Engineering the spatial selectivity of surfaces at the nanoscale using particle lithography combined with vapor deposition of organosilanes

ACS Nano

Volumn 3, Issue 7, 2009, Pages 2023-2035

  Li, Jie Ren ^a   Lusker, Kathie L ^a   Yu, Jing Jiang ^b   Garno, Jayne C ^a  

^a LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b AGILENT TECHNOLOGIES   (United States)

Author keywords

Atomic force microscopy; Gold nanoparticles; Nanolithography; Nanopatterns; Organosilanes; Particle lithography; Self assembled monolayers

Indexed keywords

ATOMIC FORCE; COMPLEX STRUCTURE; GOLD NANOPARTICLES; MOLECULARLY THIN FILMS; MONODISPERSE LATEX SPHERES; NANO PATTERN; NANO SCALE; NANOPATTERNS; ORGANOSILANES; PARTICLE LITHOGRAPHY; SMALL SIZE; SPATIAL SELECTIVITY; SURFACE COVERAGES; SURFACE SITES; TERMINAL GROUPS; VACUUM ENVIRONMENT; VAPOR PHASE; WATER RESIDUES;

ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY; ATOMS; CENTRIFUGATION; GOLD; GOLD DEPOSITS; NANOLITHOGRAPHY; NANOPARTICLES; NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS; SELF ASSEMBLED MONOLAYERS; WATER VAPOR;

SILANES;

EID: 68649097143     PISSN: 19360851     EISSN: 1936086X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1021/nn9004796     Document Type: Article

References (95)

1. Xia, Y. N.; Whitesides, G. M. Soft Lithography. Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 1998, 28, 153-184.
2. Geissler, M.; Xia, Y. N. Patterning: Principles and Some New Developments. Adv. Mater. 2004, 16, 1249-1269.
3. Barth, J. V.; Costantini, G.; Kern, K. Engineering Atomic and Molecular Nanostructures at Surfaces. Nature 2005, 437, 671-679.
4. Rosi, N. L.; Mirkin, C. A. Nanostructures in Biodiagnostics. Chem. Rev. 2005, 105, 1547-1562.
5. Woodson, M.; Liu, J. Functional Nanostructures from Surface Chemistry Patterning. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2007, 9, 207-225.
6. Himpsel, F. J.; Ortega, J. E.; Mankey, G. J.; Willis, R. F. Magnetic Nanostructures. Adv. Phys. 1998, 47, 511-597.
7. Chou, S. Y. Patterned Magnetic Nanostructures and Quantized Magnetic Disks. Proc. IEEE 1997, 85, 652-671.
8. Tiwari, S.; Rana, F.; Hanafi, H.; Hartstein, A.; Crabbe, E. F.; Chan, K. A Silicon Nanocrystals Based Memory. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1996, 68, 1377-1379.
9. Joachim, C.; Gimzewski, J. K.; Aviram, A. Electronics Using Hybrid-Molecular and Mono-Molecular Devices. Nature 2000, 408, 541-548.
10. Duan, X. F.; Huang, Y.; Cui, Y.; Wang, J. F.; Lieber, C. M. Indium Phosphide Nanowires as Building Blocks for Nanoscale Electronic and Optoelectronic Devices. Nature 2001, 409, 66-69. (Pubitemid 32098623)
11. Wang, X. D.; Summers, C. J.; Wang, Z. L. Large-Scale Hexagonal-Patterned Growth of Aligned ZnO Nanorods for Nano-Optoelectronics and Nanosensor Arrays. Nano Lett. 2004, 4, 423-426.
12. Shipway, A. N.; Katz, E.; Willner, I. Nanoparticle Arrays on Surfaces for Electronic, Optical, and Sensor Applications. ChemPhysChem 2000, 1, 18-52.
13. Lin, Y. H.; Lu, F.; Tu, Y.; Ren, Z. F. Glucose Biosensors Based on Carbon Nanotube Nanoelectrode Ensembles. Nano Lett. 2004, 4, 191-195. (Pubitemid 38292886)
14. Kong, J.; Franklin, N. R.; Zhou, C. W.; Chapline, M. G.; Peng, S.; Cho, K. J.; Dai, H. J. Nanotube Molecular Wires as Chemical Sensors. Science 2000, 287, 622-625.
15. Zhou, C.; Deshpande, M. R.; Reed, M. A.; Jones, L.; Tour, J. M. Nanoscale Metal Self-Assembled Monolayer Metal Heterostructures. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1997, 71, 611-613.
16. Reed, M. A.; Zhou, C.; Muller, C. J.; Burgin, T. P.; Tour, J. M. Conductance of a Molecular Junction. Science 1997, 278, 252-254.
17. Wolkow, R. A. Controlled Molecular Adsorption on Silicon: Laying a Foundation for Molecular Devices. Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem. 1999, 50, 413-441.
18. Wadu-Mesthrige, K.; Xu, S.; Amro, N. A.; Liu, G. Y. Fabrication and Imaging of Nanometer-Sized Protein Patterns. Langmuir 1999, 15, 8580-8583.
19. Hyun, J.; Ahn, S. J.; Lee, W. K.; Chilkoti, A.; Zauscher, S. Molecular Recognition-Mediated Fabrication of Protein Nanostructures by Dip-Pen Lithography. Nano Lett. 2002, 2, 1203-1207.
20. Hrapovic, S.; Liu, Y. L.; Male, K. B.; Luong, J. H. T. Electrochemical Biosensing Platforms Using Platinum Nanoparticles and Carbon Nanotubes. Anal. Chem. 2004, 76, 1083-1088. (Pubitemid 38236196)
21. Haynes, C. L.; Van Duyne, R. P. Nanosphere Lithography: A Versatile Nanofabrication Tool for Studies of Size- Dependent Nanoparticle Optics. J. Phys. Chem. B 2001, 105, 5599-5611.
22. Xia, Y. N.; Gates, B.; Yin, Y. D.; Lu, Y. Monodispersed Colloidal Spheres: Old Materials with New Applications. Adv. Mater. 2000, 12, 693-713.
23. Tessier, P.; Velev, O. D.; Kalambur, A. T.; Lenhoff, A. M.; Rabolt, J. F.; Kaler, E. W. Structured Metallic Films for Optical and Spectroscopic Applications via Colloidal Crystal Templating. Adv. Mater. 2001, 13, 396-400.
24. Jiang, P.; McFarland, M. J. Large-Scale Fabrication of Wafer- Size Colloidal Crystals, Macroporous Polymers and Nanocomposites by Spin-Coating. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 13778-13786.
25. Jiang, P.; Hwang, K. S.; Mittleman, D. M.; Bertone, J. F.; Colvin, V. L. Template-Directed Preparation of Macroporous Polymers with Oriented and Crystalline Arrays of Voids. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1999, 121, 11630-11637.
26. Briseno, A. L.; Han, S. B.; Rauda, I. E.; Zhou, F. M.; Toh, C. S.; Nemanick, E. J.; Lewis, N. S. Electrochemical Polymerization of Aniline Monomers Infiltrated into Well-Ordered Truncated Eggshell Structures of Polyelectrolyte Multilayers. Langmuir 2004, 20, 219-226.
27. Gustavsson, M.; Fredriksson, H.; Kasemo, B.; Jusys, Z.; Kaiser, J.; Jun, C.; Behm, R. J. Nanostructured Platinum-on- Carbon Model Electrocatalysts Prepared by Colloidal Lithography. J. Electroanal. Chem. 2004, 568, 371-377.
28. Lewandowski, B. R.; Kelley, A. T.; Singleton, R.; Li, J.-R.; Lowry, M.; Warner, I. M.; Garno, J. C. Nanostructures of Cysteine-Coated CdS Nanoparticles Produced with "Two- Particle" Lithography. J. Phys. Chem. C 2009, 113, 5933-5940.
29. Chen, J. X.; Liao, W. S.; Chen, X.; Yang, T. L.; Wark, S. E.; Son, D. H.; Batteas, J. D.; Cremer, P. S. Evaporation-Induced Assembly of Quantum Dots into Nanorings. ACS Nano 2009, 3, 173-180.
30. McLellan, J. M.; Geissler, M.; Xia, Y. N. Edge Spreading Lithography and its Application to the Fabrication of Mesoscopic Gold and Silver Rings. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 10830-10831.
31. Geissler, M.; McLellan, J. M.; Chen, J. Y.; Xia, Y. N. Side-by- Side Patterning of Multiple Alkanethiolate Monolayers on Gold by Edge-Spreading Lithography. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2005, 44, 3596-3600.
32. Bae, C.; Shin, H. J.; Moon, J.; Sung, M. M. Contact Area Lithography (CAL): A New Approach to Direct Formation of Nanometric Chemical Patterns. Chem. Mater. 2006, 18, 1085-1088.
33. Li, J. R.; Garno, J. C. Elucidating the Role of Surface Hydrolysis in Preparing Organosilane Nanostructures via Particle Lithography. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 1916-1922.
34. Garno, J. C.; Amro, N. A.; Wadu-Mesthrige, K.; Liu, G. Y. Production of Periodic Arrays of Protein Nanostructures Using Particle Lithography. Langmuir 2002, 18, 8186-8192.
35. Cai, Y. G.; Ocko, B. M. Large-Scale Fabrication of Protein Nanoarrays Based on Nanosphere Lithography. Langmuir 2005, 21, 9274-9279.
36. Li, J. R.; Henry, G. C.; Garno, J. C. Fabrication of Nanopatterned Films of Bovine Serum Albumin and Staphylococcal Protein A Using Latex Particle Lithography. Analyst 2006, 131, 244-250.
37. Ngunjiri, J. N.; Daniels, S. L.; Li, J. R.; Serem, W. K.; Garno, J. C. Controlling the Surface Coverage and Arrangement of Proteins Using Particle Lithography. Nanomedicine 2008, 3, 529-541.
38. Li, J. R.; Garno, J. C. Nanostructures of Octadecyltrisiloxane Self-Assembled Monolayers Produced on Au(111) Using Particle Lithography. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2009, 1, 969-976.
39. Sagiv, J. Organized Monolayers by Adsorption 0.1. Formation and Structure of Oleophobic Mixed Monolayers on Solid-Surfaces. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 92-98.
40. Ulman, A. Formation and Structure of Self-Assembled Monolayers. Chem. Rev. 1996, 96, 1533-1554.
41. Love, J. C.; Estroff, L. A.; Kriebel, J. K.; Nuzzo, R. G.; Whitesides, G. M. Self-Assembled Monolayers of Thiolates on Metals as a Form of Nanotechnology. Chem. Rev. 2005, 105, 1103-1169.
42. Onclin, S.; Ravoo, B. J.; Reinhoudt, D. N. Engineering Silicon Oxide Surfaces Using Self-Assembled Monolayers. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2005, 44, 6282-6304.
43. Brzoska, J. B.; Benazouz, I.; Rondelez, F. Silanization of Solid Substrates-A Step toward Reproducibility. Langmuir 1994, 10, 4367-4373.
44. Hozumi, A.; Ushiyama, K.; Sugimura, H.; Takai, O. Fluoroalkylsilane Monolayers Formed by Chemical Vapor Surface Modification on Hydroxylated Oxide Surfaces. Langmuir 1999, 15, 7600-7604.
45. Grabar, K. C.; Allison, K. J.; Baker, B. E.; Bright, R. M.; Brown, K. R.; Freeman, R. G.; Fox, A. P.; Keating, C. D.; Musick, M. D.; Natan, M. J. Two-Dimensional Arrays of Colloidal Gold Particles: A Flexible Approach to Macroscopic Metal Surfaces. Langmuir 1996, 12, 2353-2361.
46. Gao, Y. F.; Koumoto, K. Bioinspired Ceramic Thin Film Processing: Present Status and Future Perspectives. Cryst. Growth Des. 2005, 5, 1983-2017.
47. Chrisey, L. A.; Lee, G. U.; Oferrall, C. E. Covalent Attachment of Synthetic DNA to Self-Assembled Monolayer Films. Nucleic Acids Res. 1996, 24, 3031-3039.
48. Mooney, J. F.; Hunt, A. J.; McIntosh, J. R.; Liberko, C. A.; Walba, D. M.; Rogers, C. T. Patterning of Functional Antibodies and Other Proteins by Photolithography of Silane Monolayers s. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1996, 93, 12287-12291.
49. Wasserman, S. R.; Tao, Y. T.; Whitesides, G. M. Structure and Reactivity of Alkylsiloxane Monolayers Formed by Reaction of Alkyltrichlorosilanes on Silicon Substrates. Langmuir 1989, 5, 1074-1087.
50. Balachander, N.; Sukenik, C. N. Monolayer Transformation by Nucleophilic-SubstitutionOApplications to the Creation of New Monolayer Assemblies. Langmuir 1990, 6, 1621-1627.
51. Maoz, R.; Cohen, S. R.; Sagiv, J. Nanoelectrochemical Patterning of Monolayer Surfaces: toward Spatially Defined Self-Assembly of Nanostructures. Adv. Mater. 1999, 11, 55-61.
52. 3 Terminal Groups. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 6300-6310.
53. Dulcey, C. S.; Georger, J. H.; Krauthamer, V.; Stenger, D. A.; Fare, T. L.; Calvert, J. M. Deep UV Photochemistry of Chemisorbed Monolayers-Patterned Coplanar Molecular Assemblies. Science 1991, 252, 551-554.
54. Brandow, S. L.; Chen, M. S.; Aggarwal, R.; Dulcey, C. S.; Calvert, J. M.; Dressick, W. J. Fabrication of Patterned Amine Reactivity Templates Using 4- Chloromethylphenylsiloxane Self-Assembled Monolayer Films. Langmuir 1999, 15, 5429-5432.
55. Lercel, M. J.; Redinbo, G. F.; Pardo, F. D.; Rooks, M.; Tiberio, R. C.; Simpson, P.; Craighead, H. G.; Sheen, C. W.; Parikh, A. N.; Allara, D. L. Electron-Beam Lithography with Monolayers of Alkylthiols and Alkylsiloxanes. J. Vac. Sci. Technol., B 1994, 12, 3663-3667.
56. Lercel, M. J.; Craighead, H. G.; Parikh, A. N.; Seshadri, K.; Allara, D. L. Sub-10 nm Lithography with Self-Assembled Monolayers. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1996, 68, 1504-1506.
57. Xia, Y. N.; Mrksich, M.; Kim, E.; Whitesides, G. M. Microcontact Printing of Octadecylsiloxane on the Surface of Silicon Dioxide and Its Application in Microfabrication. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 9576-9577.
58. 2 Surfaces Using Self-Assembled Monolayers. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1997, 70, 1593-1595.
59. Ivanisevic, A.; Mirkin, C. A. "Dip-Pen" Nanolithography on Semiconductor Surfaces. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2001, 123, 7887-7889.
60. Jung, H.; Kulkarni, R.; Collier, C. P. Dip-Pen Nanolithography of Reactive Alkoxysilanes on Glass. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 12096-12097.
61. Jourdan, J. S.; Cruchon-Dupeyrat, S. J.; Huan, Y.; Kuo, P. K.; Liu, G. Y. Imaging Nanoscopic Elasticity of Thin Film Materials by Atomic Force Microscopy: Effects of Force Modulation Frequency and Amplitude. Langmuir 1999, 15, 6495-6504.
62. Headrick, J. E.; Armstrong, M.; Cratty, J.; Hammond, S.; Sheriff, B. A.; Berrie, C. L. Nanoscale Patterning of Alkyl Monolayers on Silicon Using the Atomic Force Microscope. Langmuir 2005, 21, 4117-4122.
63. Gu, J. H.; Yam, C. M.; Li, S.; Cai, C. Z. Nanometric Protein Arrays on Protein-Resistant Monolayers on Silicon Surfaces. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 8098-8099.
64. Maoz, R.; Frydman, E.; Cohen, S. R.; Sagiv, J. Constructive Nanolithography: Site-Defined Silver Self-Assembly onNanoelectrochemically Patterned Monolayer Templates. Adv. Mater. 2000, 12, 424-429.
65. Maoz, R.; Frydman, E.; Cohen, S. R.; Sagiv, J. "Constructive Nanolithography": Inert Monolayers as Patternable Templates for In-Situ Nanofabrication of Metal- Semiconductor-Organic Surface StructuresOGeneric Approach. Adv. Mater. 2000, 12, 725-731.
66. Hoeppener, S.; Maoz, R.; Sagiv, J. Constructive Microlithography: Electrochemical Printing of Monolayer Template Patterns Extends Constructive Nanolithography to the Micrometer-Millimeter Dimension Range. Nano Lett. 2003, 3, 761-767.
67. Denkov, N. D.; Velev, O. D.; Kralchevsky, P. A.; Ivanov, I. B.; Yoshimura, H.; Nagayama, K. Mechanism of Formation of 2-Dimensional Crystals from Latex-Particles on Substrates. Langmuir 1992, 8, 3183-3190.
68. Prevo, B. G.; Velev, O. D. Controlled, Rapid Deposition of Structured Coatings from Micro- and Nanoparticle Suspensions. Langmuir 2004, 20, 2099-2107.
69. Kim, S.; Christenson, H. K.; Curry, J. E. The Effect of Humidity on the Stability of an Octadecyltriethoxysilane Monolayer Self-Assembled on Untreated and Plasma- Treated Mica. Langmuir 2002, 18, 2125-2129.
70. Kessel, C. R.; Granick, S. Formation and Characterization of a Highly Ordered and Well-Anchored Alkylsilane Monolayer on Mica by Self-Assembly. Langmuir 1991, 7, 532-538.
71. Schwartz, D. K.; Steinberg, S.; Israelachvili, J.; Zasadzinski, J. A. N. Growth of a Self-Assembled Monolayer by Fractal Aggregation. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1992, 69, 3354-3357.
72. Bierbaum, K.; Grunze, M.; Baski, A. A.; Chi, L. F.; Schrepp, W.; Fuchs, H. Growth of Self-Assembled N-Alkyltrichlorosilane Films on Si(100) Investigated by Atomic-Force Microscopy. Langmuir 1995, 11, 2143-2150.
73. Banga, R.; Yarwood, J.; Morgan, A. M.; Evans, B.; Kells, J. FTIR and AFM Studies of the Kinetics and Self-Assembly of Alkyltrichlorosilanes and (Perfluoroalkyl)trichlorosilanes onto Glass and Silicon. Langmuir 1995, 11, 4393-4399.
74. Vallant, T.; Brunner, H.; Mayer, U.; Hoffmann, H.; Leitner, T.; Resch, R.; Friedbacher, G. Formation of Self-Assembled Octadecylsiloxane Monolayers on Mica and Silicon Surfaces Studied by Atomic Force Microscopy and Infrared Spectroscopy. J. Phys. Chem. B 1998, 102, 7190-7197.
75. Vandenberg, E. T.; Bertilsson, L.; Liedberg, B.; Uvdal, K.; Erlandsson, R.; Elwing, H.; Lundstrom, I. Structure of 3- Aminopropyl Triethoxy Silane on Silicon-Oxide. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 1991, 147, 103-118.
76. Horr, T. J.; Arora, P. S. Determination of the Acid-Base Properties for 3-Amino, 3-Chloro and 3- Mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane Coatings on Silica Surfaces by XPS. Colloids Surf., A 1997, 126, 113-121.
77. Kristensen, E. M. E.; Nederberg, F.; Rensmo, H.; Bowden, T.; Hilborn, J.; Siegbahn, H. Photoelectron Spectroscopy Studies of the Functionalization of a Silicon Surface with a Phosphorylcholine-Terminated Polymer Grafted onto (3- Aminopropyl)trimethoxysilane. Langmuir 2006, 22, 9651-9657.
78. Fadeev, A. Y.; McCarthy, T. J. Self-Assembly is not the Only Reaction Possible between Alkyltrichlorosilanes and Surfaces: Monomolecular and Oligomeric Covalently Attached Layers of Dichloro- and Trichloroalkylsilanes on Silicon. Langmuir 2000, 16, 7268-7274.
79. Howarter, J. A.; Youngblood, J. P. Optimization of Silica Silanization by 3-Aminopropyltriethoxysilane. Langmuir 2006, 22, 11142-11147.
80. Radmacher, M.; Tilmann, R. W.; Gaub, H. E. Imaging Viscoelasticity by Force Modulation with the Atomic Force Microscope. Biophys. J. 1993, 64, 735-742.
81. Magonov, S. N.; Reneker, D. H. Characterization of Polymer Surfaces with Atomic Force Microscopy. Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 1997, 27, 175-222.
82. Finot, M. O.; McDermott, M. T. High-Resolution Chemical Mapping of Surface Bound Functional Groups with Tapping-Mode Scanning Force Microscopy. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1997, 119, 8564-8565.
83. Garcia, R.; Perez, R. Dynamic Atomic Force Microscopy Methods. Surf. Sci. Rep. 2002, 47, 197-301.
84. Yang, S.-M.; Jang, S. G.; Choi, D.-G.; Kim, S.; Yu, H. Y. Nanomachining by Colloidal Lithography. Small 2006, 2, 458-475.
85. Hoa, M. L. K.; Lu, M.; Zhang, Y. Preparation of Porous Materials with Ordered Hole Structure. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2006, 121, 9-23.
86. Freeman, R. G.; Grabar, K. C.; Allison, K. J.; Bright, R. M.; Davis, J. A.; Guthrie, A. P.; Hommer, M. B.; Jackson, M. A.; Smith, P. C.; Walter, D. G.; Natan, M. J. Self-Assembled Metal Colloid Monolayers-An Approach to SERS Substrates. Science 1995, 267, 1629-1632.
87. Westcott, S. L.; Oldenburg, S. J.; Lee, T. R.; Halas, N. J. Formation and Adsorption of Clusters of Gold Nanoparticles onto Functionalized Silica Nanoparticle Surfaces. Langmuir 1998, 14, 5396-5401.
88. He, H. X.; Zhang, H.; Li, Q. G.; Zhu, T.; Li, S. F. Y.; Liu, Z. F. Fabrication of Designed Architectures of Au Nanoparticles on Solid Substrate with Printed Self-Assembled Monolayers as Templates. Langmuir 2000, 16, 3846-3851.
89. Rechberger, W.; Hohenau, A.; Leitner, A.; Krenn, J. R.; Lamprecht, B.; Aussenegg, F. R. Optical Properties of Two Interacting Gold Nanoparticles. Opt. Commun. 2003, 220, 137-141.
90. Daniel, M. C.; Astruc, D. Gold Nanoparticles: Assembly, Supramolecular Chemistry, Quantum-Size-Related Properties, and Applications toward Biology, Catalysis, and Nanotechnology. Chem. Rev. 2004, 104, 293-346.
91. Murphy, C. J.; San, T. K.; Gole, A. M.; Orendorff, C. J.; Gao, J. X.; Gou, L.; Hunyadi, S. E.; Li, T. Anisotropic Metal Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Assembly, and Optical Applications. J. Phys. Chem. B 2005, 109, 13857-13870.
92. Lin, S.; Li, M.; Dujardin, E.; Girard, C.; Mann, S. One- Dimensional Plasmon Coupling by Facile Self-Assembly of Gold Nanoparticles into Branched Chain Networks. Adv. Mater. 2005, 17, 2553-2559.
93. Klapetek, P. N. D. Gwyddion; Czech Metrology Institute, Czech Republic, 2007, http://gwyddion.net/.
94. Grabar, K. C.; Freeman, R. G.; Hommer, M. B.; Natan, M. J. Preparation and Characterization of Au Colloid Monolayers. Anal. Chem. 1995, 67, 735-743.
95. Grabar, K. C.; Brown, K. R.; Keating, C. D.; Stranick, S. J.; Tang, S. L.; Natan, M. J. Nanoscale Characterization of Gold Colloid Monolayers: A Comparison of four Techniques. Anal. Chem. 1997, 69, 471-477.