs, A. (2005). Cognitive considerations in L2 learning E. Hinkel (ed.). Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 437-54). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
22. Derwing, M., Murray, M., & Wiebe, G. (1998). Evidence in favor of a broad framework for pronunciation instruction. Language Learning 48, 3, 393-410.
23. Díaz-Campos, M. (2004). Context of learning in the acquisition of Spanish second lan-guage phonology. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 26, 2, 249-73.
24. Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Motivation in second and foreign language learning. Language Teaching 31, 117-35.
25. Doughty, C. J. (2003). Instructed SLA: Constraints, compensation, and enhancement C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (eds.). The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 256-310). Oxford: Blackwell.
26. Doughty, C. J. & Long, M. H. (eds.) (2003). The handbook of second language acquisition. Oxford: Blackwell.
27. Doughty, C. J. & Williams, J. (1998a). Issues and terminology C. J. Doughty & J. Williams (eds.). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 1-11). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
28. Doughty, C. J. & Williams, J. (1998b). Pedagogical choices in focus on form acquisition C. J. Doughty & J. Williams (eds.). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 197-262). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
29. Driessen, C., Westhoff, G. J., Haenen, J., & Brekelmans, M. (2008). A qualitative analysis of language learning tasks: The design of a tool. Journal of Curriculum Studies 40, 1-18.
30. Eckman, F. R., Bell, L., & Nelson, D. (1988). On the generalization of relative clause instruction in the acquisition of English as a second language. Applied Linguistics 9, 1, 1-20.
31. Elliott, A. R. (1997). On the teaching and acquisition of pronunciation within a commun-icative approach. Hispania 80, 1, 95-108.
32. Ellis, N. (1993). Rules and instances in foreign language learning: Interactions of explicit and implicit knowledge. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 5, 3, 289-318.
33. Ellis, N. (2002a). Frequency effects in language processing: A review with implications for theories of implicit and explicit language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 24, 2, 141-88.
34. Ellis, N. (2002b). Reflections on frequency effects in language processing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 24, 2, 297-339.
35. Ellis, N. (2003). Constructions, chunking and connectionism C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long(eds.). The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 63-103). Oxford: Blackwell.
36. Ellis, N. & Laporte, N. (1997). Contexts of acquisition: Effects of formal instruction and naturalistic exposure on second language acquisition A. M. B. de Groot & J. F. Kroll (eds.). Tutorials in bilingualism: Psycholinguistic perspectives (pp. 53-83). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
37. Ellis, R. (1989). Are classroom and naturalistic acquisition the same? A study of the classroom acquisition of German word order rules. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 11, 3, 305-28.
38. Ellis, R. (1990). Instructed second language acquisition. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
39. Ellis, R. (1991). Second language acquisition and language pedagogy. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
40. Ellis, R. (1993). The structural syllabus and second language acquisition. TESOL Quarterly 27, 1, 91-113.
41. Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
42. Ellis, R. (1997a). Explicit knowledge and second language pedagogy L. van Lier & D. Corson (eds.). Encyclopedia of language and education, vol. 6: Knowledge about Language (pp. 109-18). Amsterdam: Kluwer Academic.
43. Ellis, R. (1997b). Second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
44. Ellis, R. (ed.) (1999). Learning a second language through interaction. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
45. Ellis, R. (2001). Introduction: Investigating form-focused instruction. Language Learning 51, supplement 1, 1-46.
46. Ellis, R. (2002). Does form-focused instruction affect the acquisition of implicit know ledge? A review of the research. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 24, 2, 223-36.
47. Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
48. Ellis, R. (2004). The definition and measurement of explicit knowledge. Language Learning 54, 2, 227-75.
49. Ellis, R. (2005). Instructed second language acquisition: A literature review. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education.
50. Ellis, R. (2006a). Current issues in the teaching of grammar: An SLA perspective. TESOL Quarterly 40, 1, 83-107.
51. Ellis, R. (2006b). Researching the effects of form-focussed instruction on L2 acquisition. AILA Review, 19, 1, 18-41.
52. Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
53. Ellis, R., Loewen, S., & Erlam, R. (2006). Implicit and explicit corrective feedback and the acquisition of L2 grammar. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 28, 2, 339-68.
54. Erlam, R. (2003a). Evaluating the relative effectiveness of structured-input and output based instruction in foreign language learning: Results from an experimental study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 25, 4, 559-82.
55. Erlam, R. (2003b). The effects of deductive and inductive instruction on the acquisition of direct object pronouns in French as a second language. The Modern Language Journal 87, 2, 242-60.
56. Faerch, C. & Kasper, G. (1987). From product to process: Introspective methods in second language research C. Faerch & G. Kasper (eds.). Introspection in second language research (pp. 5-23). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
57. Fotos, S. (1993). Consciousness-raising and noticing through focus on form: Grammar task performance vs. formal instruction. Applied Linguistics 14, 4, 385-407.
58. Fotos, S. & Ellis, R. (1991). Communicating about grammar: A task-based approach. TESOL Quarterly 25, 4, 605-28.
59. Freed, B. (1998). An overview of issues and research in language learning in a study abroad setting. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad 4, 31-60.
60. Gass, S. (1995). Learning and teaching: The necessary intersection F. Eckman, D. Highland, P. Lee, J. Mileham, & R. Rutkowski Weber (eds.). Second language acquisition: Theory and pedagogy (pp. 3-21). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
61. Gass, S., Mackey, A., Alvarez, M., & Fernandez, M. (1999). The effects of task repetition on linguistic output. Language Learning 49, 4, 549-81.
62. Gatbonton, E. & Segalowitz, N. (1988). Creative automatization: Principles for promoting fluency within a communicative framework. TESOL Quarterly 22, 3, 473-92.
63. Goldschneider, J. & DeKeyser, R. M. (2001). Explaining the "natural order of L2 morheme acquisition" in English: A meta-analysis of multiple determinants. Language Learning 51, 1, 1-50.
64. Gorsuch, F. (2001). Testing textbook theories and tests: The case of suprasegmentals in a pronunciation textbook. System 29, 1, 119-36.
65. Graaff, R. de (1997a). Differential effects of explicit instruction on second language acquisition, HIL dissertation series 35. The Hague: Holland Academic Graphics.
66. Graaff, R. de (1997b). The experanto experiment: Effects of explicit instruction on second language acquistion. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19, 2, 249-76.
67. Green, J. M. (1993). Student attitudes toward communicative and non-communicative activities: Do enjoyment and effectiveness go together. Modern Language Journal 77, 1, 1-10.
68. Haley, M. & Rentz, P. (2002). Applying SLA research and theory to practice: What can a teacher do. TESL-EJ 5, 4, 1-9.
69. Han, Z. (2002). A study of the impact of recasts on tense consistency in L2 output. TESOL Quarterly 36, 4, 543-72.
70. Hardison, D. M. (2003). Acquisition of second-language speech: Effects of visual clues, context and talker variability. Applied Psycholinguistics 24, 4, 495-522.
71. Harley, B. (1994). Appealing to consciousness in the second language classroom. AILA Review 11, 57-68.
72. Harley, B. & Wang, W. (1997). The critical period hypothesis: Where are we now? In A. M. B. de Groot & J. F. Kroll (eds.). Tutorials in bilingualism: Psycholinguistic perspectives (pp. 19-51). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
73. Hendrix, L., Housen, A., & Pierrard, M. (2002). Mode d'implémentation de l'instruction grammaticale explicite et appropriation de langues étrangères. Acquisition et Interaction en Langue Etrangère 16, 73-96.
74. Housen, A. & Pierrard, M. (2005a). Instructed second language acquisition: Introduction A. Housen & M. Pierrard (eds.). Investigations in instructed second language acquisition (pp. 1-26). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
75. Housen, A. & Pierrard, M. (eds.) (2005b). Investigations in instructed second language acquisition. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
76. Housen, A., Pierrard, M., & Van Daele, S. (2005). Rule complexity and the effectiveness of explicit grammar instruction A. Housen & M. Pierrard (eds.). Investigations in instructed second language acquisition (pp. 207-41). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
77. Howard, M. (2005). On the role of context in the development of learner language: Insights from study abroad research. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 148, 1-20.
78. Hulstijn, J. (2002). Towards a unified account of the representation, processing and acquisition of second language knowledge. Second Language Research 18, 3, 193-223.
79. Hulstijn, J. (2005). Theoretical and empirical issues in the study of implicit and explicit second-language learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 27, 2, 129-40.
80. Hulstijn, J. & Graaff, R. de (1994). Under what conditions does explicit knowledge of a second language facilitate the acquisition of implicit knowledge? A research proposal J. Hulstijn & R. Schmidt (eds.), Consciousness in Second Language Learning AILA Review 11, 97-109.
81. Iwashita, N. (2003). Negative feedback and positive evidence in task-based interaction: Differential effects on L2 development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 25, 1, 1-36.
82. Izumi, S. (2002). Output, input enhancement, and the noticing hypothesis. Studies in Second Language Acquistion 24, 4, 541-77.
83. Johnson, J. S. & Newport, E. L. (1989). Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology 21, 1, 60-99.
84. Johnson, R. K. & Swain, M. (1997). Immersion education: International perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
85. Johnstone, R. (2002). Immersion in a second or additional language at school: A review of the international research. Stirling: Scottish Centre for Information on Language Teaching, www.scilt.stir.ac.uk/pubs.htm.
86. Kasper, G. (2001). Four perspectives on L2 pragmatic development. Applied Linguistics 22, 4, 502-30.
87. Klein, W. (1986). Second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
88. Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Pergamon.
89. Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. London: Longman.
90. Krashen, S. (1994). The input hypothesis and its rivals N. Ellis (ed.). Implicit and explicit learning of languages (pp. 45-77). London: Academic Press.
91. Krashen, S. & Terrell, T. (1983). The naturalistic approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. Oxford: Pergamon.
92. Larsen-Freeman, D. & Long, M. H. (1991). An introduction to second language acquisition research. Londen/New York: Longman.
93. Laufer, B. (2005). Instructed second language vocabulary learning: The fault in the "de-fault hypothesis." In A. Housen & M. Pierrard (eds.). Investigations in instructed second language acquisition (pp. 311-29). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
94. Leow, R. P. & Morgan-Short, K. (2004). To think aloud or not to think aloud: The issue of reactivity in SLA research methodology. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 26, 1, 35-57.
95. Lightbown, P. (1998). The importance of timing in focus on form C. J. Doughty & J. Williams (eds.). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 177-96). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
96. Lightbown, P. (2000). Anniversary article: Classroom SLA research and second language teaching. Applied Linguistics 21, 4, 431-62.
97. Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. (1990). Focus-on-form and corrective feedback in commun-icative language teaching: Effects on second language learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 12, 4, 429-48.
98. Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. (1994). An innovative program for primary ESL in Quebec. TESOL Quarterly 28, 3, 563-79.
99. Loewen, S. (2005). Incidental focus on form and second language learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 27, 3, 361-86.
100. Long, M. H. (1983). Does second language instruction make a difference? A review of research. TESOL Quarterly 17, 3,359-82.
101. Long, M. H. (1985). A role for instruction in second language acquisition: Task-based language teaching K. Hyltenstam & M. Pienemann (eds.). Modelling and assessing second language acquisition (pp. 77-99). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
102. Long, M. H. (1988). Instructed interlanguage development L. Beebe (ed.). Issues in second language acquisition: Multiple perspectives (pp. 115-41). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
103. Long, M. H. (1991). Focus on form: A design feature in language teaching methodology K. de Bot, R. Ginsberg, & C. Kramsch (eds.). Foreign language research in cross-cultural perspective (pp. 39-52). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
104. Long, M. H. & Robinson, P. (1998). Focus on form: Theory, research and practice C. J. Doughty & J. Williams (eds.). Focus on form in classroom language acquisition (pp. 15-41). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
105. Lyster, R. (1994). The effect of functional-analytic teaching on aspects of French immersion students' sociolinguistic competence. Applied Linguistics,15, 3, 263-87.
106. Lyster, R. (2004). Differential effects of prompts and recasts in form-focussed instruction. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 26, 3, 399-432.
107. McLaughlin, B. & Heredia, R. (1996). Information processing approaches to research on second language acquisition and use R. Ritchie & T. Bhatia (eds.). A handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 213-28). San Diego: Academic Press.
108. Mennim, P. (2003). Rehearsed oral output and reactive focus on form. ELT Journal 57, 2, 130-8.
109. Moonen, M. L. I., Graaff, R. de, & Westhoff, G. J. (2006). Focused tasks, mental actions and second language learning: Cognitive and connectionist accounts of task effectiveness. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 152, 35-53.
110. Morgan-Short, K. & Bowden, H. W. (2006). Processing instruction and meaningful output-based instruction. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 28, 1, 31-65.
111. Norris, J. & Ortega, L. (2000). Effectiveness of L2 Instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning 50, 3, 417-528.
112. Norris, J. & Ortega, L. (2001). Does type of instruction make a difference? Substansive findings from a meta-analytic review. Language Learning 51, supplement 1, 157-213.
113. Norris, J. & Ortega, L. (2003). Defining and measuring SLA C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (eds.). The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 717-61). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
114. Norris, J. & Ortega, L. (eds.) (2006). Synthesizing research on language learning and teaching. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
115. Nunan, D. (1989). Designing tasks for the communicative classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
116. O'Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U., & Walker, C. (1987). Some applications of cognitive theory to second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 9, 3, 287-306.
117. Pavesi, M. (1986). Markedness, discoursal modes, and relative clause formation in a for mal and an informal context. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 8, 1, 38-55.
118. Peacock, M. (1997). Comparing learner and teacher views on the usefulness and enjoyableness of materials. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 7, 2, 183-96.
119. Pica, T. (1983). Adult acquisition of English as a second language under different conditions of exposure. Language Learning 33, 4, 465-97.
120. Pienemann, M. (1989). Is language teachable. Applied Linguistics 10, 1, 52-79.
121. Pienemann, M. (1998). Language processing and second language development: Processability theory. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
122. Pienemann, M. & Johnston, M. (1987). Factors influencing the development of language proficiency D. Nunan (ed.). Applying second language acquisition research (pp. 45-141). Adelaide, Australia: National Curriculum Resource Centre, AMEP.
123. Platt, E. & Brooks, F. B. (2002). Task engagement: A turning point in foreign language development. Language Learning 52, 2, 365-400.
124. Prabhu, N. S. (1987). Second language pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
125. Radwan, A. (2005). The effectiveness of explicit attention to form in language learning. System 33, 1, 69-87.
126. Reber, A. (1993). Implicit learning and tacit knowledge. Oxford: Claredon Press.
127. Reid, J. (ed.) (1995). Learning styles in the ESL/EFL classroom. Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle.
128. Richards, J. & Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
129. Robinson, P. (1996a). Consciousness, rules, and instructed second language acquisition. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
130. Robinson, P. (1996b). Learning simple and complex second language rules under implicit, incidental, rule-search and instructed conditions. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 18, 1, 27-68.
131. Robinson, P. (1997a). Generalizability and automaticity of second language learning under implicit, incidental, enhanced and instructed conditions. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19, 2, 223-47.
132. Robinson, P. (1997b). Individual differences and the fundamental similarity of implicit and explicit second language learning. Language Learning 47, 1, 45-99.
133. Robinson, P. (ed.) (2001a). Cognition and second language instruction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
134. Robinson, P. (2001b). Task complexity, cognitive resources, and syllabus design: A triadic framework for examining task influences on SLA P. Robinson (ed.). Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 287-318). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
135. Robinson, P. (ed.) (2002a). Individual differences and instructed language learning. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
136. Robinson, P. (2002b). Learning conditions, aptitude complexes, and SLA: A framework for research and pedagogy P. Robinson (ed.). Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 113-33). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
137. Robinson, P. (2003). Attention and memory during SLA C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long(eds.). Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 631-78). Oxford: Blackwell.
138. Rose, K. (2005). On the effects of instruction in second language pragmatics. System 33, 3, 358-99.
139. Rose, K. & Kasper, G. (eds.) (2001). Pragmatics and language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
140. Russell, J. & Spada, N. (2006). The effectiveness of corrective feedback for the acquisition of L2 grammar J. Norris & L. Ortega (eds.). Synthesizing research on language learning and teaching (pp. 133-64). Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
141. Rutherford, W. & Sharwood Smith, M. (eds.) (1985). Grammar and second language teaching: A book of readings. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
142. Sanz, C. & Morgan-Short, K. (2004). Positive evidence versus explicit rule presentation and explicit negative feedback: A computer assisted study. Language Learning 54, 1, 35-78.
143. Sawyer, M. & Ranta, L. (2001). Aptitude, individual differences and L2 instruction P. Robinson (ed.). Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 319-53). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
144. Schmidt, R. (1995). Consciousness and foreign language learning: A tutorial on the role of attention and awareness in learning R. Schmidt (ed.). Attention and awareness in foreign language learning (pp. 1-63). Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.
145. Schmidt, R. (2001). Attention P. Robinson (ed.). Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 3-32). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
146. Schwartz, B. (1993). On explicit and negative data effecting and affecting competence and linguistic behavior. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 15, 2, 147-62.
147. Segalowitz, N. (2003). Automaticity and second language acquisition C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (eds.). Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 382-408). Oxford: Blackwell.
148. Sein, M. & Robey, D. (1991). Learning style and the efficacy of computer training methods. Perceptual and Motor Skills 72, 1, 243-8.
149. Sharwood-Smith, M. (1988). Consciousness raising and the second language learner W. Rutherford & M. Sharwood-Smith (eds.). Grammar and second language teaching (pp. 51-60). Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle.
150. Singleton, D. & Ryan, L. (2004). Language acquisition: The age factor. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
151. Skehan, P. (1989). Individual differences in second language learning. London: Edward Arnold.
152. Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
153. Skehan, P. (2002). Theorizing and unpdating aptitude P. Robinson (ed.). Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 69-93). Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
154. Spada, N. (1986). The interaction between type of contact and type of instruction: Some effects on the L2 proficiency of adult learners. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 8,2, 181-99.
155. Spada, N. (1997). Form-focused instruction and second language acquisition: A review of classroom and laboratory research. Language Teaching 30, 73-87.
156. Spada, N. & Lightbown, P. M. (2002). L1 and L2 in the education of Inuit children in northern Quebec: Abilities and perceptions. Language and Education 16, 3, 212-40.
157. Spada, N. & Tomita, Y. (2007). The complexities of selecting complex (and simple) forms in instructed SLA research S. Van Daele, A. Housen, F. Kuiken, M. Pierrard, & I. Vedder (eds.). Complexity, accuracy and fluency in second language use, learning & teaching (pp. 227-54). Wetteren: Universa Press.
158. Sternberg, R. (2002). The theory of successful intelligence and its implications for language aptitude testing P. Robinson (ed.). Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 13-43). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
159. Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning G. Cook & B. Seidlehofer (eds.). Principle and practice in applied linguistics (pp. 245-56). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
160. Swain, M. (1998). Focus on form through conscious reflection. C. J. Doughty & J. Williams (eds.). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 64-81). New York: Cambridge University Press.
161. Swain, M. (2005). The output hypothesis: Theory and research E. Hinkel (ed.). Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 471-83). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
162. Swain, M. & Lapkin, S. (1998). Interaction and second language learning: Two adolescent French immersion students working together. Modern Language Journal 82, 3, 320-37.
163. Tomlin, R. & Villa, V. (1994). Attention in cognitive science and second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 16, 2, 183-203.
164. Towell, R. & Hawkins, R. (1994). Approaches to second language acquisition. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
165. VanPatten, W. (1996). Input processing and grammar instruction in second language acquisition. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
166. VanPatten, B. & Cadierno, T. (1993). Explicit instruction and input processing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 15, 2, 225-43.
167. VanPatten, B. & Sanz, C. (1995). From input to output: Processing instruction and com-municative task F. Eckman, D. Highland, P. Lee, J. Mileham, & R. Weber (eds.). SLA theory and pedagogy (pp. 169-85). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
168. Wesche, M. (1981). Language aptitude measures in streaming, matching students with methods, and diagnosis of learning problems K. Diller (ed.) Individual differences and universals in language aptitude (pp. 119-54). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
169. Wesche, M. & Skehan, P. (2002). Communicative, task-based and content-based language instruction R. Kaplan (ed.) Oxford handbook of applied linguistics (pp. 207-28). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
170. Westhoff, G. J. (2004). The art of playing a pinball machine: Characteristics of effective SLA-tasks. Babylonia 3, 58-62.
171. Williams, J. (1999). Memory, attention and inductive learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21, 1, 1-48.
172. Williams, J. & Evans, J. (1998). What kind of focus and on which forms? In C. J. Doughty & J. Williams (eds.). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 139-51). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
173. Williams, J. (2005). Form-focused instruction E. Hinkel (ed.). Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 671-92). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.