Role of adenosine in the control of inflammatory events associated with acute and chronic neurodegenerative disorders

Adenosine Receptors: Therapeutic Aspects for Inflammatory and Immune Diseases

Volumn , Issue , 2006, Pages 213-236

  Geiger, Jonathan D ^a   Buscemi, Lara ^a   Fotheringham, Julie A ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH DAKOTA   (United States)

^b NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS AND STROKE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 77953621790     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (189)

1. Perry, V.H. and Gordon, S., Macrophages and microglia in the nervous system, Trends Neurosci., 11, 273, 1988.
2. McGeer, P.L. and McGeer, E.G., The inflammatory response system of brain: implications for therapy of Alzheimer and other neurodegenerative diseases, Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev., 21, 195, 1995.
3. Tuppo, E.E. and Arias, H.R., The role of inflammation in Alzheimer’s disease, Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol., 37, 289, 2005.
4. Koistinaho, M. and Koistinaho, J., Interactions between Alzheimer’s disease and cerebral ischemia-focus on inflammation, Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev., 48, 240, 2005.
5. Minghetti, L., Role of inflammation in neurodegenerative diseases, Curr. Opin. Neurol., 18, 315, 2005.
6. McGeer, P.L. and McGeer, E.G., Inflammation and the degenerative diseases of aging, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 1035, 104, 2004.
7. Raivich, G. et al., Neuroglial activation repertoire in the injured brain: graded response, molecular mechanisms and cues to physiological function, Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev., 30, 77, 1999.
8. Szelenyi, J., Cytokines and the central nervous system, Brain Res. Bull., 54, 329, 2001.
9. Arvin, B. et al., The role of inflammation and cytokines in brain injury, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 20, 445, 1996.
10. Tchelingerian, J.L. et al., Localization of TNF alpha and IL-1 alpha immunoreactivities in striatal neurons after surgical injury to the hippocampus, Neuron, 10, 213, 1993.
11. Barone, F.C. et al., Tumor necrosis factor-alpha: a mediator of focal ischemic brain injury, Stroke, 28, 1233, 1997.
12. Geiger, J.D., Parkinson, F.E., and Kowaluk, E., Regulators of endogenous adenosine levels as therapeutic agents, in Purinergic Approaches in Experimental Therapeutics, Jacobson, K.A. and Jarvis, M.F., Eds., John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1997, p. 55.
13. Fredholm, B.B. et al., International Union of Pharmacology. XXV. Nomenclature and classification of adenosine receptors, Pharmacol. Rev., 53, 527, 2001.
14. 3 receptors are required for inhibition of inflammation by methotrexate and its analog MX-68, Arthritis Rheum., 48, 240, 2003.
15. Cronstein, B.N., Adenosine, an endogenous anti-inflammatory agent, J. Appl. Physiol., 76, 5, 1994.
16. Cronstein, B.N., A novel approach to the development of anti-inflammatory agents:adenosine release at inflamed sites, J. Invest. Med., 43, 50, 1995.
17. 1 receptor agonists as clinically viable agents for treatment of ischemic brain disorders, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 825, 23, 1997.
18. Abbracchio, M.P. and Cattabeni, F., Brain adenosine receptors as targets for therapeutic intervention in neurodegenerative diseases, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 890, 79, 1999.
19. 2A adenosine receptor as a physiological immunosuppressor and to engineer inflammation in vivo, Biochem. Pharmacol., 65, 493, 2003.
20. Williams, M. and Jarvis, M.F., Purinergic and pyrimidinergic receptors as potential drug targets, Biochem. Pharmacol., 59, 1173, 2000.
21. 3 receptor to prevent the induction of murine anti-CD3-activated killer T cells, Int. J. Cancer, 99, 386, 2002.
22. 2A extracellular adenosine receptor-mediated signaling in adenosine-mediated inhibition of T-cell activation and expansion, Blood, 90, 1600, 1997.
23. 2B adenosine receptors in human lymphocytes:their role in T cell activation, J. Cell Sci., 112 (Pt. 4), 491, 1999.
24. Klinger, M., Freissmuth, M., and Nanoff, C., Adenosine receptors: G protein-mediated signaling and the role of accessory proteins, Cell Signal., 14, 99, 2002.
25. Nathan, C., Points of control in inflammation, Nature, 420, 846, 2002.
26. Currin, R.T. et al., Inhibition of tumor necrosis factor release from cultured rat Kupffer cells by agents that reduce graft failure from storage injury, Transplant. Proc., 25, 1631, 1993.
27. Le Moine, O. et al., Adenosine enhances IL-10 secretion by human monocytes, J. Immunol., 156, 4408, 1996.
28. Le Vraux, V. et al., Inhibition of human monocyte TNF production by adenosine receptor agonists, Life Sci., 52, 1917, 1993.
29. Linden, J., Adenosine in tissue protection and tissue regeneration, Mol. Pharmacol., 67, 1385, 2005.
30. Eigler, A. et al., Endogenous adenosine curtails lipopolysaccharide-stimulated tumor necrosis factor synthesis, Scand. J. Immunol., 45, 132, 1997.
31. Hasko, G. et al., Adenosine receptor agonists differentially regulate IL-10, TNF-alpha, and nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 macrophages and in endotoxemic mice, J. Immunol., 157, 4634, 1996.
32. 3 receptors on macrophages inhibits tumor necrosis factor-alpha, Eur. J. Pharmacol., 310, 209, 1996.
33. 3adenosine receptors, J. Immunol., 156, 3435, 1996.
34. Bouma, M.G. et al., Differential regulatory effects of adenosine on cytokine release by activated human monocytes, J. Immunol., 153, 4159, 1994.
35. Schubert, P. et al., Protective mechanisms of adenosine in neurons and glial cells, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 825, 1, 1997.
36. Blackburn, M.R., Too much of a good thing: adenosine overload in adenosinedeaminase- deficient mice, Trends Pharmacol. Sci., 24, 66, 2003.
37. 1 receptor mRNA and signaling in cultured rat cortical astrocytes and brain slices, Neuropsychopharmacology, 24, 86, 2001.
38. 2A adenosine receptors by proinflammatory cytokines in rat PC12 cells, Biochem. Pharmacol., 64, 625, 2002.
39. 2A receptors in human monocytic THP-1 cells, J. Immunol., 167, 4026, 2001.
40. 2B adenosine receptor functioning by tumor necrosis factor-α in human astroglial cells, J. Neurochem., 91, 1180, 2004.
41. 2B receptors, J. Neurochem., 86, 220, 2003.
42. 2a receptor-dependent and independent mechanisms, FASEB J., 14, 2065, 2000.
43. 2A receptor activation reduces proinflammatory events and decreases cell death following intracerebral hemorrhage, Ann. Neurol., 49, 727, 2001.
44. Adanin, S. et al., Inhibiting adenosine deaminase modulates the systemic inflammatory response syndrome in endotoxemia and sepsis, Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol., 282, R1324, 2002.
45. Koistinaho, J. and Yrjänheikki, J., Inflammation and potential anti-inflammatory approaches in stroke, in Neuroinflammation: Mechanisms and Management, 2nd ed., Wood, P.L., Ed., Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, 2003, p. 189.
46. Arvin, B. et al., Brain injury and inflammation. A putative role of TNF alpha, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 765, 62, 1995.
47. Dawson, D.A., Martin, D., and Hallenbeck, J.M., Inhibition of tumor necrosis factoralpha reduces focal cerebral ischemic injury in the spontaneously hypertensive rat, Neurosci. Lett., 218, 41, 1996.
48. Nawashiro, H., Martin, D., and Hallenbeck, J.M., Inhibition of tumor necrosis factor and amelioration of brain infarction in mice, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 17, 229, 1997.
49. Nawashiro, H. et al., TNF-alpha pretreatment induces protective effects against focal cerebral ischemia in mice, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 17, 483, 1997.
50. Liu, T. et al., Tumor necrosis factor-alpha expression in ischemic neurons, Stroke, 25, 1481, 1994.
51. Gupta, Y.K. et al., Protective effect of adenosine against neuronal injury induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats as evidenced by diffusion-weighted imaging, Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 72, 569, 2002.
52. 2A receptor blockade, Purinergic Signal., 1, 111, 2005.
53. Laghi Pasini, F. et al., Increase in plasma adenosine during brain ischemia in man:a study during transient ischemic attacks, and stroke, Brain Res. Bull., 51, 327, 2000.
54. 1 receptor binding reduces hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in newborn rats, Brain Res., 759, 309, 1997.
55. 1 receptors impairs the recovery of synaptic transmission after hypoxia, Neuroscience, 132, 575, 2005.
56. Sweeney, M.I., Neuroprotective effects of adenosine in cerebral ischemia: window of opportunity, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 21, 207, 1997.
57. 3 receptors and cerebroprotection in stroke, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 939, 85, 2001.
58. Shen, H. et al., Inosine reduces ischemic brain injury in rats, Stroke, 36, 654, 2005.
59. 3 receptor stimulation and cerebral ischemia, Eur. J. Pharmacol., 263, 59, 1994.
60. 3 receptors and protection against cerebral ischemic damage in gerbils, paper presented at Society of Neuroscience, Abstract, 1997.
61. 3 receptors in cerebral ischemia:neuronal death, recovery, or both?, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 890, 93, 1999.
62. Banfi, C. et al., Pentoxifylline prevents spontaneous brain ischemia in stroke-prone rats, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 310, 890, 2004.
63. 2 receptor antagonist, reduces cerebral ischemic injury in the Mongolian gerbil, Life Sci., 55, PL61, 1994.
64. 2A adenosine receptor antagonists on cerebral ischemic injury in the gerbil, Brain Res., 705, 79, 1995.
65. 2A receptor agonist and antagonist, Eur. J. Pharmacol., 287, 295, 1995.
66. Bona, E. et al., Neonatal cerebral hypoxia-ischemia: the effect of adenosine receptor antagonists, Neuropharmacology, 36, 1327, 1997.
67. 2A receptors by SCH 58261 results in neuroprotective effects in cerebral ischaemia in rats, Neuroreport, 9, 3955, 1998.
68. 2A adenosine receptor blockade, Neuropharmacology, 47, 884, 2004.
69. 2A receptor antagonist, Brain Res., 800, 328, 1998.
70. 2A receptor agonists and antagonists, Neuroscience, 85, 229, 1998.
71. 2A receptor agonist CGS21680, Drug Dev. Res., 39, 108, 1996.
72. 2A adenosine receptor deficiency attenuates brain injury induced by transient focal ischemia in mice, J. Neurosci., 19, 9192, 1999.
73. 2A receptors in bone marrow cells reveals their significant contribution to the development of ischemic brain injury, Nat. Med., 10, 1081, 2004.
74. 2A receptors in ischemia, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 939, 74, 2001.
75. del Zoppo, G.J., Microvascular responses to cerebral ischemia/inflammation, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 823, 132, 1997.
76. Tomimoto, H. et al., Glial expression of cytokines in the brains of cerebrovascular disease patients, Acta Neuropathol. (Berl.), 92, 281, 1996.
77. Mathiesen, T. et al., Cerebrospinal fluid interleukin-1 receptor antagonist and tumor necrosis factor-alpha following subarachnoid hemorrhage, J. Neurosurg., 87, 215, 1997.
78. Meistrell, M.E., III et al., Tumor necrosis factor is a brain damaging cytokine in cerebral ischemia, Shock, 8, 341, 1997.
79. Baeuerle, P.A. and Henkel, T., Function and activation of NF-kappa B in the immune system, Annu. Rev. Immunol., 12, 141, 1994.
80. Heneka, M.T. et al., Induction of nitric oxide synthase and nitric oxide-mediated apoptosis in neuronal PC12 cells after stimulation with tumor necrosis factoralpha/lipopolysaccharide, J. Neurochem., 71, 88, 1998.
81. Mayne, M. et al., Antisense oligodeoxynucleotide inhibition of tumor necrosis factoralpha expression is neuroprotective after intracerebral hemorrhage, Stroke, 32, 240, 2001.
82. Olah, M.E., Ren, H., and Stiles, G.L., Adenosine receptors: protein and gene structure, Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. Ther., 329, 135, 1995.
83. 2A receptors and neuroprotection, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 825, 30, 1997.
84. 2 receptor occupancy regulates stimulated neutrophil function via activation of a serine/threonine protein phosphatase, J. Biol. Chem., 271, 17114, 1996.
85. Cronstein, B.N. et al., Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents inhibit stimulated neutrophil adhesion to endothelium: adenosine dependent and independent mechanisms, Inflammation, 18, 323, 1994.
86. 3 receptors, J. Immunol., 158, 5400, 1997.
87. Holmin, S. et al., Intracerebral inflammation after human brain contusion, Neurosurgery, 42, 291, 1998.
88. Sullivan, P.G. et al., Dietary supplement creatine protects against traumatic brain injury, Ann. Neurol., 48, 723, 2000.
89. Schmidt, O.I. et al., Closed head injury: an inflammatory disease?, Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev., 48, 388, 2005.
90. Nilsson, P. et al., Changes in cortical extracellular levels of energy-related metabolites and amino acids following concussive brain injury in rats, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 10, 631, 1990.
91. Headrick, J.P. et al., Dissociation of adenosine levels from bioenergetic state in experimental brain trauma: potential role in secondary injury, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 14, 853, 1994.
92. Bell, M.J. et al., Interstitial adenosine, inosine, and hypoxanthine are increased after experimental traumatic brain injury in the rat, J. Neurotrauma, 15, 163, 1998.
93. Bell, M.J. et al., Interstitial brain adenosine and xanthine increase during jugular venous oxygen desaturations in humans after traumatic brain injury, Crit. Care Med., 29, 399, 2001.
94. Robertson, C.L. et al., Increased adenosine in cerebrospinal fluid after severe traumatic brain injury in infants and children: association with severity of injury and excitotoxicity, Crit. Care Med., 29, 2287, 2001.
95. Clark, R.S. et al., Cerebrospinal fluid adenosine concentration and uncoupling of cerebral blood flow and oxidative metabolism after severe head injury in humans, Neurosurgery, 41, 1284, 1997.
96. Kochanek, P.M. et al., The role of adenosine during the period of delayed cerebral swelling after severe traumatic brain injury in humans, Acta Neurochir. Suppl., 70, 109, 1997.
97. Phillis, J.W. and Goshgarian, H.G., Adenosine and neurotrauma: therapeutic perspectives, Neurol. Res., 23, 183, 2001.
98. Varma, M.R. et al., Administration of adenosine receptor agonists or antagonists after controlled cortical impact in mice: effects on function and histopathology, Brain Res., 951, 191, 2002.
99. Al Moutaery, K. et al., Caffeine impairs short-term neurological outcome after concussive head injury in rats, Neurosurgery, 53, 704, 2003.
100. Kochanek, P.M. et al., Characterization of the effects of adenosine receptor agonists on cerebral blood flow in uninjured and traumatically injured rat brain using continuous arterial spin-labeled magnetic resonance imaging, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 2005.
101. 1 agonist in rat hippocampal cells, Neurosurgery, 36, 1003, 1995.
102. Rieckmann, P. and Smith, K.J., Multiple sclerosis: more than inflammation and demyelination, Trends Neurosci., 24, 435, 2001.
103. Matute, C. et al., The link between excitotoxic oligodendroglial death and demyelinating diseases, Trends Neurosci., 24, 224, 2001.
104. Zamvil, S.S. and Steinman, L., Diverse targets for intervention during inflammatory and neurodegenerative phases of multiple sclerosis, Neuron, 38, 685, 2003.
105. Navikas, V. and Link, H., Review: cytokines and the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis, J Neurosci. Res., 45, 322, 1996.
106. Selmaj, K. et al., Identification of lymphotoxin and tumor necrosis factor in multiple sclerosis lesions, J. Clin. Invest., 87, 949, 1991.
107. Selmaj, K., Raine, C.S., and Cross, A.H., Anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy abrogates autoimmune demyelination, Ann. Neurol., 30, 694, 1991.
108. Probert, L. et al., Spontaneous inflammatory demyelinating disease in transgenic mice showing central nervous system-specific expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 92, 11294, 1995.
109. Frei, K. et al., Tumor necrosis factor alpha and lymphotoxin alpha are not required for induction of acute experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, J. Exp. Med., 185, 2177, 1997.
110. The Lenercept Multiple Sclerosis Study Group and the University of British Columbia MS/MRI Analysis Group, TNF neutralization in MS: results of a randomized, placebo-controlled multicenter study, Neurology, 53, 457, 1999.
111. Arnett, H.A. et al., TNF alpha promotes proliferation of oligodendrocyte progenitors and remyelination, Nat. Neurosci., 4, 1116, 2001.
112. Mousavizadeh, K. et al., Uric acid: a novel treatment strategy for multiple sclerosis, Trends Pharmacol. Sci., 24, 563, 2003.
113. Hooper, D.C. et al., Uric acid, a natural scavenger of peroxynitrite, in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95, 675, 1998.
114. Spitsin, S. et al., Inactivation of peroxynitrite in multiple sclerosis patients after oral administration of inosine may suggest possible approaches to therapy of the disease, Mult. Scler., 7, 313, 2001.
115. Stevens, B. et al., Adenosine: a neuron-glial transmitter promoting myelination in the CNS in response to action potentials, Neuron, 36, 855, 2002.
116. 1 receptor-mediated cytokine expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from multiple sclerosis patients, Ann. Neurol., 45, 633, 1999.
117. 1 receptor expression on macrophages in brain and blood of patients with multiple sclerosis, Ann. Neurol., 49, 650, 2001.
118. 1 adenosine receptor upregulation and activation attenuates neuroinflammation and demyelination in a model of multiple sclerosis, J. Neurosci., 24, 1521, 2004.
119. McGeer, P.L., Schulzer, M., and McGeer, E.G., Arthritis and anti-inflammatory agents as possible protective factors for Alzheimer’s disease: a review of 17 epidemiologic studies, Neurology, 47, 425, 1996.
120. Atwood, C.S. et al., Neuroinflammatory environments promote amyloid-β deposition and posttranslational modification, in Neuroinflammation: Mechanisms and Management, 2nd ed., Wood, P.L., Ed., Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, 2003, p. 249.
121. Akiyama, H. et al., Inflammation and Alzheimer’s disease, Neurobiol. Aging, 21, 383, 2000.
122. 1 receptors to G proteins in Alzheimer hippocampus: a quantitative autoradiographic study, Neuroscience, 52, 843, 1993.
123. 1 receptors in dementia:evidence for lack of specificity, Neurosci. Lett., 244, 1, 1998.
124. Angulo, E. et al., A1 adenosine receptors accumulate in neurodegenerative structures in Alzheimer disease and mediate both amyloid precursor protein processing and tau phosphorylation and translocation, Brain Pathol., 13, 440, 2003.
125. Maia, L. and de Mendonca, A., Does caffeine intake protect from Alzheimer’s disease?, Eur. J. Neurol., 9, 377, 2002.
126. Ross, G.W. et al., Association of coffee and caffeine intake with the risk of Parkinson disease, JAMA, 283, 2674, 2000.
127. 2A receptor blockade of beta-amyloid neurotoxicity, Br. J. Pharmacol., 138, 1207, 2003.
128. 2A receptors and therapeutic applications, Curr. Top. Med. Chem., 3, 413, 2003.
129. Hunot, S. and Hirsch, E.C., Neuroinflammatory processes in Parkinson’s disease, Ann. Neurol., 53(Suppl. 3), S49, 2003.
130. Rogers, J. and Kovelowski, C.J., Inflammatory mechanisms in Parkinson’s disease, in Neuroinflammation: Mechanisms and Management, 2nd ed., Wood, P.L., Ed., Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, 2003, p. 391.
131. Lawson, L.J. et al., Heterogeneity in the distribution and morphology of microglia in the normal adult mouse brain, Neuroscience, 39, 151, 1990.
132. McGeer, P.L. et al., Reactive microglia are positive for HLA-DR in the substantia nigra of Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease brains, Neurology, 38, 1285, 1988.
133. Cagnin, A., Gerhard, A., and Banati, R.B., In vivo imaging of neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases, in Neuroinflammation: Mechanisms and Management, 2nd ed., Wood, P.L., Ed., Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, 2003, p. 379.
134. Orr, C.F., Rowe, D.B., and Halliday, G.M., An inflammatory review of Parkinson’s disease, Prog. Neurobiol., 68, 325, 2002.
135. Mogi, M. et al., Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) increases both in the brain and in the cerebrospinal fluid from Parkinsonian patients, Neurosci. Lett., 165, 208, 1994.
136. Liu, B. and Hong, J.S., Role of microglia in inflammation-mediated neurodegenerative diseases: mechanisms and strategies for therapeutic intervention, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 304, 1, 2003.
137. Liu, B., Gao, H.M., and Hong, J.S., Parkinson’s disease and exposure to infectious agents and pesticides and the occurrence of brain injuries: role of neuroinflammation, Environ. Health Perspect., 111, 1065, 2003.
138. Pierri, M. et al., KW-6002 protects from MPTP induced dopaminergic toxicity in the mouse, Neuropharmacology, 48, 517, 2005.
139. Alexi, T. et al., Neuroprotective strategies for basal ganglia degeneration: Parkinson’s and Huntington’s diseases, Prog. Neurobiol., 60, 409, 2000.
140. Gao, H.M. et al., Novel anti-inflammatory therapy for Parkinson’s disease, Trends Pharmacol. Sci., 24, 395, 2003.
141. Hirsch, E.C. et al., The role of glial reaction and inflammation in Parkinson’s disease, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 991, 214, 2003.
142. Ribeiro, J.A., Sebastiao, A.M., and de Mendonca, A., Adenosine receptors in the nervous system: pathophysiological implications, Prog. Neurobiol., 68, 377, 2002.
143. 2A receptors in the brain of Parkinson’s disease patients with dyskinesias, Brain, 127, 1075, 2004.
144. 2A receptor mRNA in 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats intermittently treated with L-DOPA, Synapse, 52, 218, 2004.
145. 2A receptor antagonists in Parkinson’s disease, Pharmacol. Ther., 105, 267, 2005.
146. 2A receptor antagonist, J. Neurosci., 20, 5848, 2000.
147. 2A receptor blockade in experimental models of Parkinson’s disease, J. Neurochem., 80, 262, 2002.
148. 2A antagonists: potential preventive and palliative treatment for Parkinson’s disease, Exp. Neurol., 184, 20, 2003.
149. 2A receptor agonist CGS 21680 in an animal model of Parkinson’s disease, Brain Res. Bull., 64, 155, 2004.
150. 2A-receptors, Glia, 18, 152, 1996.
151. Ozdener, H., Molecular mechanisms of HIV-1 associated neurodegeneration, J. Biosci., 30, 391, 2005.
152. Wiley, C.A. and Achim, C., Human immunodeficiency virus encephalitis is the pathological correlate of dementia in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Ann. Neurol., 36, 673, 1994.
153. Kaul, M. et al., HIV-1 infection and AIDS: consequences for the central nervous system, Cell Death Differ., 12 Suppl. 1, 878, 2005.
154. Nath, A. and Geiger, J., Neurobiological aspects of human immunodeficiency virus infection: neurotoxic mechanisms, Prog. Neurobiol., 54, 19, 1998.
155. Gelman, B.B. et al., Acquired neuronal channelopathies in HIV-associated dementia, J. Neuroimmunol., 157, 111, 2004.
156. Fotheringham, J. et al., Adenosine receptors control HIV-1 Tat-induced inflammatory responses through protein phosphatase, Virology, 327, 186, 2004.
157. Perry, S.W. et al., HIV-1 transactivator of transcription protein induces mitochondrial hyperpolarization and synaptic stress leading to apoptosis, J. Immunol., 174, 4333, 2005.
158. 2A antagonists, J. Neurosci., 23, 5361, 2003.
159. Brouillet, E. et al., Replicating Huntington’s disease phenotype in experimental animals, Prog. Neurobiol., 59, 427, 1999.
160. Blum, D. et al., Adenosine receptors and Huntington’s disease: implications for pathogenesis and therapeutics, Lancet Neurol., 2, 366, 2003.
161. Sapp, E. et al., Early and progressive accumulation of reactive microglia in the Huntington disease brain, J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol., 60, 161, 2001.
162. Blum, D. et al., Striatal and cortical neurochemical changes induced by chronic metabolic compromise in the 3-nitropropionic model of Huntington’s disease, Neurobiol. Dis., 10, 410, 2002.
163. Chou, S.Y. et al., CGS21680 attenuates symptoms of Huntington’s disease in a transgenic mouse model, J. Neurochem., 93, 310, 2005.
164. 2 receptors: selective localization in the human basal ganglia and alterations with disease, Neuroscience, 42, 697, 1991.
165. Glass, M., Dragunow, M., and Faull, R.L., The pattern of neurodegeneration in Huntington’s disease: a comparative study of cannabinoid, dopamine, adenosine and GABA(A) receptor alterations in the human basal ganglia in Huntington’s disease, Neuroscience, 97, 505, 2000.
166. Luthi-Carter, R. et al., Decreased expression of striatal signaling genes in a mouse model of Huntington’s disease, Hum. Mol. Genet., 9, 1259, 2000.
167. 2 receptor-mediated effects on immediate early gene induction in a transgenic mouse model of Huntington’s disease, Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res., 102, 118, 2002.
168. Cha, J.H. et al., Altered neurotransmitter receptor expression in transgenic mouse models of Huntington’s disease, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci., 354, 981, 1999.
169. Bauer, A. et al., Regional and subtype selective changes of neurotransmitter receptor density in a rat transgenic for the Huntington’s disease mutation, J. Neurochem., 94, 639, 2005.
170. 2A receptor signaling in striatal cells expressing mutant huntingtin, FASEB J., 15, 1245, 2001.
171. 2A receptor function in peripheral blood cells in Huntington’s disease, FASEB J., 17, 2148, 2003.
172. 1 receptor agonist adenosine amine congener exerts a neuroprotective effect against the development of striatal lesions and motor impairments in the 3-nitropropionic acid model of neurotoxicity, J. Neurosci., 22, 9122, 2002.
173. Reggio, R., Pezzola, A., and Popoli, P., The intrastratial injection of an adenosine A(2) receptor antagonist prevents frontal cortex EEG abnormalities in a rat model of Huntington’s disease, Brain Res., 831, 315, 1999.
174. 2A antagonism increases striatal glutamate outflow in the quinolinic acid rat model of Huntington’s disease, Brain Res., 979, 225, 2003.
175. 2A receptor reduces, through a presynaptic mechanism, quinolinic acid-induced excitotoxicity: possible relevance to neuroprotective interventions in neurodegenerative diseases of the striatum, J. Neurosci., 22, 1967, 2002.
176. 2A receptors reduces transmitter outflow, Neurobiol. Dis., 17, 77, 2004.
177. 2A receptor attenuates 3-nitropropionic acid-induced striatal damage, J. Neurochem., 88, 538, 2004.
178. 2a adenosine receptors, Glia, 39, 133, 2002.
179. Ohta, A. and Sitkovsky, M., Role of G-protein-coupled adenosine receptors in downregulation of inflammation and protection from tissue damage, Nature, 414, 916, 2001.
180. Jankowsky, J.L. and Patterson, P.H., The role of cytokines and growth factors in seizures and their sequelae, Prog. Neurobiol., 63, 125, 2001.
181. Yuhas, Y. et al., Involvement of tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-1 beta in enhancement of pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures caused by Shigella dysenteriae, Infect. Immun., 67, 1455, 1999.
182. Penkowa, M. et al., Interleukin-6 deficiency reduces the brain inflammatory response and increases oxidative stress and neurodegeneration after kainic acid-induced seizures, Neuroscience, 102, 805, 2001.
183. Gahring, L.C. et al., Interleukin-1 alpha in the brain is induced by audiogenic seizure, Neurobiol. Dis., 3, 263, 1997.
184. Sheng, J.G. et al., Increased neuronal beta-amyloid precursor protein expression in human temporal lobe epilepsy: association with interleukin-1 alpha immunoreactivity, J. Neurochem., 63, 1872, 1994.
185. de Bock, F., Dornand, J., and Rondouin, G., Release of TNF alpha in the rat hippocampus following epileptic seizures and excitotoxic neuronal damage, Neuroreport, 7, 1125, 1996.
186. Etherington, L.A. and Frenguelli, B.G., Endogenous adenosine modulates epileptiform activity in rat hippocampus in a receptor subtype-dependent manner, Eur. J. Neurosci., 19, 2539, 2004.
187. Noji, T., Karasawa, A., and Kusaka, H., Adenosine uptake inhibitors, Eur. J. Pharmacol., 495, 1, 2004.
188. 1 receptors and the anticonvulsant potential of drugs effective in the model of 3-nitropropionic acidinduced seizures in mice, Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol., 15, 85, 2005.
189. 1 receptor desensitization after focal long-term delivery of adenosine by encapsulated myoblasts, Exp. Neurol., 193, 53, 2005.