Dietary recommendations for children and adolescents: A guide for practitioners consensus statement from the American Heart Association

Circulation

Volumn 112, Issue 13, 2005, Pages 2061-2075

  Gidding, Samuel S ^a   Dennison, Barbara A ^a   Birch, Leann L ^a   Daniels, Stephen R ^a   Gilman, Matthew W ^a   Lichtenstein, Alice H ^a   Rattay, Karyl Thomas ^a   Steinberger, Julia ^a   Stettler, Nicolas ^a   Van Horn, Linda ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Adolescents; AHA Scientific Statements; Children; Diet; Nutrition

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; CALORIC INTAKE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CHILD; CHILDHOOD DISEASE; CHOLESTEROL INTAKE; DIETARY INTAKE; FAT INTAKE; FEMALE; FETUS DEVELOPMENT; HEALTH SURVEY; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; MALE; NORMAL HUMAN; NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT; OBESITY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREVALENCE; PRIMARY PREVENTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR;

ADOLESCENT; ADOLESCENT NUTRITION PHYSIOLOGY; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CHILD; CHILD NUTRITION PHYSIOLOGY; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; DIET; ENERGY INTAKE; HUMANS; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HYPERTENSION; LIFE STYLE; PUBLIC HEALTH;

EID: 25444475589     PISSN: 00097322     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.169251     Document Type: Review

References (182)

1. Kavey RE, Daniels SR, Lauer RM, Atkins DL, Hayman LL, Taubert K; American Heart Association. American Heart Association guidelines for primary prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease beginning in childhood. Circulation. 2003;107:1562-1566.
2. Stamler J, Stamler R, Neaton JD, Wentworth D, Daviglus ML, Garside D, Dyer AR, Liu K, Greenland P. Low risk-factor profile and long-term cardiovascular and noncardiovascular mortality and life expectancy: findings for 5 large cohorts of young adult and middle-aged men and women. JAMA. 1999;282:2012-2018.
3. Daviglus ML, Stamler J, Pirzada A, Yan LL, Garside DB, Liu K, Wang R, Dyer AR, Lloyd-Jones DM, Greenland P. Favorable cardiovascular risk profile in young women and long-term risk of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. JAMA. 2004;292:1588-1592.
4. Relationship of atherosclerosis in young men to serum lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations and smoking. A preliminary report from the Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth (PDAY) Research Group. JAMA. 1990;264:3018-3024.
5. Berenson GS, Srinivasan SR, Bao W, Newman WP 3rd, Tracy RE, Wattigney WA. Association between multiple cardiovascular risk factors and atherosclerosis in children and young adults. The Bogalusa Heart Study. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:1650-1656.
6. Mahoney LT, Burns TL, Stanford W, Thompson BH, Witt JD, Rost CA, Lauer RM. Coronary risk factors measured in childhood and young adult life are associated with coronary artery calcification in young adults: the Muscatine Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;27:277-284.
7. Williams CL, Hayman LL, Daniels SR. Robinson TN, Steinberger J, Paridon S, Bazzarre T. Cardiovascular health in childhood: A statement for health professionals from the Committee on Atherosclerosis, Hypertension, and Obesity in the Young (AHOY) of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young. American Heart Association. Circulation. 2002;106: 143-160.
8. Krauss RM, Eckel RH, Howard B, Appel LJ, Daniels SR, Deckelbaum RJ, Erdman JW Jr, Kris-Etherton P, Goldberg U, Kotchen TA, Lichtenstein AH. Mitch WE, Mullis R, Robinson K, Wylie-Rosett J, St Jeor S, Suttie J, Tribble DL, Bazzarre TL. AHA Dietary Guidelines: revision 2000: A statement for healthcare professionals from the Nutrition Committee of the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2000;102:2284-2299.
9. Grundy SM, Bilheimer D, Blackburn H, Brown WV, Kwiterovich PO Jr, Mattson F, Schonfeld G, Weidman WH. Rationale of the diet-heart statement of the American Heart Association. Report of Nutrition Committee. Circulation. 1982;65:839A-854A.
10. Gidding SS, Leibel RL, Daniels S, Rosenbaum M, Van Horn L. Marx GR. Understanding obesity in youth: A statement for healthcare professionals from the Committee on Atherosclerosis and Hypertension in the Young of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young and the Nutrition Committee, American Heart Association. Writing Group. Circulation. 1996;94:3383-3387.
11. Institute of Medicine, ed. Preventing Childhood Obesity: Health in the Balance. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2005.
12. Olshansky SJ, Passaro DJ, Hershow RC, Layden J, Carnes BA, Brody J, Hayflick L, Butler RN, Allison DB, Ludwig DS. A potential decline in life expectancy in the United States in the 21st century. N Engl J Med. 2005; 352:1138-1145.
13. Fisher EA, Van Horn L, McGill HC Jr. Nutrition and children: A statement for healthcare professionals from the Nutrition Committee, American Heart Association. Circulation. 1997;95:2332-2333.
14. US Department of Health and Human Services, US Department of Agriculture. Dietary Guidelines for Americans. 6th ed. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office; 2005.
15. US Department of Agriculture. MyPyramid. 2005. Available at: www. mypyramid.gov. Accessed June 22, 2005.
16. Nicklas T, Johnson R. Position of the American Dietetic Association: Dietary guidance for healthy children ages 2 to 11 years. J Am Diet Assoc. 2004;104:660-677.
17. Erratum in: J Am Diet Assoc. 2004;104:1075.
18. Kleinman R, ed. Pediatric Nutrition Handbook. 5th ed. Elk Grove, Ill: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2004.
19. 2005 Dietary Guideline Advisory Committee. Nutrition and your health: dietary guidelines for Americans. Available at: http://www.health.gov/ dietaryguidelines/dga2005/report/HTML/E_translation.htm. Accessed January 17, 2005.
20. Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrates, Fiber, Fat, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2002. Available at: http://www. nap.edu/books/0309085373/html/. Accessed January 31, 2005.
21. Peterson S, Sigman-Grant M. Impact of adopting lower-fat food choices on nutrient intake of American children. Pediatrics. 1997;100:E4.
22. He K, Song Y, Daviglus ML, Liu K, Van Horn L, Dyer AR, Greenland P. Accumulated evidence on fish consumption and coronary heart disease mortality: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Circulation. 2004;109: 2705-2711.
23. US Food and Drug Administration, US Environmental Protection Agency. What you need to know about mercury in fish and shellfish. In: 2004.
24. Kris-Etherton PM, Harris WS, Appel LJ; American Heart Association Nutrition Committee. Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2002;106:2747-2757.
25. Mozaffarian D, Lemaitre RN, Kuller LH, Burke GL, Tracy RP, Siscovick DS; Cardiovascular Health Study. Cardiac benefits of fish consumption may depend on the type of fish meal consumed: the Cardiovascular Health Study. Circulation. 2003;107:1372-1377.
26. Van Horn L, Obarzanek E, Friedman LA, Gernhofer N, Barton B. Children's adaptations to a fat-reduced diet: The Dietary Intervention Study in Children (DISC). Pediatrics. 2005;115:1723-1733.
27. Strong WB, Malina RM, Blimkie CJ, Daniels SR, Dishman RK, Gutin B, Hergenroeder AC, Must A, Nixon PA, Pivarnik JM, Rowland T, Trost S, Trudeau F. Evidence based physical activity for school-age youth. J Pediatr. 2005;146:732-737.
28. McGill HC Jr, McMahan CA, Zieske AW, Malcom GT, Tracy RE, Strong JP. Effects of nonlipid risk factors on atherosclerosis in youth with a favorable lipoprotein profile. Circulation. 2001;103:1546-1550.
29. Raitakar̀i OT, Juonala M, Kanonen M, Taittonen L, Laitinen T, Maki-Torkko N, Jarvisalo MJ, Uhari M, Jokinen E, Ronnemaa T, Akerblom HK, Viikari JS. Cardiovascular risk factors in childhood and carotid artery intima-media thickness in adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. JAMA. 2003;290:2277-2283.
30. Li S, Chen W, Srinivasan SR, Bond MG, Tang R, Urbina EM, Berenson GS. Childhood cardiovascular risk factors and carotid vascular changes in adulthood: the Bogalusa Heart Study. JAMA. 2003;290:2271-2276.
31. Lauer RM, Lee J, Clarke WR. Factors affecting the relationship between childhood and adult cholesterol levels: the Muscatine Study. Pediatrics. 1988;82:309-318.
32. Lauer RM, Clarke WR. Childhood risk factors for high adult blood pressure: the Muscatine Study. Pediatrics. 1989;84:633-641.
33. Whitaker RC, Wright JA, Pepe MS, Seidel KD, Dietz WH. Predicting obesity in young adulthood from childhood and parental obesity. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:869-873.
34. Janz KF, Dawson JD, Mahoney LT. Tracking physical fitness and physical activity from childhood to adolescence: the Muscatine study. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32:1250-1257.
35. Feunekes GI, de Graaf C, Meyboom S, van Staveren WA. Food choice and fat intake of adolescents and adults: associations of intakes within social networks. Prev Med. l998;27:645-656.
36. Rojas NL, Killen JD, Haydel KF, Robinson TN. Nicotine dependence among adolescent smokers. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1998;152:151-156.
37. Obarzanek E, Kimm SY, Barton BA, Van Horn LL. Kwiterovich PO Jr, Simons-Morton DG, Hunsberger SA, Lasser NL, Robson AM. Franklin FA Jr, Lauer RM, Stevens VJ, Friedman LA, Dorgan JF, Greenlick MR; DISC Collaborative Research Group. Long-term safety and efficacy of a cholesterol-lowering diet in children with elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol: seven-year results of the Dietary Intervention Study in Children (DISC). Pediatrics. 2001;107:256-264.
38. Luepker RV, Perry CL, McKinlay SM, Nader PR, Parcel GS, Stone EJ, Webber LS, Elder JP, Feldman HA, Johnson CC, et al. Outcomes of a field trial to improve children's dietary patterns and physical activity. The Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health. CATCH collaborative group. JAMA. 1996;275:768-776.
39. Kaitosaari T, Ronnemaa T, Raitakari O, Talvia S, Kallio K, Volanen I, Leino A, Jokinen E, Valimaki I, Viikari J, Simell O. Effect of 7-year infancy-onset dietary intervention on serum lipoproteins and lipoprotein subclasses in healthy children in the prospective, randomized Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project for Children (STRIP) study. Circulation. 2003;108:672-677.
40. Yu-Poth S, Zhao G, Etherton T, Naglak M, Jonnalagadda S, Kris-Etherton PM. Effects of the National Cholesterol Education Program's Step I and Step II dietary intervention programs on cardiovascular disease risk factors: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;69:632-646.
41. Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) Final Report. Circulation. 2002;106:3143-3421.
42. Lagstrom H, Jokinen E, Seppanen R, Ronnemaa T, Viikari J, Valimaki I, Venetoklis J, Myyrinmaa A, Niinikoski H, Lapinleimu H, Simell O. Nutrient intakes by young children in a prospective randomized trial of a low-saturated fat, low-cholesterol diet. The STRIP Baby Project. Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project for Babies. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1997;151:181-188.
43. Viikari JS, Niinikoski H, Juonala M, Raitakari OT, Lagstrom H, Kaitosaari T, Ronnemaa T, Simell O. Risk factors for coronary heart disease in children and young adults. Acta Paediatr Suppl. 2004;93:34-42.
44. Talvia S, Lagstrom H, Rasanen M, Salminen M, Rasanen L, Salo P, Viikari J, Ronnemaa T, Jokinen E, Vahlberg T, Simell O. A randomized intervention since infancy to reduce intake of saturated fat: calorie (energy) and nutrient intakes up to the age of 10 years in the Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2004;158:41-47.
45. Obarzanek E, Hunsberger SA, Van Horn L, Hartmuller VV, Barton BA, Stevens VJ, Kwiterovich PO, Franklin FA, Kimm SY, Lasser NL, Simons-Morton DG, Lauer RM. Safety of a fat-reduced diet: the Dietary Intervention Study in Children (DISC). Pediatrics. 1997;100:51-59.
46. Lauer RM, Obarzanek E, Hunsberger SA, Van Horn L, Hartmuller VW, Barton BA, Stevens VJ, Kwiterovich PO Jr, Franklin FA Jr, Kimm SY, Lasser NL, Simons-Morton DG. Efficacy and safety of lowering dietary intake of total fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol in children with elevated LDL cholesterol: the Dietary Intervention Study in Children. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;72:1332S-1342S.
47. Rask-Nissila L, Jokinen E, Terho P, Tammi A, Hakanen M, Ronnemaa T, Viikari J, Seppanen R, Valimaki I, Helenius H, Simell O. Effects of diet on the neurologic development of children at 5 years of age: the STRIP project. J Pediatr. 2002;140:328-333.
48. Jacobson MS, Tomopoulos S, Williams CL, Arden MR, Deckelbaum RJ, Stare TJ. Normal growth in high-risk hyperlipidemic children and adolescents with dietary intervention. Prev Med. 1998;27:775-780.
49. Cook S, Weitzman M, Auinger P, Nguyen M, Dietz WH. Prevalence of a metabolic syndrome phenotype in adolescents: findings from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003;157:821-827.
50. Freedman DS, Dietz WH, Srinivasan SR, Berenson GS. The relation of overweight to cardiovascular risk factors among children and adolescents: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Pediatrics. 1999;103:1175-1182.
51. Morrison JA, Sprecher DL, Barton BA, Waclawiw MA, Daniels SR. Overweight, fat patterning, and cardiovascular disease risk factors in black and white girls: The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Growth and Health Study. J Pediatr. 1999;135:458-464.
52. Kimm SY, Glynn NW, Kriska AM, Barton BA, Rronsberg SS, Daniels SR, Crawford PB, Sabry ZI, Liu K. Decline in physical activity in black girls and white girls during adolescence. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:709-715.
53. Becque MD, Katch VL, Rocchini AP, Marks CR, Moorehead C. Coronary risk incidence of obese adolescents: reduction by exercise plus diet intervention. Pediatrics. 1988;81:605-612.
54. Rocchini AP, Katch V, Schork A, Kelch RP. Insulin and blood pressure during weight loss in obese adolescents. Hypertension. 1987;10:267-273.
55. Young EM, Fors SW, Hayes DM. Associations between perceived parent behaviors and middle school student fruit and vegetable consumption. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2004;36:2-8.
56. Muntner P, He J, Cutler JA, Wildman RP, Whelton PK. Trends in blood pressure among children and adolescents. JAMA. 2004;291:2107-2113.
57. Ford ES, Mokdad AH, Ajani UA. Trends in risk factors for cardiovascular disease among children and adolescents in the United States. Pediatrics. 2004;114:1534-1544.
58. Gidding SS, Bao W, Srinivasan SR, Berenson GS. Effects of secular trends in obesity on coronary risk factors in children: The Bogalusa Heart Study. J Pediatr. 1995;127:868-874.
59. Sinaiko AR, Donahue RP, Jacobs DR Jr, Prineas RJ. Relation of weight and rate of increase in weight during childhood and adolescence to body size, blood pressure, fasting insulin, and lipids in young adults. The Minneapolis Children's Blood Pressure Study. Circulation. 1999;99:1471-1476.
60. Kumanyika SK, Obarzanek E, Robinson TN, Beech BM. Phase 1 of the Girls health Enrichment Multi-site Studies (GEMS): conclusion. Ethn Dis. 2003;13(suppl 1):S88-S91.
61. Caballero B, Clay T, Davis SM, Ethelbah B, Rock BH, Lohman T, Norman J, Story M, Stone EJ, Stephenson L, Stevens J; Pathways Study Research Group. Pathways: a school-based, randomized controlled trial for the prevention of obesity in American Indian schoolchildren. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;78:1030-1038.
62. Briefel RR, Reidy K, Karwe V, Devaney B. Feeding infants and toddlers study: Improvements needed in meeting infant feeding recommendations. J Am Diet Assoc. 2004;104:s31-s37.
63. Fox MK, Pac S, Devaney B, Jankowski L. Feeding infants and toddlers study: What foods are infants and toddlers eating? J Am Diet Assoc. 2004;104(suppl 1):s22-s30.
64. French SA, Story M, Jeffery RW. Environmental influences on eating and physical activity. Annu Rev Public Health. 2001;22:309-335.
65. Siega-Riz AM, Popkin BM, Carson T. Trends in breakfast consumption for children in the United States from 1965-1991. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998;67: 748S-756S.
66. Nielsen SJ, Siega-Riz AM, Popkin BM. Trends in energy intake in U.S. between 1977 and 1996: similar shifts seen across age groups. Obes Res. 2002;10:370-378.
67. Nielsen SJ, Popkin BM. Patterns and trends in food portion sizes, 1977-1998. JAMA. 2003;289:450-453.
68. Nielsen SJ, Popkin BM. Changes in beverage intake between 1977 and 2001. Am J Prev Med. 2004;27:205-210.
69. Erratum in: Am J Prev Med. 2005;28:413.
70. Cavadini C, Siega-Riz AM, Popkin BM. US adolescent food intake trends from 1965 to 1996. Arch Dis Child. 2000;83:18-24.
71. Erratum in: Arch Dis Child. 2002;87:85.
72. Rranz S, Smiciklas-Wright H, Siega-Riz AM, Mitchell D. Adverse effect of high added sugar consumption on dietary intake in American preschoolers. J Pediatr. 2005;146:105-111.
73. Wright JD, Wang CY, Kennedy-Stephenson J, Ervin RB. Dietary intake of ten key nutrients for public health, United States: 1999-2000. Adv Data. April 2003:1-4.
74. Institute of Medicine Panel on Dietary Reference Intakes for Electrolytes and Water. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2004.
75. Ervin RB, Wang CY, Wright JD, Kennedy-Stephenson J. Dietary intake of selected minerals for the United States population: 1999-2000. Adv Data. April 2004:1-5.
76. Rozin P. Family resemblance in food and other domains: the family paradox and the role of parental congruence. Appetite. 1991;16:93-102.
77. Rozin P, Millman L. Family environment, not heredity, accounts for family resemblances in food preferences and attitudes: a twin study. Appetite. 1987;8:125-134.
78. Cutler D, Glasser E, Shapiro J. Why Have Americans Become More Obese? The Economics of Obesity Workshop (April 22, 2003). Washington, DC: Economic Research Service, US Department of Agriculture; May 2004 (E-FAN-04-004).
79. Brown R, Ogden J. Children's eating attitudes and behaviour: a study of the modelling and control theories of parental influence. Health Educ Res. 2004;19:261-271.
80. Videon TM, Manning CK. Influences on adolescent eating patterns: the importance of family meals. J Adolesc Health. 2003;32:365-373.
81. Gillman MW, Rifas-Shiman SL, Frazier AL, Rockett HR, Camargo CA Jr, Field AE, Berkey CS, Colditz GA. Family dinner and diet quality among older children and adolescents. Arch Fam Med. 2000;9:235-240.
82. Neumark-Sztainer D, Hannan PJ, Story M, Croll J, Perry C. Family meal patterns: associations with sociodemographic characteristics and improved dietary intake among adolescents. J Am Diet Assoc. 2003;103:317-322.
83. Kratt P, Reynolds K, Shewchuk R. The role of availability as a moderator of family fruit and vegetable consumption. Health Educ Behav. 2000;27: 471-482.
84. Fisher JO, Mitchell DC, Smiciklas-Wright H, Birch LL. Parental influences on young girls' fruit and vegetable, micronutrient, and fat intakes. J Am Diet Assoc. 2002;102:58-64.
85. Fisher J, Mitchell D, Smiciklas-Wright H, Birch L. Maternal milk consumption predicts the tradeoff between milk and soft drinks in young girls' diets. J Nutr. 2001;131:246-250.
86. World Health Organization. World Health Report 2002: Reducing Risks, Promoting Healthy Life. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2002. Available at: http://www.who.int/whr/2002/en/whr02_en.pdf. Accessed April 12, 2005.
87. Rich-Edwards JW, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Rosner B, Hankinson SE, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Hennekens CH. Birth weight and risk of cardiovascular disease in a cohort of women followed up since 1976. BMJ. 1997;315:396-400.
88. Curhan GC, Chertow GM, Willett WC, Spiegelman D, Colditz GA, Manson JE, Speizer FE, Stampfer MJ. Birth weight and adult hypertension and obesity in women. Circulation. 1996;94:1310-1315.
89. Langley-Evans SC. Fetal programming of cardiovascular function through exposure to maternal undemutrition. Proc Nutr Soc. 2001;60:505-513.
90. Seckl JR. Prenatal glucocorticoids and long-term programming. Eur J Endocrinol. 2004;151(suppl 3):U49-U62.
91. Edwards LJ, Coulter CL, Symonds ME, McMillen IC. Prenatal undernutrition, glucocorticoids and the programming of adult hypertension. Clin Exp Phamacol Physiol. 2001;28:938-941.
92. Eriksson J, Forsen T, Tuomilehto J, Osmond C, Barker D. Size at birth, childhood growth and obesity in adult life. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2001;25:735-740.
93. Hediger ML, Overpeck MD, McGlynn A, Kuczmarski RJ, Maurer KR, Davis WW. Growth and fatness at three to six years of age of children born small- or large-for-gestational age. Pediatrics. 1999;104:e33.
94. Frisancho AR. Prenatal compared with parental origins of adolescent fatness. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;72:1186-1190.
95. Whitaker RC. Predicting preschooler obesity at birth: the role of maternal obesity in early pregnancy. Pediatrics. 2004;114:e29-e36.
96. Institute of Medicine. Nutrition During Pregnancy, Weight Gain and Nutrient Supplements: Report of the Subcommittee on Nutritional Status and Weight Gain During Pregnancy. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1990.
97. Gunderson EP, Abrams B, Selvin S. The relative importance of gestational gain and maternal characteristics associated with the risk of becoming overweight after pregnancy. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2000;24: 1660-1668.
98. Huh SY, Rifas-Shiman SL, Kleinman KP, Rich-Edwards JW, Lipshultz SE, Gillman MW. Maternal protein intake is not associated with infant blood pressure. Int J Epidemiol. 2005;34:378-384.
99. Gillman MW, Rifas-Shiman SL, Kleinman KP, Rich-Edwards JW, Lipshultz SE. Maternal calcium intake and offspring blood pressure. Circulation. 2004;110:1990-1995.
100. Gartner LM, Morton J, Lawrence RA, Naylor AJ, O'Hare D, Schanler RJ, Eidelman AI; American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Breastfeeding. Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics. 2005;115:496-506.
101. Martin RM, Davey Smith G, Mangtani P, Tilling K, Frankel S, Gunnell D. Breastfeeding and cardiovascular mortality: the Boyd Orr cohort and a systematic review with meta-analysis. Eur Heart J. 2004;25:778-786.
102. Arenz S, Ruckerl R, Koletzko B, von Kries R. Breast-feeding and childhood obesity-a systematic review. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2004;28: 1247-1256.
103. Owen CG, Martin RM, Whincup PH, Smith GD, Cook DG. Effect of infant feeding on the risk of obesity across the life course: a quantitative review of published evidence. Pediatrics. 2005;115:1367-1377.
104. Martin RM, Gunnell D, Smith GD. Breastfeeding in infancy and blood pressure in later life: systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 2005;161:15-26.
105. Owen CG, Whincup PH, Gilg JA, Cook DG. Effect of breast feeding in infancy on blood pressure in later life: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2003;327:1189-1195.
106. Owen CG, Whincup PH, Odoki K, Gilg JA, Cook DG. Infant feeding and blood cholesterol: a study in adolescents and a systematic review. Pediatrics. 2002;110:597-608.
107. Stettler N, Zemel BS, Kumanyika S, Stallings VA. Infant weight gain and childhood overweight status in a multicenter, cohort study. Pediatrics. 2002;109:194-199.
108. Dewey KG. Nutrition, growth, and complementary feeding of the breastfed infant. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001;48:87-104.
109. Haisma H, Coward WA, Albernaz E, Visser GH, Wells JC, Wright A, Victora CG. Breast milk and energy intake in exclusively, predominantly, and partially breast-fed infants. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003;57:1633-1642.
110. Dennison BA, Edmunds LE, Stratton H, Pruzek R. Rapid infant weight gain associated with childhood overweight at age 4 years. Obes Res. In press.
111. Wright P. Hunger, satiety and feeding behavior in early infancy. In: Boakes RA, Popplewell DA, Burton MJ, eds. Eating Habits: Food, Physiology and Learned Behavior. Chichester, UK: Wiley; 1987.
112. Fisher JO, Birch LL, Smiciklas-Wright H, Picciano MF. Breast-feeding through the first year predicts maternal control in feeding and subsequent toddler energy intakes. J Am Diet Assoc. 2000;100:641-646.
113. Taveras EM, Scanlon KS, Birch L, Rifas-Shiman SL, Rich-Edwards JW, Gillman MW. Association of breastfeeding with maternal control of infant feeding at age 1 year. Pediatrics. 2004;114:e577-e583.
114. Wright P. Patterns of milk intake in breast- and bottle-fed infants. In: Stratton P, ed, The Psychobiology of the Human Newborn. New York, NY: Wiley; 1982.
115. Klesges RC, Coates TJ, Brown G, Sturgeon-Tillisch J, Moldenhauer-Klesges LM, Holzer B, Woolfrey J, Vollmer J. Parental influences on children's eating behavior and relative weight. J Appl Behav Anal. 1983; 16:371-378.
116. Mennella JA, Griffin CE, Beauchamp GK. Ravor programming during infancy. Pediatrics. 2004;113:840-845.
117. Mennella JA, Jagnow CP, Beauchamp GK. Prenatal and postnatal flavor learning by human infants. Pediatrics. 2001;107:E88.
118. Mennella JA, Pepino MY, Reed DR. Genetic and environmental determinants of bitter perception and sweet preferences. Pediatrics. 2005;115: e216-e222.
119. Gerrish CJ, Mennella JA. Ravor variety enhances food acceptance in formula-fed infants. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;73:1080-1085.
120. Liem DG, Mennella JA. Heightened sour preferences during childhood. Chem Senses. 2003;28:173-180.
121. Li R, Hsia J, Fridinger F, Hussain A, Benton-Davis S, Grummer-Strawn L. Public beliefs about breastfeeding policies in various settings. J Am Diet Assoc. 2004;104:1162-1168.
122. Visness CM, Kennedy KI. Maternal employment and breast-feeding: findings from the 1988 National Maternal and Infant Health Survey. Am J Public Health. 1997;87:945-950.
123. Li R, Zhao Z, Mokdad A, Barker L, Grummer-Strawn L. Prevalence of breastfeeding in the United States: the 2001 National Immunization Survey. Pediatrics. 2003;111:1198-1201.
124. Kurinij N, Shiono PH, Ezrine SF, Rhoads GG. Does maternal employment affect breast-feeding? Am J Public Health. 1989;79:1247-1250.
125. Gielen AC, Faden RR, O'Campo P, Brown CH, Paige DM. Maternal employment during the early postpartum period: effects on initiation and continuation of breast-feeding. Pediatrics. 1991;87:298-305.
126. Auerbach KG, Guss E. Maternal employment and breastfeeding. A study of 567 women's experiences. Am J Dis Child. 1984;138:958-960.
127. Hills-Bonczyk SG, Avery MD, Savik K, Potter S, Ducken LJ. Women's experiences with combining breast-feeding and employment. J Nurse Midwifery. 1993;38:257-266.
128. Lande B, Andersen LF, Veierod MB, Baerug A, Johansson L, Trygg KU, Bjorneboe GE. Breast-feeding at 12 months of age and dietary habits among breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants. Public Health Nutr. 2004;7:495-503.
129. Ortiz J, McGilligan K, Kelly P. Duration of breast milk expression among working mothers enrolled in an employer-sponsored lactation program. Pediatr Nurs. 2004;30:111-119.
130. Kramer MS, Kakuma R, The optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding: a systematic review. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2004;554:63-77.
131. 126a. Lederman SA, Akabas SR, Moore BJ, Bentley ME, Devaney B, Gillman MW, Kramer MS, Mennella JA, Ness A, Wardle J. Summary of the Presentations at the Conference on Preventing Childhood Obesity, December 8, 2003. Pediatrics. 2004;114:1146-1173.
132. Carruth BR, Skinner JD, Houck KS, Moran JD 3rd. Addition of supplementary foods and infant growth (2 to 24 months). J Am Coll Nutr. 2000; 19:405-412.
133. Mehta KC, Specker BL, Bartholmey S, Giddens J, Ho ML. Trial on timing of introduction to solids and food type on infant growth. Pediatrics. 1998; 102:569-573.
134. Devaney B, Ziegler P, Pac S, Karwe V, Ban SI. Nutrient intakes of infants and toddlers. J Am Diet Assoc. 2004;104(suppl 1):s14-s21.
135. Skinner JD, Ziegler P, Ponza M. Transitions in infants' and toddlers' beverage patterns. J Am Diet Assoc. 2004;104(suppl 1):s45-s50.
136. US Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Services. 2002 CFR title 7 volume 4 chapter II (1-1-02 edition). 246-Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC). Subpart D-Participant benefits. 246.10 Supplemental foods. Available at: http://www.fns.usda.gov/WIC/PDFfiles/ WICregulations. Accessed January 31, 2005.
137. Dennison BA, Erb TA, Jenkins PL. Predictors of dietary milk fat intake by preschool children. Prev Med. 2001;33:536-542.
138. Sullivan SA, Birch LL. Infant dietary experience and acceptance of solid foods. Pediatrics. 1994;93:271-277.
139. Thompson FE, Dennison BA. Dietary sources of fats and cholesterol in US children aged 2 through 5 years. Am J Public Health. 1994;84:799-806.
140. Dennison BA, Rockwell HL, Baker SL. Excess fruit juice consumption by preschool-aged children is associated with short stature and obesity. Pediatrics. 1997;99:15-22.
141. Welsh JA, Cogswell ME, Rogers S, Rockett H, Mei Z, Grummer-Strawn LM. Overweight among low-income preschool children associated with the consumption of sweet drinks: Missouri, 1999-2002. Pediatrics. 2005;115: e223-e229.
142. Drewnowski A. The role of energy density. Lipids. 2003;38:109-115.
143. Birch LL, Deysher M. Caloric compensation and sensory specific satiety: evidence for self regulation of food intake by young children. Appetite. 1986;7:323-331.
144. Araya H, Vera G, Alvina M. Effect of the energy density and volume of high carbohydrate meals on short term satiety in preschool children. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1999;53:273-276.
145. Bandini LG, Vu D, Must A, Cyr H, Goldberg A, Dietz WH. Comparison of high-calorie, low-nutrient-dense food consumption among obese and non-obese adolescents. Obes Res. 1999;7:438-443.
146. Phillips SM, Bandini LG, Naumova EN, Cyr H, Colclough S, Dietz WH, Must A. Energy-dense snack food intake in adolescence: longitudinal relationship to weight and fatness. Obes Res. 2004;12:461-472.
147. Birch LL, Fisher JO. Development of eating behaviors among children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 1998;101(pt 2):539-549.
148. Fisher JO, Birch LL. Restricting access to palatable foods affects children's behavioral response, food selection, and intake. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;69: 1264-1272.
149. Ludwig DS, Peterson KE, Gortmaker SL. Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: a prospective, observational analysis. Lancet. 2001;357:505-508.
150. Committee on Nutrition. American Academy of Pediatrics: the use and misuse of fruit juice in pediatrics. Pediatrics. 2001;107:1210-1213.
151. Bowman SA, Gortmaker SL, Ebbeling CB, Pereira MA, Ludwig DS. Effects of fast-food consumption on energy intake and diet quality among children in a national household survey. Pediatrics. 2004;113(pt 1):112-118.
152. Putnam J, Allshouse J, Kantor L. U.S. Per Capita Food Supply Trends: More Calories, Refined Carbohydrates and Fats. Washington, DC: Economic Research Service, US Department of Agriculture; 2002.
153. Epstein LH, Valoski A, Wing RR, McCurley J. Ten-year follow-up of behavioral, family-based treatment for obese children. JAMA. 1990;264: 2519-2523.
154. Hayman LL, Williams CL, Daniels SR, Steinberger J, Paridon S, Dennison BA, McCrindle BW; Committee on Atherosclerosis, Hypertension, and Obesity in Youth (AHOY) of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, American Heart Association. Cardiovascular health promotion in the schools: a statement for health and education professionals and child health advocates from the Committee on Atherosclerosis, Hypertension, and Obesity in Youth (AHOY) of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, American Heart Association. Circulation. 2004;110:2266-2275.
155. Position of ADA, SNE, and ASFSA: school-based nutrition programs and services. J Am Diet Assoc. 1995;95:367-369.
156. Osganian SK, Ebzery MK, Montgomery DH, Nicklas TA, Evans MA, Mitchell PD, Lytle LA, Snyder MP, Stone EJ, Zive MM, Bachman KJ, Rice R, Parcel GS. Changes in the nutrient content of school lunches: results from the CATCH Eat Smart Food service Intervention. Prev Med. 1996;25: 400-412.
157. Dwyer JT, Hewes LV, Mitchell PD, Nicklas TA, Montgomery DH, Lytle LA, Snyder MP, Zive MM, Bachman KJ, Rice R, Parcel GS. Improving school breakfasts: effects of the CATCH Eat Smart Program on the nutrient content of school breakfasts. Prev Med. 1996;25:413-422.
158. Perry CL, Bishop DB, Taylor GL, Davis M, Story M, Gray C, Bishop SC, Mays RA, Lytle LA, Harnack L. A randomized school trial of environmental strategies to encourage fruit and vegetable consumption among children. Health Educ Behav. 2004;31:65-76.
159. Cullen KW, Ash DM, Warneke C, de Moor C. Intake of soft drinks, fruit-flavored beverages, and fruits and vegetables by children in grades 4 through 6. Am J Public Health. 2002;92:1475-1478.
160. Birnbaum AS, Lytle LA, Story M, Perry CL, Murray DM. Are differences in exposure to a multicomponent school-based intervention associated with varying dietary outcomes in adolescents? Health Educ Behav. 2002;29: 427-443.
161. Williams CL, Strobino BA, Bollella M, Brotanek J. Cardiovascular risk reduction in preschool children: the "Healthy Start" project. J Am Coll Nutr. 2004;23:117-123.
162. Levin S, Lowry R, Brown DR, Dietz WH. Physical activity and body mass index among US adolescents: youth risk behavior survey, 1999. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003;157:816-820.
163. Boynton-Jarrett R, Thomas TN, Peterson KE, Wiecha J, Sobol AM, Gortmaker SL. Impact of television viewing patterns on fruit and vegetable consumption among adolescents. Pediatrics. 2003;112(pt 1):1321-1326.
164. Dennison BA, Erb TA, Jenkins PL. Television viewing and television in bedroom associated with overweight risk among low-income preschool children. Pediatrics. 2002;109:1028-1035.
165. Coon KA, Goldberg J, Rogers BL, Tucker KL. Relationships between use of television during meals and children's food consumption patterns. Pediatrics. 2001;107:E7.
166. Institute of Medicine. WIC Food Packages: Time for Change: Executive Summary. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences; 2004. Available at; http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11280.html. Accessed April 30, 2005.
167. National High Blood Pressure Education Program NIH. The fourth report on the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2004;114:555-576.
168. National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP): highlights of the report of the Expert Panel on Blood Cholesterol Levels in Children and Adolescents. Pediatrics. 1992;89:495-501.
169. Appel LJ, Moore TJ, Obarzanek E, Vollmer WM, Svetkey LP, Sacks FM, Bray GA, Vogt TM, Cutler JA, Windhauser MM, Lin P-H, Karanja N. A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. DASH Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med. 1997;336:1117-1124.
170. Simons-Morton DG, Obarzanek E, Diet and blood pressure in children and adolescents. Pediatr Nephrol. 1997;11:244-249.
171. Simons-Morton DG, Hunsberger SA, Van Horn L, Barton BA, Robson AM, McMahon RP, Muhonen LE, Kwiterovich PO, Lasser NL, Kimm SY, Greenlick MR. Nutrient intake and blood pressure in the Dietary Intervention Study in Children. Hypertension. 1997;29:930-936.
172. Van Horn L. Fiber, lipids, and coronary heart disease: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Nutrition Committee, American Heart Association. Circulation. 1997;95:2701-2704.
173. Lichtenstein AH, Deckelbaum RJ. AHA Science Advisory. Stanol/sterol ester-containing foods and blood cholesterol levels. A statement for healthcare professionals from the Nutrition Committee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism of the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2001;103:1177-1179.
174. Tammi A, Ronnemaa T, Miettinen TA, Gylling H, Rask-Nissila L, Viikari J, Tuominen J, Marniemi J, Simell O. Effects of gender, apolipoprotein E phenotype and cholesterol-lowering by plant stanol esters in children: the STRIP study. Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project. Acta Paediatr. 2002;91:1155-1162.
175. Davidson MH, Maki KC, Umporowicz DM, Ingram KA, Dicklin MR, Schaefer E, Lane RW, McNamara JR, Ribaya-Mercado JD, Perrone G, Robins SJ, Franke WC. Safety and tolerability of esterified phytosterols administered in reduced-fat spread and salad dressing to healthy adult men and women. J Am Coll Nutr. 2001;20:307-319.
176. Homma Y, Ikeda I, Ishikawa T, Tateno M, Sugano M, Nakamura H. Decrease in plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, apolipoprotein B, cholesteryl ester transfer protein, and oxidized low-density lipoprotein by plant stanol ester-containing spread: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Nutrition. 2003;19:369-374.
177. Ntanios FY, Homma Y, Ushiro S. A spread enriched with plant sterol-esters lowers blood cholesterol and lipoproteins without affecting vitamins A and E in normal and hypercholesterolemic Iapanese men and women. J Nutr. 2002;132:3650-3655.
178. Volpe R, Niittynen L, Korpela R, Sirtori C, Bucci A, Fraone N, Pazzucconi F. Effects of yoghurt enriched with plant sterols on serum lipids in patients with moderate hypercholesterolaemia. Br J Nutr. 2001;86:233-239.
179. Maki KC, Davidson MH, Umporowicz DM, Schaefer EJ, Dicklin MR, Ingram KA, Chen S, McNamara JR, Gebhart BW, Ribaya-Mercado JD, Perrone G, Robins SJ, Franke WC. Lipid responses to plant-sterol-enriched reduced-fat spreads incorporated into a National Cholesterol Education Program Step I diet. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;74:33-43.
180. Miettinen TA, Puska P, Gylling H, Vanhanen H, Vartiainen E. Reduction of serum cholesterol with sitostanol-ester margarine in a mildly hypercholesterolemic population. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:1308-1312.
181. Hendriks HF, Brink EJ, Meijer GW, Princen HM, Ntanios FY. Safety of long-term consumption of plant sterol esters-enriched spread. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003;57:681-692.
182. Nestel P, Cehun M, Pomeroy S, Abbey M, Weldon G. Cholesterol-lowering effects of plant sterol esters and non-esterified stanols in margarine, butter and low-fat foods. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2001;55:1084-1090.