The role of antioxidants in models of inflammation: Emphasis on L-arginine and arachidonic acid metabolism

Inflammopharmacology

Volumn 12, Issue 5-6, 2005, Pages 505-519

  Kapoor, M ^a   Clarkson, A N ^a   Sutherland, B A ^a   Appleton, I ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

Anti oxidants; Cyclooxygenase; EGCG; Hypoxia ischaemia; Inflammation; Prostaglandins; Reactive oxygen species; Wound healing

Indexed keywords

ANTIOXIDANT; ARACHIDONIC ACID; ARGININE; CATECHIN; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2 INHIBITOR; CYTOKINE; EPICATECHIN; EPICATECHIN GALLATE; EPIGALLOCATECHIN; EPIGALLOCATECHIN GALLATE; INDUCIBLE NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; NITRIC OXIDE; POLYAMINE DERIVATIVE; PUTRESCINE; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; SPERMIDINE; SPERMINE;

AMINO ACID METABOLISM; ANGIOGENESIS; ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY; ARACHIDONIC ACID METABOLISM; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; DEGENERATIVE DISEASE; ENZYME ACTIVITY; EXPERIMENTAL MODEL; HUMAN; HYPOXIA; INFLAMMATION; ISCHEMIA; LIPID PEROXIDATION; MEDIATOR RELEASE; NEUROPROTECTION; NONHUMAN; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; STRUCTURE ACTIVITY RELATION; TEA; WOUND HEALING;

ANIMALS; ANTIOXIDANTS; ARACHIDONIC ACID; ARGININE; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES; WOUND HEALING;

EID: 27744576866     PISSN: 09254692     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/156856005774382797     Document Type: Review

References (124)

1. Abd-El-Aleem, S. A., Ferguson, M. W., Appleton, I., Kairsingh, S., Jude, E. B., Jones, K., Mccollum, C. N. and Ireland, G. W. (2000). Expression of nitric oxide synthase isoforms and arginase in normal human skin and chronic venous leg ulcers, J. Pathol. 191, 434-442.
2. Albina, J. E., Mills, C. D., Henry Jr., W. L. and Caldwell, M. D. (1990). Temporal expression of different pathways of 1-arginine metabolism in healing wounds, J. Immunol. 144, 3877-3880.
3. Ali, M. H., Schlidt, S. A., Chandel, N. S., Hynes, K. L., Schumacker, P. T. and Gewertz, B. L. (1999). Endothelial permeability and IL-6 production during hypoxia: role of ROS in signal transduction, Am. J. Physiol. 277, L1057-L1065.
4. Amato, M. and Donati, F. (2000). Update on perinatal hypoxic insult: mechanism, diagnosis and interventions, Eur. J. Paediatr. Neurol. 4, 203-209.
5. Appleton, I., Tomlinson, A., Mitchell, J. A. and Willoughby, D. A. (1995). Distribution of cyclooxygenase isoforms in murine chronic granulomatous inflammation. Implications for future anti-inflammatory therapy, J. Pathol. 176, 413-420.
6. Appleton, I. (2003). Wound healing: future directions, IDrugs 6, 1067-1072.
7. Appleton, I., Tomlinson, A. and Willoughby, D. A. (1996). Induction of cyclo-oxygenase and nitric oxide synthase in inflammation, Adv. Pharmacol. 35, 27-78.
8. Babior, B. M. (2000). Phagocytes and oxidative stress, Am. J. Med. 109, 33-44.
9. Başkaya, M. F., Rao, A. M., Dogan, A., Donaldson, D., Gellin, G. and Dempsey, R. J. (1997). Regional brain polyamine levels in permanent focal cerebral ischemia, Brain Res. 744, 302-308.
10. Beal, M. F. (1996). Mitochondria, free radicals, and neurodegeneration, Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 6, 661-666.
11. Beckman, J. S. and Koppenol, W. H. (1996). Nitric oxide, superoxide, and peroxynitrite: the good, the bad, and ugly, Am. J. Physiol. 271, C1424-C1437.
12. Ben-Av, P., Crofford, L. J., Wilder, R. L. and Hla, T. (1995). Induction of vascular endothelial growth factor expression in synovial fibroblasts by prostaglandin E and interleukin-1: a potential mechanism for inflammatory angiogenesis, FEBS Lett. 372, 83-87.
13. Berger, R., Garnier, Y. and Jensen, A. (2002). Perinatal brain damage: underlying mechanisms and neuroprotective strategies, J. Soc. Gynecol. Invest. 9, 319-328.
14. Bernheim, H. A., Gilbert, T. M. and Stitt, J. T. (1980). Prostaglandin E levels in third ventricular cerebrospinal fluid of rabbits during fever and changes in body temperature, J. Physiol. 301, 69-78.
15. Beyer, W., Imlay, J. and Fridovich, I. (1991). SODs: varieties and distributions. X-ray crystallography of Mn-SODs and Fe-SODs, Prog. Nucleic Acid Res. Mol. Biol. 40, 221-253.
16. Bolanos, J. P. and Almeida, A. (1999). Roles of nitric oxide in brain hypoxia-ischemia, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1411, 415-136.
17. Bona, E., Anderson, A. L., Blomgren, K., Gilland, E., Puka-Sundvall, M., Gustafson, K. and Hagberg, H. (1999). Chemokine and inflammatory cell response to hypoxia-ischemia in immature rats, Pediatr. Res. 45, 500-509.
18. Braughler, J. M. and Hall, E. D. (1989). Central nervous system trauma and stroke. I. Biochemical considerations for free radical formation and lipid peroxydation, Free Radic. Biol. Med. 6, 289-301.
19. Caturla, N., Vera-Samper, E., Villalain, J., Mateo, C. R. and Micol, V. (2003). The relationship between the antioxidant and the antibacterial properties of galloylated catechins and the structure of phospholipid model membranes, Free Radic. Biol. Med. 34, 648-662.
20. Chan, M. M. Y., Dunne, F., Ho, C. T. and Huang, H. I. (1999). Inhibition of inducible fiitric oxide synthase gene expression and enzyme activity by epicatechin gallate, a natural product from green tea, Biochem. Pharmacol. 54, 1281-1286.
21. Chan, P. H. (2001). Reactive oxygen radicals in signalling and damage in the ischemic brain, J. Cereb. Blood Flow. Metab. 21, 2-14.
22. Chandrasekharan, N. V., Dai, H., Roos, K. L., Evanson, N. K., Tomsik, J., Elton, T. S. and Simmons, D. L. (2002). COX-3, a cyclooxygenase-1 variant inhibited by acetaminophen and other analgesic/antipyretic drugs: cloning, structure, and expression, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99, 13926-13931.
23. Chang, C. Y., Lai, Y. C., Cheng, T. J., Lau, M. T. and Hu, M. L. (1998). Plasma levels of antioxidant vitamins, selenium, total sulfhydryl groups and oxidative products in ischemic-stroke patients as compared to matched controls in Taiwan, Free Radic. Res. 28, 15-24.
24. Cherubini, A., Polidori, M. C., Bregnocchi, M., Pezzuto, S., Cecchetti, R., Ingegni, T., di Iorio, A., Senin, U. and Mecocci, P. (2000). Antioxidant profile and early outcome in stroke patients, Stroke 31, 2295-2300.
25. Cho, M., Hunt, T. K. and Hussain, M. Z. (2001). Hydrogen peroxide stimulates macrophage vascular endothelial growth factor release, Am. J. Physiol. Heart. Circ. Physiol. 280, 2357-2363.
26. Choi, Y. B., Kim, Y. I., Lee, K. S., Kim, B. S. and Kim, D. J. (2004). Protective effect of epigallocatechin gallate on brain damage after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats, Brain Res. 1019, 47-54.
27. Clarkson, A. N., Liu, H., Pearson, L., Kapoor, M., Harrison, J. C., Sammut, I. A., Jackson, D. M. and Appleton, I. (2004a). Neuroprotective effects of spermine following hypoxia-ischemia-induced brain damage: a mechanistic study, FASEB J. 18, 1114-1116.
28. Clarkson, A. N., Rahman, R. M. A. and Appleton, I. (2004b). Neurodegenerative disorders: Inflammation and autoimmunity as a central theme. Fact or fiction?, Curr. Opin. Invest. Drugs 5, 706-713.
29. Coert, B. A., Anderson, R. E. and Meyer, F. B. (2000). Exogenous spermine reduces ischemic damage in a model of focal cerebral ischemia in the rat, Neurosci. Lett. 282, 5-8.
30. Cole, D. J., Patel, P. M., Reynolds, L., Drummond, J. C. and Marcantonio, S. (1993). Temporary focal cerebral ischemia in spontaneously hypertensive rats: the effect of ibuprofen on infarct volume, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 266, 1713-1717.
31. Crouvezier, S., Powell, B., Keir, D. and Yaqoob, P. (2000). The effects of phenolic components of tea on the production of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines by human leukocytes in vitro, Cytokine 13, 280-286.
32. Darley-Usmar, V., Wiseman, H. and Halliwell, B. (1995). Nitric oxide and oxygen radicals: A question of balance, FEBS Lett. 369, 131-135.
33. Davies, P., Bailey, P. J., Goldenburgh, M. and Ford-Hutchinson, A. W. (1984). The role of arachidonic acid oxygenation products in pain and inflammation, Annu. Rev. Immunol. 2, 335-357.
34. Dawson, V. L., Dawson, T. M., London, E. D., Bredt, D. S. and Snyder, S. H. (1991). Nitric oxide mediates glutamate neurotoxicity in primary cortical cultures, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88, 6368-6371.
35. Di Rosa, M., Giroud, J. P. and Willoughby, D. A. (1971). Studies on the mediators of the acute inflammatory response induced in rats in different sites by carrageenan and turpentine, J. Pathol. 104, 15-29.
36. Doǧan, A., Rao, A. M., Hatcher, J., Rao, V. L. R., Baskaya, M. K. and Dempsey, R. J. (1999). Effects of MDL 72527, a specific inhibitor of polyamine oxidase, on brain edema, ischemic injury volume, and tissue polyamine levels in rats after temporary middle cerebral artery occlusion, J. Neurochem. 72, 765-770.
37. Endres, M., Laufs, U., Liao, J. K. and Moskowitz, M. A. (2004). Targeting eNOS for stroke protection, Trends Neurosci. 27, 283-289.
38. Escott, K. J., Beech, J. S., Haga, K. K., Williams, S. C., Meldrum, B. S. and Bath, P. M. (1998). Cerebroprotective effects of the nitric oxide synthase inhibitors, 1-(2-trifluoromethylphenyl) imidazole and 7-nitro indazole, after transient focal cerebral ischemia in the rat, J. Cereb. Blood Flow. Metab. 18, 281-287.
39. Ferrini, M. G., Vernet, D., Magee, T. R., Shahed, A., Qian, A., Rajfer, J. and Gonzalez-Cadavid, N. F. (2002). Antifibrotic role of inducible nitric oxide synthase, Nitric Oxide 6, 283-294.
40. Floyd, R. A. (1999). Neuroinflammatory processes are important in neurodegenerative diseases: an hypothesis to explain the increased formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species as major factors involved in neurodegenerative disease development, Free Radic. Biol. Med. 26, 1346-1355.
41. Frampton, L., Rahman, R., Bolger, C., Hall, I. and Appleton, I. (2002). The effects of catechins on a murine model of chronic granulomatous inflammation, Proceedings of the Australian Health Medical Research Congress, National Health and Medical Research Council, Melbourne, Australia, p. 2030.
42. Fullerton, H. J., Ditelberg, J. S., Chen, S. F., Sarco, D. P., Chan, P. H., Epstein, C. J. and Ferriero, D. M. (1998). Copper/zinc superoxide dismutase transgenic brain accumulates hydrogen peroxide after perinatal hypoxia ischemia, Ann. Neurol. 44, 357-364.
43. Futagami, A., Ishizaki, M., Fukuda, Y., Kawana, S. and Yamanaka, N. (2002). Wound healing involves induction of cyclooxygenase-2 expression in rat skin, Lab. Invest. 82, 1503-1513.
44. Gilad, G. M. and Gilad, V. H. (1991). Polyamines can protect against ischemia-induced nerve cell death in gerbil forebrain, Exp. Neurol. 111, 349-355.
45. Gilroy, D. W., Colville-Nash, P. R., Willis, D., Chivers, J., Paul-dark, M. J. and Willoughby, D. A. (1999). Inducible cyclooxygenase may have anti-inflammatory properties, Nature Med. 5, 698-701.
46. Gilroy, D. W., Tomlinson, A. and Willoughby, D. A. (1998). Differential effects of inhibition of isoforms of cyclooxygenase (COX-1, COX-2) in chronic inflammation, Inflamm. Res. 47, 79-85.
47. Gimbrone Jr., M. A., Topper, J. N., Nagel, T., Anderson, K. R. and Garcia-Cardena, G. (2000). Endothelial dysfunction, hemodynamic forces, and atherogenesis, Ann. N.Y. Ac acad. Sci. 902, 230-239.
48. Ginsburg, I. (1998). Could synergistic interactions among reactive oxygen species, proteinases, membrane-perforating enzymes, hydrolases, microbial hemolysins and cytokines be the main cause of tissue damage in infectious and inflammatory conditions?, Med. Hypotheses 51, 337-346.
49. Guo, Q., Zhao, B., Li, M., Shen, S. and Xin, W. (1996). Studies on protective mechanisms of four components of green tea polyphenols against lipid peroxidation in synaptosomes, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1304, 210-222.
50. Gutteridge, J. M. C. and Halliwell, B. (1990). Reoxygenation injury and antioxidant protection: a tale of two paradoxes, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 283, 223-226.
51. Ha, H. C., Sirisoma, N. S., Kuppusamy, P., Zweier, J. L., Woster, P. M. and Casero Jr., R. A. (1998). The natural polyamine spermine functions directly as a free radical scavenger, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95, 11140-11145.
52. Ha, H. C., Woster, P. M., Yager, J. D. and Casero Jr., R. A. (1997). The role of polyamine catabolism in polyamine analogue-induced programmed cell death, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94, 11557-11562.
53. Hanselmann, C., Mauch, C. and Werner, S. (2001). Haem oxygenase-1: a novel player in cutaneous wound repair and psoriasis, Biochem. J. 353, 459-466.
54. Henley, C. M., Wey, K., Takashima, A., Mills, C., Granmayeh, E., Krishnppe, I. and Robertson, C. S. (1997). S-Adenosylmethionine decarboxylase activity is decresed in the rat cortex after traumatic brain injury, J. Neurochem. 69, 259-265.
55. Hong, J. T., Ryu, S. R., Kim, H. J., Lee, J. K., Lee, S. H., Kim, D. B., Yun, Y. P., Ryu, J. H., Lee, B. M. and Kim, P. Y. (2000). Neuroprotective effect of green tea extract in experimental ischemia-reperfusion brain injury, Brain Res. Bull. 53, 743-749.
56. Hong, J. T., Ryu, S. R., Kim, H. J., Lee, J. K., Lee, S. H., Yun, Y. P., Lee, B. M. and Kim, P. Y. (2001). Protective effect of green tea extract on ischemia/reperfusion-induced brain injury in Mongolian gerbils, Brain Res. 888, 11-18.
57. Hu, J., Mahmoud, I. M. and El-Fakahany, E. E. (1994). Polyamines inhibit nitric oxide synthase in rat cerebellum, Neurosci. Lett. 175, 41-45.
58. Hubner, G., Brauchle, M., Smola, H., Madlener, M., Fassler, R. and Werner, S. (1996). Differential regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines during wound healing in normal and glucocorticoid-treated mice, Cytokine 8, 548-556.
59. Ianaro, A., Ialenti, A., Maffia, P., Pisano, B. and Di Rosa, M. (2001). Role of cyclopentenone prostaglandins in rat carrageenin pleurisy, FEBS Lett. 508, 61-66.
60. Ikeda, K., Negishi, H. and Yamori, Y. (2003). Antioxidant nutrients and hypoxia/ischemia brain injury in rodents, Toxicology 189, 55-61.
61. Inanami, O., Watanabe, Y., Syuto, B., Nakano, M., Tsuji, M. and Kuwabara, M. (1998). Oral administration of (-)-catechin protects against ischemia-reperfusion-induced neuronal death in the gerbil, Free Radic. Res. 29, 359-365.
62. Inder, T. E. and Volpe, J. J. (2000). Mechanisms of perinatal brain injury, Semin. Neonatal. 5, 3-16.
63. Jensen, A., Gamier, Y., Middelanis, J. and Berger, R. (2003). Perinatal brain damage - from pathophysiology to prevention, Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 110, S70-S79.
64. Jensen, J. R., Lynch, G. and Baudry, M. (1987). Polyamines stimulate mitochondrial calcium transport in rat brain, J. Neurochem. 48, 765-772.
65. Jin, C.-F., Shen, S.-R. and Zhao, B.-L. (2001). Different effects of five catechins on 6-hydroxydopamine-induced apoptosis in PC12 cells, J. Agr. Food Chem. 49, 6033-6038.
66. Johnston, M. V., Trescher, W. H., Ishida, A. and Nakajima, W. (2001). Neurobiology of hypoxic-ischemic injury in the developing brain, Pediatr. Res. 49, 735-741.
67. Jude, E. B., Boulton, A. J., Ferguson, M. W. and Appleton, I. (1999). The role of nitric oxide synthase isoforms and arginase in the pathogenesis of diabetic foot ulcers: possible modulatory effects by transforming growth factor beta 1, Diabetologia 42, 748-757.
68. Juhlin, L. and Michaelsson, G. (1969). Cutaneous vascular reactions to prostaglandins in healthy subjects and in patients with urticaria and atopic dermatitis, Acta Dermatol. Venereol. 49, 251-261.
69. Kapoor, M., Howard, R., Hall, I. and Appleton, I. (2004). Effects of epicatechin gallate on wound healing and scar formation in a full thickness incisional wound healing model in rats, Am. J. Pathol. 165, 299-307.
70. Kelly, M. R., Geigerman, C. M. and Loo, G. (2001). Epigallocatechin gallate protects U937 cells against nitric oxide-induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, J. Cell. Biochem. 81, 647-658.
71. Kleihaus, P., Hossmann, K. A., Pegg, A. E., Kobayashi, K. and Zimmermann, V. (1975). Resuscitation of the monkey brain after one hour ischemia, III: indications of metabolic recovery, Brain Res. 95, 61-73.
72. Lapidus, R. G. and Sokolove, P. M. (1992). Inhibition by spermine of the inner permeability transition of isolated rat heart mitochondria, FEBS Lett. 313, 314-318.
73. Lee, H., Bae, J. H. and Lee, S.-R. (2004). Protective effect of green tea polyphenol EGCG against neuronal damage and brain edema after unilateral cerebral ischemia in gerbils, J. Neurosci. Res. 77, 892-900.
74. Lee, S.-R., Im, K.-J., Suh, S.-I. and Jung, J.-G. (2003). Protective effect of green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin gallate and other antioxidants on lipid peroxidation in gerbil brain homogenates, Phytother. Res. 17, 206-209.
75. Lee, S.-R., Suh, S.-I. and Kim, S.-P. (2000). Protective effects of the green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin gallate against hippocampal neuronal damage after transient global ischemia in gerbils, Neurosci. Lett. 287, 191-194.
76. 2+ transport, Biochem. J. 286, 597-602.
77. Mandel, S., Weinreb, O., Amit, T. and Youdim, M. B. H. (2004). Cell signaling pathways in the neuroprotective actions of the green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate: implications for neurodegenerative diseases, J. Neurochem. 88, 1555-1569.
78. Marklund, S. L., Bjelle, A. and Elmqvist, L. G. (1986). Superoxide dismutase isoenzymes of the synovial fluid in rheumatoid arthritis and in reactive arthritides, Annu. Rheum. Dis. 45, 847-851.
79. Marshall, J. J. and Kontos, H. A. (1991). Endothelium and cerebral vascular diseases, in: Cardiovascular Significance of Endothelium-Derived Vasoactive Factors, Rubanyi, G. R. (Ed.), pp. 125-145. Futura, New York, NY.
80. Miesel, R., Murphy, M. P. and Kroger, H. (1996). Enhanced mitochondrial radical production in patients which rheumatoid arthritis correlates with elevated levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha in plasma, Free Radic. Res. 25, 161-169.
81. Miettinen, S., Fusco, F. R., Yrjanheikki, J., Keinanen, R., Hirvonen, T., Roivainen, R., Narhi, M., Hokfelt, T. and Koistinaho, J. (1997). Spreading depression and focal brain ischemia induce cyclooxygenase-2 in cortical neurons through N-methyl-D-aspartic acid-receptors and phospholipase A2, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94, 6500-6505.
82. Mukutmoni, M., Hubbard, N. E. and Erickson, K. L. (2001). Prostaglandin E(2) modulation of vascular endothelial growth factor production in murine macrophages, Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 65, 123-131.
83. Nakayama, M., Uchimura, K., Zhu, R. L., Nagayama, T., Rose, M. E., Steuer, R. A., Isakson, P. C., Chen, J. and Graham, S. H. (1998). Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition prevents delayed death of CA1 hippocampal neurons following global ischemia, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95, 10954-10959.
84. Nogawa, S., Zhang, F., Ross, M. E. and Iadecola, C. (1997). Cyclo-oxygenase-2 gene expression in neurons contributes to ischemic brain damage, J. Neurosci. 17, 2746-2755.
85. Nussler, A. K. and Billiar, T. R. (1993). Inflammation, immunoregulation, and inducible nitric oxide synthase, J. Leukoc. Biol. 54, 171-178.
86. Paschen, W., Csiba, L., Rohn, G. and Bereczki, D. (1991). Disturbances in polyamine metabolism in reversible focal cerebral ischemia of rat, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 11 (Suppl. 2), 59 (abstract).
87. Pegg, A. E. and McCann, P. P. (1982). Polyamine metabolism and function, Am. J. Physiol. 243, 212-221.
88. Perlman, J. M. (1998). White matter injury in the preterm infant: an important determinant of abnormal neurodevelopment outcome, Early Human Dev. 53, 99-120.
89. Rao, A. M., Başkaya, M. K., Maley, M. E., Prasad, M. R. and Dempsey, R. J. (1995). Ornithine decarboxylase activity and edema formation in cerebral ischemia of conscious gerbils, J. Neurochem. 65, 2639-2643.
90. Rao, A. M., Hatcher, J. F., Doǧan, A. and Dempsey, R. J. (2000). Elevated N1-Acetylspermidine levels in gerbil and rat brains after CNS injury, J. Neurochem. 74, 1106-1111.
91. Rao, V. L. R., Başkaya, M. K., Rao, A. M., Dogan, A. and Dempsey, R. J. (1998). Increased ornithine decarboxylase activity and protein level in the cortex following traumatic brain injury in rats, Brain Res. 783, 163-166.
92. Rees, D. D., Palmer, R. J. M. and Moncada, S. (1989). Role of endothelium-derived nitric oxide in the regulation of blood pressure, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86, 3375-3378.
93. Saliba, E. and Hentot, A. (2001). Inflammatory mediators and neonatal brain damage, Biol. Neonate 79, 224-227.
94. Schaffer, M. R., Tantry, U., Thornton, F. J. and Barbul, A. (1999). Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis in wounds: pharmacology and effect on accumulation of collagen in wounds in mice, Eur. J. Surg. 165, 262-267.
95. Schaffer, M. R., Tantry, U., Van Wesep, R. A. and Barbul, A. (1997). Nitric oxide metabolism in wounds, J. Surg. Res. 71, 25-31.
96. Seibert, K., Masferrer, J., Zhang, Y., Gregory, S., Olson, G., Hauser, S., Leahy, K., Perkins, W. and Isakson, P. (1995). Mediation of inflammation by cyclooxygenase-2, Agents Actions Suppl. 46, 41-50.
97. Shohami, E., Beit-Yannai, E., Horowitz, M. and Kohen, R. (1997). Oxidative stress in closed-head injury: brain antioxidant capacity as an indicator of functional outcome, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 17, 1007-1019.
98. Sies, H. (1997). Oxidative stress: oxidants and antioxidants, Exp. Physiol. 82, 291-295.
99. Simonian, N. A. and Coyle, J. T. (1996). Oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases, Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 36, 83-106.
100. Simpson, D. M. and Ross, R. (1972). The neutrophilic leukocyte in wound repair a study with antineutrophil serum, J. Clin. Invest. 51, 2009-2023.
101. Singer, A. J. and Clark, R. A. (1999). Cutaneous wound healing. N. Engl. J. Med. 341, 738-746.
102. Spranger, M., Krempien, S., Schwab, S., Donneberg, S. and Hacke, W. (1997). Superoxide dismutase activity in serum of patients with acute cerebral ischemic injury. Correlation with clinical course and infarct size, Stroke 28, 2425-2428.
103. Stallmeyer, B., Kampfer, H., Kolb, N., Pfeilschifter, J. and Frank, S. (1999). The function of nitric oxide in wound repair: inhibition of inducible nitric oxide-synthase severely impairs wound reepithelialization, J. Invest. Dermatol. 113, 1090-1098.
104. Steiling, H., Munz, B., Werner, B. and Brauchte, M. (1999). Different types of ROS-scavenging enzymes are expressed during cutaneous wound repair, Exp. Cell Res. 247, 484-494.
105. Sutherland, B. A., Shaw, O. M., Clarkson, A. N., Jackson, D. M., Sammut, I. A. and Appleton, I. (2005). Neuroprotective effects of (-)-epigallocatechin gallate following hypoxia-ischemia-induced brain damage: novel mechanisms of action, FASEB J. 19, 258-260.
106. Suzuki, M., Tabuchi, M., Ikeda, M., Umegaki, K. and Tomita, T. (2004). Protective effects of green tea catechins on cerebral ischemic damage, Med. Sci. Monit. 10, BR166-BR174.
107. Tabor, C. W. and Tabor, H. (1984). Polyamines, Annu. Rev. Biochem. 53, 749-790.
108. Tadolini, B. (1988). Polyamine inhibition of lipoperoxidation: the influence of polyamines on iron oxidation in the presence of compounds mimicking phospholipid polar heads, Biochem. J. 249, 33-36.
109. Tomlinson, A., Appleton, I., Moore, A. R., Gilroy, D. W., Willis, D., Mitchell, J. A. and Willoughby, D. A. (1994). Cyclo-oxygenase and nitric oxide synthase isoforms in rat carrageenin-induced pleurisy, Br. J. Pharmacol. 113, 693-698.
110. Vannucci, S. J. and Hagberg, H. (2004). Hypoxia-ischemia in the immature brain, J. Exp. Biol. 207, 3149-3154.
111. Vane, J. R. (1971). Inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis as a mechanism of action for aspirin-like drugs, Nature 231, 232-235.
112. Vane, J. R., Mitchell, J. A., Appleton, I., Tomlinson, A., Bishop-Bailey, D., Croxtall, J. and Willoughby, D. A. (1994). Inducible isoforms of cyclooxygenase and nitric-oxide synthase in inflammation, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 2046-2050.
113. Vexler, Z. S. and Ferriero, D. M. (2001). Molecular and biochemical mechanisms of perinatal brain injury, Semin. Neonatol. 6, 99-108.
114. Volpe, J. J. (2001). Perinatal brain injury: from pathogenesis to neuroprotection, Ment. Retard. Dev. Disabil. Res. Rev. 7, 56-64.
115. Ward, P. A. (1969). Inflammation-leukocytes and chemotaxis, Conn. Med. 33, 399-403.
116. Watanabe, H., Koboyashi, A., Yamamoto, T., Suzuki, S., Hayashi, H. and Yamazaki, N. (1990). Alterations of human erythrocyte membrane fluidity by oxygen-derived free radicals and calcium, Free Radic. Biol. Med. 8, 507-514.
117. Watanabe, S., Wang, M., Hirose, M., Osada, T., Tanaka, H. and Sato, N. (1998). Rebamipide prevented delay of wound repair induced by hydrogen peroxide and suppressed apoptosis of gastric epithelial cells in vitro, Digest. Dis. Sci. 43, 107S-112S.
118. Wei, G., Dawson, V. L. and Zweier, J. L. (1999). Role of neuronal and endothelial nitric oxide synthase in nitric oxide generation following cerebral ischemia, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1455, 23-34.
119. Willoughby, D. A., Moore, A. R. and Colville-Nash, P. R. (2000). COX-1, COX-2, and COX-3 and the future treatment of chronic inflammatory disease, Lancet 355, 646-648.
120. Wu, G. and Morris Jr., S. M. (1998). Arginine metabolism: nitric oxide and beyond, Biochem. J. 336, 1-17.
121. Xie, W., Chipman, J. G., Robertson, D. L., Erikson, R. L. and Simmons, D. L. (1991). Expression of a mitogen-responsive gene encoding prostaglandin synthase is regulated by mRNA splicing, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88, 2692-2696.
122. Yamasaki, K., Edington, H. D., Mcclosky, C., Tzeng, E., Lizonova, A., Kovesdi, I., Steed, D. L. and Billiar, T. R. (1998). Reversal of impaired wound repair in iNOS-deficient mice by topical adenoviral-mediated iNOS gene transfer, J. Clin. Invest. 101, 967-971.
123. Yang, F., De Villiers, W. J., Mcclain, C. J. and Varilek, G. W. (1998). Green tea polyphenols block endotoxin-induced tumor necrosis factor-production and lethality in a murine model, J. Nutr. 128, 2334-2340.
124. Yen, G. C. and Chen, H. Y. (1998). Scavenging effect of various tea extracts on superoxide derived from the metabolism of mutagens, Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 62, 1768-1770.