Regulation of secondary metabolism in filamentous fungi

Annual Review of Phytopathology

Volumn 43, Issue , 2005, Pages 437-458

  Yu, Jae Hyuk ^a   Keller, Nancy ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

Author keywords

Fungi; G proteins; Mycotoxins; RGS proteins; Transcriptional control

Indexed keywords

MYCOTOXIN;

FUNGUS; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION; GENETICS; METABOLISM; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

FUNGI; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION, FUNGAL; MYCOTOXINS; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

EMERICELLA NIDULANS; FUNGI;

EID: 24944557992     PISSN: 00664286     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.phyto.43.040204.140214     Document Type: Review

References (139)

1. Abe Y, Ono C, Hosobuchi M, Yoshikawa H. 2002. Functional analysis of mlcR, a regulatory gene for ML-236B (compactin) biosynthesis in Penicillium citrinum. Mol. Genet. Genomics 268:352-61
2. Abe Y, Suzuki T, Mizuno T, Ono C, Iwamoto K, et al. 2002. Effect of increased dosage of the ML-236B (compactin) biosynthetic gene cluster on ML-236B production in Penicillium citrinum. Mol. Gen. Genet. 268:130-37
3. Adams TH, Wieser JK, Yu J-H. 1998. Asexual sporulation in Aspergillus nidulans. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 12: 3827-33
4. Ahn JH, Cheng YQ, Walton JD. 2002. An extended physical map of the TOX2 locus of Cochliobolus carbonum required for biosynthesis of HC-toxin. Fungal Genet. Biol. 35:31-38
5. Ahn JH, Walton JD. 1997. A fatty acid synthase gene in Cochliobolus carbonum required for production of HC-toxin, cyclo(D-prolyl-L-alanyl-D-alanyl- L-2-amino-9, 10-epoxi-8-oxodecanoyl). Mol. Plant. Microbe Interact. 10:207-14
6. Alexander NJ, Hohn TM, McCormick SP. 1998. The TRI11 gene of Fusarium sporotrichioides encodes a cytochrome P-450 monooxygenase required for C-15 hydroxylation in trichothecene biosynthesis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64:221-25
7. Alexander NJ, McCormick SP, Hohn TM. 1999. TRI12, a trichothecene efflux pump from Fusarium sporotrichioides: gene isolation and expression in yeast. Mol. Gen. Genet. 261:977-84
8. Bennett JW, Klich M. 2003. Mycotoxins. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 16(3):497-516
9. Bennett JW, Leong PM, Kruger S, Keyes D. 1986. Sclerotial and low aflatoxigenic morphological variants from haploid and diploid Aspergillus parasiticus. Experientia 42:841-51
10. Bennett JW, Rubin PL, Lee LS, Chen PN. 1979. Influence of trace elements and nitrogen source on versicolorin production by a mutant strain of Aspergillus parasiticus. Mycopathologia 69:161-66
11. Bok JW, Keller NP. 2004. LaeA, a regulator of secondary metabolism in Aspergillus spp. Eukaryot. Cell. 3:527-35
12. Bölker M. 1998. Sex and crime: heterotrimeric G proteins in fungal mating and pathogenesis. Fungal Genet. Biol. 25:143-56
13. Bradshaw RE, Bhatnagar D, Ganley RJ, Gillman CJ, Monahan BJ, Seconi JM. 2002. Dothistroma pini, a forest pathogen, contains homologs of aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway genes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:2885-92
14. Brakhage A, Andrianopoulos A, Kato M, Steidl S, Davis MA, et al. 1999. HAP-like CCAAT-binding complexes in filamentous fungi: implications for biotechnology. Fungal Genet. Biol. 27(2-3): 243-52
15. Brodowsky ID, Oliw EH. 1993. Biosynthesis of 8R-hydroperoxylinoleic acid by the fungus Laetisaria arvalis. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 20:68-72
16. Brown DH, Yu JH, Kelkar HS, Fernandes M, Nesbitt TC, et al. 1996. Twenty-five co-regulated transcripts define a sterigmatocystin gene cluster in Aspergillus nidulans. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:1418-22
17. Brown DW, Dyer RB, McCormick SP, Kendra DF, Plattner RD. 2004. Functional demarcation of the Fusarium core trichothecene gene cluster. Fungal Genet. Biol. 41(4):454-62
18. Brown DW, McCormick SP, Alexander NJ, Proctor RH, Desjardins AE. 2001. A genetic and biochemical approach to study trichothecene diversity in Fusarium sporotrichioides and Fusarium graminearum. Fungal Genet. Biol. 32:121-33
19. Brown DW, McCormick SP, Alexander NJ, Proctor RH, Desjardins AE. 2002. Inactivation of a cytochrome P-450 is a determinant of trichothecene diversity in Fusarium species. Fungal Genet. Biol. 36:224-33
20. Burow GB, Gardner HW, Keller NP. 2000. Characterization of an Aspergillus responsive peanut seed lipoxygenase. Plant Mol. Biol. 42:689-701
21. Burow GB, Nesbitt TC, Dunlap JD, Keller NP. 1997. Seed lipoxygenase products modulate Aspergillus mycotoxin biosynthesis. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 10:380-87
22. Butchko RA, Plattner RD, Proctor RH. 2003. FUM9 is required for C-5 hydroxylation of fumonisins and complements the meitotically defined Fum3 locus in Gibberella moniliformis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69:6935-37
23. Butchko RA, Plattner RD, Proctor RH. 2003. FUM13 encodes a short chain dehydrogenase/reductase required for C-3 carbonyl reduction during fumonisin biosynthesis in Gibberella moniliformis. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51:3000-6
24. Calvo AM, Bok J, Brooks W, Keller NP. 2004. VeA is required for toxin and sclerotial production in Aspergillus parasiticus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70:4733-39
25. Calvo A, Gardner HW, Keller NP. 2001. Genetic connection between fatty acid metabolism and sporulation in Aspergillus nidulans. J. Biol. Chem. 276: 25766-74
26. Calvo A, Hinze L, Gardner H, Keller NP. 1999. Sporogenic effect of polyunsaturated fatty acids of Aspergillus spp. development. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65:3668-73
27. Calvo AM, Wilson RA, Bok JW, Keller NP. 2002. Relationship between secondary metabolism and fungal development. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 66:447-59
28. Champe SP, El-Zayat AAE. 1989. Isolation of a sexual sporulation hormone from Aspergillus nidulans. J. Bacteriol. 171:3982-88
29. Champe SP, Nagle DL, Yager LN. 1994. Sexual sporulation. In Aspergillus: 50 Years On. Prog. Ind. Microbiol., ed. SD Martinelli, JR Kinghorn, 29:429-54. Amsterdam: Elsevier
30. Champe SP, Rao P, Chang A. 1987. An endogenous inducer of sexual development in Aspergillus nidulans. J. Gen. Microbiol. 133:1383-88
31. Chang M-H, Chae K-S, Han D-M, Jahng K-Y. 2004. The GanB Gα-protein negatively regulates asexual sporulation and plays a positive role in conidial germination in Aspergillus nidulans. Genetics 167:1305-15
32. Chang PK. 2003. The Aspergillus parasiticus protein AFLJ interacts with the aflatoxin pathway-specific regulator AFLR. Mol. Genet. Genomics 268:711-19
33. Chang PK, Cary JW, Bhatnagar D, Cleveland TE, Bennett JW, et al. 1993. Cloning of the Aspergillus parasiticus apa-2 gene associated with the regulation of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59:3273-79
34. Chang PK, Ehrlich KC, Yu J, Bhatnagar D, Cleveland TE. 1995. Increased expression of Aspergillus parasiticus aflR, encoding a sequence-specific DNA-binding protein, relieves nitrate inhibition of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:2372-77
35. Chang PK, Yu J, Bhatnagar D, Cleveland TE. 1999. Repressor-AFLR interaction modulates aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus parasiticus. Mycopathologia 147:105-12
36. Chidiac P, Roy AA. 2003. Activity, regulation, and intracellular localization of RGS proteins. Receptors Channels 9: 135-47
37. Coccia R, Foppoli C, Blarzino C, De Marco C, Rosei MA. 2001. Interaction of enkephalin derivatives with reactive oxygen species. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1525(1-2):43-49
38. Desjardins AE, Hohn TM, McCormick SP. 1993. Trichothecene biosynthesis in Fusarium species: chemistry, genetics, and significance. Microbiol. Rev. 57: 595-604
39. Dowzer CE, Kelly JM. 1989. Cloning of the creA gene from Aspergillus nidulans: a gene involved in carbon catabolite repression. Curr. Genet. 15:457-59
40. Ehrlich KC, Montalbano BG, Bhatnagar D, Cleveland TE. 1998. Alteration of different domains in aflR affects aflatoxin pathway metabolism in Aspergillus parasiticus transformants. Fungal Genet. Biol. 23:279-87
41. Ehrlich KC, Montalbano BG, Cary JW. 1999. Binding of the C6-zinc cluster protein, AflR, to the promoters of aflatoxin pathway biosynthesis genes in Aspergillus parasiticus. Gene 230:249-57
42. Ehrlich KC, Montalbano BG, Cotty PJ. 2003. Sequence comparison of aflR from different Aspergillus species provides evidence for variability in regulation of aflatoxin production. Fungal Genet. Biol. 38:63-74
43. Espeso EA, Penalva MA. 1992. Carbon catabolite repression can account for the temporal pattern of expression of a penicillin biosynthetic gene in Aspergillus nidulans. Mol. Microbiol. 6(11):1457-65
44. Fernandes M, Keller NP, Adams TH. 1998. Sequence-specific binding by Aspergillus nidulans AflR, a C6 zinc cluster protein regulating mycotoxin biosynthesis. Mol. Microbiol. 28:1355-65
45. Flaherty JE, Woloshuk CP. 2004. Regulation of fumonisin biosynthesis in Fusarium verticillioides by a zinc binuclear cluster-type gene, ZFR1. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70(5):2653-59
46. Gao S, Nuss DL. 1996. Distinct roles for two G protein α subunits in fungal virulence, morphology, and reproduction revealed by targeted gene disruption. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:14122-27
47. Gardiner DM, Cozijnsen AJ, Wilson LM, Pedras MSC, Howlett BJ. 2004. The sirodesmin biosynthetic gene cluster of the plant pathogenic fungus Leptosphaeria maculans. Mol. Microbiol. 53:1307-18
48. Gutierrez S. 1992. The cefG gene of Cephalosporium acremonium is linked to the cefEF gene and encodes a deacetylcephalosporin C acetyltransferase closely related to homoserine O-acetyltransferase. J. Bacteriol. 174:3056-64
49. Hamberg M, Su C, Oliw E. 1998. Manganese lipoxygenase. Discovery of a bisallylic hydroperoxide as product and intermediate in a lipoxygenase reaction. J. Biol. Chem. 273:13080-88
50. Han K-H, Han K-Y, Yu J-H, Chae K-S, Jahng KY, Han DM. 2001. The nsdD gene encodes a putative GATA-type transcription factor necessary for sexual development of Aspergillus nidulans. Mol. Microbiol. 41:299-309
51. Han K-H, Seo J-A, Yu J-H. 2004. A putative G protein-coupled receptor negatively controls sexual development in Aspergillus nidulans. Mol. Microbiol. 51:1333-45
52. Han K-H, Seo J-A, Yu J-H. 2004. Regulators of G-protein signaling in Aspergillus nidulans: RgsA downregulates stress response and stimulate asexual sporulation through attenuation of GanB (Gα) signaling. Mol. Microbiol. 53:529-40
53. Harris LJ, Desjardins AE, Plattner RD, Nicholson RD, Butler P, et al. 1999. Possible role of trichothecene mycotoxins in virulence of Fusarium graminearum on maize. Plant Dis. 83:954-60
54. Herrmann M, Zocher R, Haese A. 1996. Effect of disruption of the enniatin synthetase gene on the virulence of Fusarium avenaceum. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 9:226-32
55. Hicks JK, Shimizu K, Keller NP. 2002. Genetics and biosynthesis of aflatoxins and sterigmatocystin. In The Mycota XI, ed. F Kempken, JW Bennett, pp. 55-69. Berlin: Springer-Verlag
56. Hicks JK, Yu J-H, Keller NP, Adams TH. 1997. Aspergillus sporulation and mycotoxin production both require inactivation of the FadA Gα protein-dependent signaling pathway. EMBO J. 16:4916-23
57. Hohn TM, McCormick SP, Desjardins AE. 1993. Evidence for a gene cluster involving trichothecene-pathway biosynthetic genes in Fusarium sporotrichioides. Curr. Genet. 24:291-95
58. Howard RJ, Valent B. 1996. Breaking and entering: host penetration by the fungal rice blast pathogen Magnaporthe grisea. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 50:491-512
59. Hynes MJ. 1975. Studies on the role of the areA gene in the regulation of nitrogen catabolism in Aspergillus nidulans. Aust. J. Biol. Sci. 28:301-13
60. Jain S, Akiyama K, Kan T, Ohguchi T, Takata R. 2002. Targeted disruption of a G protein alpha subunit gene results in reduced pathogenicity in Fusarium oxysporum. Curr. Genet. 41:407-13
61. Jain S, Akiyama K, Kan T, Ohguchi T, Takata R. 2003. The G protein beta subunit FGB1 regulates development and pathogenicity in Fusarium oxysporum. Curr. Genet. 43:79-86
62. Jarvis BB. 1991. Mycotoxins and phytoalexins. See Ref. 104a, pp. 361-421
63. Käfer E. 1977. Meiotic and mitotic recombination in Aspergillus and its chromosomal aberrations. Adv. Genet. 19:33-131
64. Kale SP, Bhatnagar D, Bennett JW. 1994. Isolation and characterization of morphological variants of Aspergillus parasiticus. Mycol. Res. 98:645-52
65. Kale SP, Cary JW, Bhatnagar D, Bennett JW. 1996. Characterization of experimentally induced, nonaflatoxigenic variant strains of Aspergillus parasiticus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62:3399-404
66. Kasahara S, Nuss DL. 1997. Targeted disruption of a fungal G-protein beta subunit gene results in increased vegetative growth but reduced virulence. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 10:984-93
67. Kato N, Brooks W, Calvo AM. 2003. The expression of sterigmatocystin and penicillin genes in Aspergillus nidulans is controlled by veA, a gene required for sexual development. Eukaryot. Cell 2:1178-86
68. Keller NP, Hohn TM. 1997. Metabolic pathway gene clusters in filamentous fungi. Fungal Genet. Biol. 21:17-29
69. Kennedy J, Auclair K, Kendrew SG, Park C, Vederas JC, Hutchinson CR. 1999. Modulation of polyketide synthase activity by accessory proteins during lovastatin biosynthesis. Science 284:1368-72
70. Kim H, Han K, Kim K, Han D, Jahng K, Chae K. 2002. The veA gene activates sexual development in Aspergillus nidulans. Fungal Genet. Biol. 37:72-80
71. Kimura N, Tsuge T. 1993. Gene cluster involved in melanin biosynthesis of the filamentous fungus Alternaria alternata. J. Bacteriol. 175:4427-35
72. Klittich CJR, Bronson CR. 1986. Reduced fitness associated with TOX1 of Cochliobolus heterostrophus. Phytopathology 76:1294-98
73. Lee BN, Adams TH. 1994. Overexpression of flbA, an early regulator of Aspergillus asexual sporulation leads to activation of brlA and premature initiation of development. Mol. Microbiol. 14:323-34
74. Lee BN, Adams TH. 1994. The Aspergillus nidulans fluG gene is required for production of an extracellular developmental signal. Genes Dev. 8:641-51
75. Lee BN, Adams TH. 1996. fluG and flbA function interdependently to initiate conidiophore development in Aspergillus nidulans through brlA beta activation. EMBO J. 15:299-309
76. Lengeler KB, Davidson RC, D'souza C, Harashima T, Shen WC, et al. 2000. Signal transduction cascades regulating fungal development and virulence. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 64:746-85
77. Leonard KJ. 1977. Virulence, temperature optima, and competitive abilities of isolines of races T and O of Bipolaris maydis. Phytopathology 67:1273-79
78. Litzka O, Papagiannopolus P, Davis MA, Hynes MJ, Brakhage AA. 1998. The penicillin regulator PENR1 of Aspergillus nidulans is a HAP-like transcriptional complex. Eur. J. Biochem. 251:758-67
79. 78a. Maggio-Hall L, Wilson R, Keller NP. 2005. Fundamental contribution of β-oxidation to polyketide mycotoxin production in planta. Mol. Plant Microbe. Interact. In press
80. Martin JF. 2000. Molecular control of expression of penicillin biosynthesis genes in fungi: regulatory proteins interact with a bidirectional promoter region. J. Bacteriol. 182:2355-62
81. Mazur P, Nakanishi K, El-Zayat AAE, Champe SP. 1991. Structure and synthesis of sporogenic psi factors from Aspergillus nidulans. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 20:1486-87
82. McCormick SP, Alexander NJ. 2002. Fusarium Tri8 encodes a trichothecene C-3 esterase. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:2959-64
83. McDonald T, Devi T, Shimizu K, Sim S-C, Keller NP. 2004. Signaling events connecting mycotoxin biosynthesis and sporulation in Aspergillus and Fusarium spp. In New Horizon of Mycotoxicology for Assuring Food Safety, Proc. Int. Symp. Mycotoxicol., ed. T Yoshizawa, pp. 139-47. Kagawa, Jpn.
84. Meyers DM, O'Brian G, Du WL, Bhatnagar D, Payne GA. 1998. Characterization of aflJ, a gene required for conversion of pathway intermediates to aflatoxin. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64:3713-17
85. Mihlan M, Homann V, Liu TW, Tudzynski B. 2003. AREA directly mediates nitrogen regulation of gibberellin biosynthesis in Gibberella fujikuroi, but its activity is not affected by NMR. Mol. Microbiol. 47(4):975-91
86. Minto RE, Townsend CA. 1997. Enzymology and molecular biology of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Chem. Rev. 97:2537-56
87. Morris AJ, Malbon CC. 1999. Physiological regulation of G protein-linked signaling. Physiol. Rev. 79:1373-430
88. Nelson PE, Desjardins AE, Plattner RD. 1993. Fumonisins, mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species: biology, chemistry, and significance. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 31:233-52
89. Noverr MC, Huffnagle GB. 2004. Regulation of Candida albicans morphogenesis by fatty acid metabolites. Infect. Immun. 72:6206-10
90. Nukima M, Sassa T, Ikeda M, Takahashi K. 1981. Linoleic acid enhances perithecial production in Neurospora crassa. Agric. Biol. Chem. 45:2371-73
91. Payne GA, Brown MP. 1998. Genetics and physiology of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 36:329-62
92. Pedley KF, Walton JD. 2001. Regulation of cyclic peptide biosynthesis in a plant pathogenic fungus by a novel transcription factor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:14174-79
93. Proctor RH, Brown DW, Plattner RD, Desjardins AE. 2003. Co-expression of 15 contiguous genes delineates a fumonisin biosynthetic gene cluster in Gibberella moniliformis. Fungal Genet. Biol. 38:237-49
94. Proctor RH, Desjardins AE, Plattner RD, Hohn TM. 1999. A polyketide synthase gene required for biosynthesis of fumonisin mycotoxins in Gibberella fujikuroi mating population A. Fungal Genet. Biol. 27:100-12
95. Proctor RH, Hohn TM, McCormick SP, Desjardins AE. 1995. Tri6 encodes an unusual zinc finger protein involved in regulation of trichothecene biosynthesis in Fusarium sporotrichioides. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:1923-30
96. Proctor RH, Hohn TM, McCormick SP. 1995. Reduced virulence of Gibberella zeae caused by disruption of a trichothecene toxin biosynthetic gene. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 8:593-601
97. Rosén S, Yu J-H,Adams TH. 1999. The Aspergillus nidulans sfaD gene encodes a G protein beta subunit that is required for normal growth and repression of sporulation. EMBO J. 18:5592-600
98. Roze LV, Beaudry RM, Keller NP, Linz JE. 2004. Regulation of aflatoxin synthesis by FadA/cAMP/protein kinase A signaling in Aspergillus parasiticus. Mycopathologia 158:219-32
99. Scheu S, Simmerling F. 2004. Growth and reproduction of fungal feeding Collembola as affected by fungal species, melanin and mixed diets. Oecologia 139(3):347-53
100. Schmitt EK, Bunse A, Janus D, Hoff B, Friedlin E, et al. 2004. Winged helix transcription factor CPCR1 is involved in regulation of beta-lactam biosynthesis in the fungus Acremonium chrysogenum. Eukaryot. Cell 3:121-34
101. Schmitt EK, Hoff B, Kuck U. 2004. AcFKH1, a novel member of the forkhead family, associates with the RFX transcription factor CPCR1 in the cephalosporin C-producing fungus Acremonium chrysogenum. Gene 342(2): 269-81
102. Seo J-A, Gwan Y, Yu J-H. 2003. Suppressor mutations bypass the requirement of fluG for asexual sporulation and sterigmatocystin production in Aspergillus nidulans. Genetics 165:1083-93
103. Seo J-A, Han K-H, Yu J-H. 2004. The gprA and gprB genes encode putative G protein-coupled receptors required for self-fertilization in Aspergillus nidulans. Mol. Microbiol. 53:1611-23
104. Seo JA, Proctor RH, Plattner RD. 2001. Characterization of four clustered and coregulated genes associated with fumonisin biosynthesis in Fusarium verticillioides. Fungal Genet. Biol. 34:155-65
105. Sharma RP, Kim YW. 1991. Mycotoxins and phytoalexins. See Ref. 104a, pp. 339-59
106. 104a. Sharma RP, Salunkhe DK, eds. 1991. Macrocyclic Trichothecene. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press
107. 1 biosynthesis and conidiation in Fusarium verticillioides by a cyclin-like (C-type) gene, FCC1. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67:1607-12
108. Shimizu K, Hicks JK, Huang TP, Keller NP. 2003. Pka, Ras and RGS protein interactions regulate activity of AflR, a Zn(II)2Cys6 transcription factor in Aspergillus nidulans. Genetics 165: 1095-104
109. Shimizu K, Keller NP. 2001. Genetic involvement of a cAMP-dependent protein kinase in a G protein signaling pathway regulating morphological and chemical transitions in Aspergillus nidulans. Genetics 157:591-600
110. Strauss T, Botha A, Kock JL, Paul I, Smith DP, et al. 2000. Mapping the distribution of 3-hydroxylipins in the Mucorales using immunofluorescence microscopy. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek J. Microbiol. Serol. 78:39-42
111. Su C, Sahlin M, Oliw EH. 1998. Kinetics of manganese lipoxygenase with a catalytic mononuclear redox center. J. Biol. Chem. 273:20744-51
112. Tag AG, Garifullina GF, Peplow AW, Ake CJ, Phillips TD, et al. 2001. A novel regulatory gene, Tri10, controls trichothecene toxin production and gene expression. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67:5294-302
113. Tag A, Hicks J, Garifullina G, Ake C Jr, Phillips TD, et al. 2000. G-protein signalling mediates differential production of toxic secondary metabolites. Mol. Microbiol. 38:658-65
114. Tilburn J, Sarkar S, Widdick DA, Espeso EA, Orejas M, et al. 1995. The Aspergillus PacC zinc finger transcription factor mediates regulation of both acid-and alkaline-expressed genes by ambient pH. EMBO J. 14:779-90
115. Trapp SC, Hohn TM, McCormick S, Jarvis BB. 1998. Characterization of the gene cluster for biosynthesis of macrocyclic trichothecenes in Myrothecium roridum. Mol. Gen. Genet. 257:421-32
116. Tsai HF, Chang YC, Washburn RG, Wheeler MH, Kwon-Chung KJ. 1988. The developmentally regulated alb1 gene of Aspergillus fumigatus: its role in modulation of conidial morphology and virulence. J. Bacteriol. 180:3031-38
117. Tsai HF, Wheeler MH, Chang YC, Kwon-Chung KJ. 1999. A developmentally regulated gene cluster involved in conidial pigment biosynthesis in Aspergillus fumigatus. J. Bacteriol. 181:6469-77
118. Tsitsigiannis DI, Kowieski T, Zarnowski R, Keller NP. 2004. Endogenous lipogenic regulators of spore balance in Aspergillus nidulans. Eukaryot. Cell 3: 1398-411
119. 116a. Tsitsigiannis DI, Kowieski T, Zarnowski R, Keller NP. 2005. Three putative oxylipin biosynthetic genes integrate sexual and asexual development in Aspergillus nidulans. Microbiology. In press
120. Tsitsigiannis DI, Zarnowski R, Keller NP. 2004. The lipid body protein, PpoA, coordinates sexual and asexual sporulation in Aspergillus nidulans. J. Biol. Chem. 279:11344-53
121. Tudzynski B. 1999. Biosynthesis of gibberellins in Gibberella fujikuroi: biomolecular aspects. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 52:298-310
122. Tudzynski P, Holter K, Correia T, Arntz C, Grammel N, Keller U. 1999. Evidence for an ergot alkaloid gene cluster in Claviceps purpurea. Mol. Gen. Genet. 261:133-41
123. Ueno Y. 1980. Trichothecene mycotoxins: mycology, chemistry, toxicology. Adv. Nutr. Sci. 3:301-53
124. +2 finger transcription factor required for sexual reproduction. Mol. Microbiol. 36:290-301
125. Versele M, de Winde JH, Thevelein JM. 1999. A novel regulator of G protein signalling in yeast, Rgs2, downregulates glucose-activation of the cAMP pathway through direct inhibition of Gpa2. EMBO J. 18:5577-91
126. Wei H, Requena N, Fischer R. 2003. The MAPKK kinase SteC regulates conidiophore morphology and is essential for heterokaryon formation and sexual development in the homothallic fungus Aspergillus nidulans. Mol. Microbiol. 47:1577-88
127. Wieser J, Adams TH. 1995. flbD encodes a Myb-like DNA-binding protein that coordinates initiation of Aspergillus nidulans conidiophore development. Genes Dev. 9:491-502
128. Wilson RA, Gardner HW, Keller NP. 2001. Cultivar-dependent expression of a maize lipoxygenase responsive to seed infesting fungi. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 14:980-87
129. Woloshuk CP, Fount KR, Brewer JF, Bhatnagar D, Cleveland TE, Payne GA. 1994. Molecular characterization of aflR, a regulatory locus for aflatoxin biosynthesis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60:2408-14
130. Yoder OC, Turgeon BG. 1996. Molecular genetic evaluation of fungal molecules for roles in pathogenesis to plants. J. Genet. 75:425-40
131. Young C, McMillan L, Telfer E, Scott B. 2001. Molecular cloning and genetic analysis of an indole-diterpene gene cluster from Penicillium paxilli. Mol. Microbiol. 39:754-64
132. Yu J, Chang PK, Ehrlich KC, Cary JW, Bhatnagar D, et al. 2004. Clustered pathway genes in aflatoxin biosynthesis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70(3):1253-62
133. Yu J-H, Butchko RAE, Fernandes M, Keller NP, Leonard TJ, Adams TH. 1996. Conservation of structure and function of the aflatoxin regulatory gene aflR from Aspergillus nidulans and A. flavus. Curr. Genet. 29:549-55
134. Yu J-H, Rosèn S, Adams TH. 1999. Extragenic suppressors of loss-of-function mutations in the Aspergillus FlbA regulator of G-protein signaling domain protein. Genetics 151:97-105
135. Yu J-H, Wieser J, Adams TH. 1996. The Aspergillus FlbA RGS domain protein antagonizes G-protein signaling to block proliferation and allow development. EMBO J. 15:5184-90
136. Zhang Y-Q, Brock M, Keller NP. 2004. Connection of propionyl-CoA metabolism to polyketide biosynthesis in Aspergillus nidulans. Genetics 168:785-94
137. Zhang Y-Q, Keller NP. 2004. Blockage of 2-methylcitrate cycle inhibits polyketide production in Aspergillus nidulans. Mol. Microbiol. 52:541-50
138. Zhang Y-Q, Wilkinson H, Keller NP, Tsitsigiannis D. 2004. Secondary metabolite gene clusters. In Handbook of Industrial Microbiology, ed. Z An, pp. 355-86. New York: Marcel Dekker
139. Zuber S, Hynes MJ, Andrianopoulos A. 2003. The G-protein α-subunit GasC plays a major role in germination in the dimorphic fungus Penicillium marneffei. Genetics 164:487-99