Supercritical and near-critical CO2 in green chemical synthesis and processing

Journal of Supercritical Fluids

Volumn 28, Issue 2-3, 2004, Pages 121-191

  Beckman, Eric J ^a  

^a University of Pittsburgh   (United States)

Author keywords

Carbon dioxide; Technology; Toxicity

Indexed keywords

CARBON DIOXIDE; SOLVENT;

CATALYSIS; CHEMICAL INDUSTRY; CHEMICAL PROCEDURES; DIELECTRIC CONSTANT; FRIEDEL CRAFTS REACTION; HYDROFORMYLATION; HYDROGENATION; MISCIBILITY; OXIDATION; POLYMERIZATION; REVIEW; SUPERCRITICAL FLUID; SYNTHESIS; VAPOR PRESSURE; VISCOSITY;

EID: 1642436434     PISSN: 08968446     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0896-8446(03)00029-9     Document Type: Article

References (489)

1. McHugh M.A., Krukonis V.J. Supercritical Fluid Extraction. second ed :1994;Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston, MA.
2. Brunner G. Gas Extraction. 1994;Steinkopff Verlag, Darmstadt, Germany.
3. Michels A., Michels C. Proc. Roy. Soc. (Lond.) A. 153:1936;201.
4. Michels A., Michels C., Wouters H. Proc. Roy. Soc. (Lond.) A. 153:1936;214.
5. Angus S., Armstrong B., de Reuck K.M. Carbon Dioxide. 1976;Oxford University Press, New York. On the basis of surveys and equations produced by V.V. Altunin.
6. Giddings J.C., Myers M.N., McLaren L., Keller R.A. Science. 162:1969;67.
7. Giddings J.C., Myers M.N., King J.W. J. Chromatogr. Sci. 7:1969;276.
8. Praxair Material Data Safety Sheet, P-4574-H, May, 1999.
9. D.R. Lide, (Ed.), CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, seventy-sixth ed., CRC, Boca Raton, FL, 1996, Chapter 16.
10. B. Minder, T. Mallat, A. Baiker, Third International Symposium on High-Pressure Chemical Engineering, Zurich, 1996, p. 139.
11. Solymosi F., Erdohelyi E., Lancz M. J. Catal. 95:1985;567.
12. Erdohelyi A., Pasztor M., Solymosi F. J. Catal. 98:1986;106.
13. Lake L.W. Enhanced Oil Recovery. 1989;Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
14. A. Chakma, M.R. Islam, F. Berruti (Eds.), Enhanced Oil Recovery, Am. Inst. Chem. Eng. Symp. Ser. 280, New York, 1991.
15. Pande J.O., Tonheim J. Proc. Safety Progr. 20:2001;37.
16. D.J. Van Bramer, M.B. Shiflett, A. Yokozeki, US Patent 5,345,013, 1994.
17. Rodriguez F. Principles of Polymer Systems. fourth ed :1996;McGraw-Hill, New York.
18. Reid R.C., Prausnitz J.M., Poling B.E. The Properties of Liquids and Gases. fourth ed :1987;McGraw-Hill, New York.
19. Weissermel K., Arpe H.-J. Industrial Organic Chemistry. third ed :1997;Wiley, VCH-Weinheim, Germany.
20. Hancu D., Beckman E.J. Green Chem. 3:2001;80.
21. Eckert C.A., Liotta C.L., Culp C.W., Lamb D.R. Jessop P.G., Leitner W. Chemical Synthesis Using Supercritical Fluids. 1999;446 Wiley VCH, Weinheim, Germany.
22. K. Zosel, US Patent No. 3,806,619, 1974, April 23.
23. R. Prasad, M. Gottesman, R.A. Scarella, US Patent No. 4,246,291, 1981, Jan. 20.
24. Kendall J.L., Canelas D.A., Young J.L., DeSimone J.M. Chem. Rev. 99:1999;543.
25. Tanko J.M., Blackert J.F. Science. 263:1994;203.
26. Hadida S., Super M.S., Beckman E.J., Curran D.P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 119:1997;7406.
27. Tsang C.Y., Street W.B. Chem. Eng. Sci. 36:1981;993.
28. Hsiao Y.-L., DeSimone J.M. J. Polym. Sci. Part A: Polym. Chem. 35:1997;2009.
29. C.A. Eckert, Presentation at the International Symposium on Supercritical Fluid Technology, Myrtle Beach, SC, August 18-23, 2001.
30. 2; where ΔT is the temperature difference between the surface and the fluid, while β is the coefficient of thermal expansion. See, for example, J.R. Welty, C.E. Wicks, R.E. Wilson, Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer, third ed., Wiley and Sons, New York, 1984.
31. Inoue S., Yamazaki N. Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry of Carbon Dioxide. 1982;Wiley and Sons, New York.
32. West K.N., Wheeler C., McCarney J.P., Griffith K.N., Bush D., Liotta C.L., Eckert C.A. J. Phys. Chem. A. 105:2001;3947.
33. Mesiano A.J., Beckman E.J., Russell A.J. Chem. Rev. 99:1999;623.
34. Y. Wu, US Patent No. 4,483,888, 1984, Nov. 20.
35. Arunajatesan V., Subramanian B., Hutchenson K.W., Herkes F.E. Chem. Eng. Sci. 56:2001;1363.
36. K.W. Hutchensen, F.E. Herkes, D.J. Walls, T.K. Das, J.F. Brennecke, Presentation at the ACS Annual Meeting, 2001.
37. V. Arunajatesan, B. Subramanian, K.W. Hutchensen, F.E. Herkes, Presentation 176d at AIChE Annual Meeting, Reno, NV, 2001.
38. Jessop P.G., Hsiao Y., Ikariya T., Noyori R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 118:1996;344.
39. Wiebe R., Gaddy V.L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 62:1940;815.
40. Holmes J.D., Ziegler K.J., Audriani M., Lee C.T., Bhargava P.A., Steytler D.C., Johnston K.P. J. Phys. Chem. B. 103:1999;5703.
41. Enick R.M., Beckman E.J., Shi C.M., Xu J.H., Chordia L. Energy Fuels. 15:2001;256.
42. Nolen S.A., Liu J., Brown J.S., Pollet P., Eason B.C., Griffith K.N., Glaser R., Bush D., Lamb D.R., Liotta C.L., Eckert C.A., Thiele G.F., Bartels K.A. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 41:2002;316.
43. Hancu D., Beckman E.J. Acc. Chem. Res. 35:2002;757.
44. Anastas P.T., Warner J.C. Green Chemistry, Theory and Practice. 1998;30 Oxford University Press, New York.
45. L. Chordia, Presentation at Fifth International Symposium on Supercritical Fluid, Atlanta, GA, April 8-12, 2000
46. Perrut M. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 39:2000;4531.
47. Hauthal W.H. Chemosphere. 43:2001;123.
48. Smith C.W., Huse G. McHardy J., Sawan S.P. Supercrital Fluid Cleaning. 1998;245 Noyes, Westwood, NJ.
49. Cygnarowicz-Provost M. King J.W., List G.R. Supercritical Fluid Technology for Oil and Lipid Chemistry. 1996;155 AOCS Press, Champaign, IL.
50. Gani R., Hytoft G., Jaksland C. Appl. Therm. Eng. 17:1997;889.
51. Colina C.M., Hall C.K., Gubbins K.E. Fluid Phase Equil. 194-197:2002;553.
52. Blas F.J., Galindo A. Fluid Phase Equil. 194-197:2002;501.
53. Byun H.-S., Kim K., McHugh M.A. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 39:2000;4580.
54. Zhang Z.-Y., Yang J.-C., Li Y.-G. Fluid Phase Equil. 169:2000;1.
55. Diaz S., Espinosa S., Brignole E.A. Comp.-Aid. Chem. Eng. 8:2000;319.
56. Artal M., Munoz Embid J., Velasco I., Berro C., Rauzy E. Fluid Phase Equil. 178:2001;119.
57. Espinosa S., Diaz S., Brignole E.A. Comp. Chem. Eng. 24:2000;1301.
58. Jaubert J.-N., Coniglio L. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 38:1999;5011.
59. Keshtkar A., Jatali F., Moshfeghian M. Fluid Phase Equil. 140:1997;107.
60. Eckert C.A., Bush D., Brown J.S., Liotta C.L. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 39:2000;4615.
61. Lucien F.P., Foster N.R. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 17:2000;111.
62. L. Chinsoo, K.L. Hoy, M.D. Donohue, US Patent No. 4,923,720, 1990, May 8.
63. L. Chinsoo, K.L. Hoy, M.D. Donohue, US Patent No. 5,027,742, 1991, July 2.
64. K.L. Hoy, K.A. Nielsen, L. Chinsoo, US Patent No. 5,108,799, 1992, April 28.
65. Suh K.W. Polystyrene and structural foam. Klempner D., Frisch K.C. Polymeric Foams. 1991;151 Oxford University Press, New York.
66. Khoury F.M. Predicting the Performance of Multi-Stage Separation Processes. second ed :1995;CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
67. Azeotropes.
68. S.-H. Chiang, G.E. Klinzing, US Patent No. 4,613,429, 1986, Sept. 23.
69. Charpentier P.A., DeSimone J.M., Roberts G.W. Chem. Eng. Sci. 55:2000;5341.
70. Charpentier P.A., Kennedy K.A., DeSimone J.M., Roberts G.W. Macromolecules. 32:1999;5973.
71. Palmer M.V., Ting S.S.T. Food Chem. 52:1995;345.
72. Tiwari K.K. Chem. Ind. Dig. 9:1996;71.
73. Jusforgues P., Shaimi M., Barth D. Chromat. Sci. Ser. 75:1998;403. Supercritical Fluid Chromatography with Packed Columns.
74. Montero G.A., Giorgio T.D., Schnelle K.B. Envir. Progr. 15:1996;112.
75. Smith R.M. J. Chromat. A. 856:1999;83.
76. Perfluorooctyl Sulfonates; Proposed Significant New Use Rule, Fed. Regis. (2000), 65 (2002) 62319.
77. http://www.greenearthcleaning.com.
78. D.R. Berndt, J.M. Griffiss, US Patent No. 5,942,007, 1999, August 24.
79. B.J. Feder, New York Times (2000), February 15, Section C, p. 1.
80. http://www.chart-ind.com/news.html.
81. S.H. Jureller, J.L. Kerschner, D.S. Murphy, US Patent No. 6,148,644, 2000.
82. S.H. Jureller, J.L. Kerschner, R. Harris, US Patent No. 5,683,473, 1997.
83. S.H. Jureller, J.L. Kerschner, M. Bae-Lee, L. Del Pizzo, R. Harris, C. Resch, C. Waja, PCT Int. Appl. WO 9627704 (1996).
84. US EPA, Office of Environmental Information, EPA 260-B-01-001, March, 2001.
85. Air toxics website - CAA: Original list of hazardous air pollutants: http://www.epa.gov/ttnatw01/orig189.html.
86. http://www.clean.rti.org.
87. W.M. Nelson, in Green Chemical Syntheses and Processes. P.T. Anastas, L.G. Heine, T.C. Williamson, eds., ACS Symp Ser 767 (2000) Chapter 24.
88. Rylander P.N. Hydrogenation Methods. 1985;Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
89. Subramaniam B. Appl. Catal. A: Gen. 212:2001;199.
90. Subramaniam B., Arunajatesan V., Lyon C.J. Stud. Surf. Sci. Catal. 126:1999;63.
91. B. Subramaniam, J. Ashraf, in: Innovations in Supercritical Fluids, ACS Symposium Ser. 608, 1995, p. 24.
92. Ginosar D.M., Subramaniam B. Stud. Surf. Sci. Catal. 88:1994;327.
93. Ginosar D.M., Subramaniam B. J. Catal. 152:1995;31.
94. Baptiste-Nguyen S., Subramaniam B. AIChE J. 38:1992;1027.
95. Satterfield C.N. Heterogeneous Catalysis in Practice. 1980;McGraw-Hill, New York. As an example.
96. Subramaniam B., Lyon C.J., Arunajatesan V. Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 37:2002;279.
97. Baiker A. Chem. Rev. 99:1999;453.
98. van den Hark S., Harrod M., Moller P. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 76:1999;1363.
99. van den Hark S., Harrod M. Appl. Cat. A: Gen. 210:2001;207.
100. T. Tacke, S. Wieland, P. Panster, Third International Conference on High Pressure Chemical Engineering, Zurich, 1996, pp. 17-21.
101. Macher M.B., Holmqvist A. Eur. J. Lip. Sci. Tech. 103:2001;81.
102. King J.W., Holliday R.L., List G.R., Snyder J.M. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 78:2001;107.
103. Andersson M.B.O., King J.W., Blomberg L.G. Green Chem. 2:2000;230.
104. Chouchi D., Gourgouillon D., Courel M., Vital J., da Ponte M.N. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 40:2001;2551.
105. Condo P.D., Paul D.R., Johnston K.P. Macromolecules. 27:1994;365.
106. Condo P.D., Johnston K.P. J. Polym. Sci. Part B: Polym. Phys. 32:1994;523.
107. Bertucco A., Canu P., Devetta L., Zwahlen A.G. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 36:1997;2626.
108. Devetta L., Giovanzana A., Canu P., Bertucco A., Minder B.J. Catal. Today. 48:1999;337.
109. Bhanage B.M., Ikushima Y., Shirai M., Arai M. Catal. Lett. 62:1999;175.
110. Minder B., Mallat T., Pickel K.H., Steiner K., Baiker A. Catal. Lett. 34:1995;1.
111. Hitzler M.G., Smail F.R., Ross S.K., Poliakoff M. Org. Proc. Res. Dev. 2:1998;137.
112. Hancu D., Beckman E.J. Indust. Eng. Chem. Res. 38:1999;2824.
113. Hancu D., Beckman E.J. Indust. Eng. Chem. Res. 38:1999;2833.
114. Hancu D., Beckman E.J. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 39:2000;2843.
115. Gelbein A.P. Chemtech. 28:1998;1.
116. O'Neill M.L., Cao Q., Fang M., Johnston K.P., Wilkinson S.P., Smith C.D., Kerschner J.L., Jureller S.H. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 37:1998;3067.
117. Consani K.A., Smith R.D. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 3:1990;51.
118. Klingler R.J., Rathke J.W. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 116:1994;4772.
119. J.W. Rathke, R.J. Klingler, US Patent 5,198,589, 1993.
120. Rathke J.W., Klingler R.J., Krause T.R. Organometallics. 10:1991;1350.
121. Warzinski R.P., Lee C.-H., Holder G.D. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 5:1992;60.
122. Fink R., Hancu D., Valentine R., Beckman E.J. J. Phys. Chem. B. 103:1999;6441.
123. Harrison K., Goveas J., Johnston K.P., O'Rear E.A. Langmuir. 10:1994;3536.
124. DeSimone J.M., Guan Z., Elsbernd C.S. Science. 257:1992;945.
125. Palo D.R., Erkey C. Organometalltics. 19:2000;81.
126. Smith D.C., Stevens E.D., Nolan S.P. Inorg. Chem. 38:1999;5277.
127. Chem. Eng. News 78 (21) (2000) 9.
128. Chem. Eng. News 79 (5) (2001) 7.
129. P.G. Jessop, S. DeHaai, D.C. Wynne, Chem. Commun. (2000) 693.
130. Wende M., Meier R., Gladysz J.A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 123:2001;11490.
131. Jessop P.G., Olmstead M.M., Ablan C., Grabenauer M., Sheppard D., Eckert C.A., Liotta C.L. Inorg. Chem. 41:2002;3463.
132. Jessop P.G., Brown R.A., Pollet P., McKoon E., Ngo T., Eckert C.A., Liotta C.L. Jessop P.G., Brown R.A., Pollet P., McKoon E., Ngo T., Eckert C.A., Liotta C.L. The Use of Neoteric Solvents for Hydrogenation and Other Asymmetric Reactions. 2001.
133. Xiao J., Nefkins S.C.A., Jessop P.G., Ikariya T., Noyori R. Tetrahed. Lett. 37:1996;2813.
134. Burk M.J., Feng S., Gross M.F., Tumas W. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117:1995;8277.
135. Kainz S., Brinkman A., Leitner W., Pfaltz A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 121:1999;6421.
136. F. Liu, M.B. Abrams, R.T. Baker, W. Tumas, Chem. Commun. (2001) 433.
137. Brown R.A., Pollet P., McKoon E., Eckert C.A., Liotta C.L., Jessop P.G. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 123:2001;1254.
138. Blanchard L.A., Hancu D., Beckman E.J., Brennecke J.F. Nature. 399:1999;28.
139. Anonymous. Chem. Eng. News. 80:2002;44.
140. Watkins J.J., McCarthy T.J. Chem. Mat. 7:1995;1991.
141. Nazem N., Taylor L.T., Rubira A.F. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 23:2002;43.
142. Morley K.S., Marr P.C., Webb P.B., Berry A.R., Allison F.J., Moldovan G., Brown P.D., Howdle S.M. J. Mat. Chem. 12:2002;1898.
143. Blackburn J.M., Long D.P., Cabanas A., Watkins J.J. Science. 294:2001;141.
144. Fernandes N.E., Fisher S.M., Poshusta J.C., Vlachos D.G., Tsapatsis M., Watkins J.J. Chem. Mat. 13:2001;2023.
145. Blackburn J.M., Long D.P., Watkins J.J. Chem. Mat. 12:2000;2625.
146. Long D.P., Blcakburn J.M., Watkins J.J. Adv. Mat. 12:2000;913.
147. Watkins J.J., Blackburn J.M., McCarthy T.J. Chem. Mat. 11:1999;213.
148. S.A. Crette, J.M. DeSimone, R.G. Carbonell, W. Tumas, J.T. Brady, Abstracts of papers for ACS Meeting, August 20, 2000 220: 413, Part 2.
149. Crooks R.M., Lemon B.I., Sun L., Yeung L.K., Zhao M.Q. Top. Curr. Chem. 212:2001;81.
150. van der Broek L.J.P., Goetheer E.L.V., Verkerk A.W., de Wolf E., Deelman B.J., van Koten G., Keurentjes J.T.F. Ang. Chem. Int. Ed. 40:2001;4473.
151. Jacobsen G.B., Lee C.T., Johnston K.P., Tumas W. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 121:1999;11902.
152. M. Harrod, P. Moller, US Patent No. 6,265,596, 2001, July 24.
153. M. Poliakoff, T.M. Swan, T. Tacke, M.G. Hitzler, S.K. Ross, S. Wieland, US Patent No. 6,156,933, 2000, Dec. 5.
154. Koch D., Leitner W. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 120:1998;13398.
155. Kainz S., Leitner W. Catal. Lett. 55:1998;223.
156. G. Francio, W. Leitner, Chem. Commun. (1999) 1663.
157. Palo D.R., Erkey C. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 37:1998;4203.
158. Palo D.R., Erkey C. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 38:1999;3786.
159. Davis T., Erkey C. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 39:2000;3671.
160. Hu Y., Chen W., Xu L.J., Xiao J.L. Organometallics. 20:2001;3206.
161. Guo Y., Akgerman A. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 36:1997;4581.
162. Guo Y., Akgerman A. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 15:1999;63.
163. Lin B., Akgerman A. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 40:2001;1113.
164. Banet Osuna A.M., Chen W., Hope E.G., Kemmitt R.D.W., Paige D.R., Stuart A.M., Xiao J., Xu L. J. Chem. Soc. Dalt. Trans. 22:2000;4052.
165. Kie J., Han B., George M.W., Yan H., Poliakoff M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 123:2001;3661.
166. N.J. Meehan, A.J. Sandee, J.N.H. Reek, P.C.J. Kamer, P.W.N.M. van Leeuwen, M. Poliakoff, Chem. Commun. (2000) 1497.
167. A.R. Tadd, A. Marteel, M.R. Mason, J.A. Davies, M.A. Abraham, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. (2002), ASAP.
168. Snyder G., Tadd A., Abraham M.A. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 40:2001;5317.
169. Dharmidhikari S., Abraham M.A. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 18:2000;1.
170. I. Ojima, H. Urata, US Patent No. 5,962,744, 1999, Oct. 5.
171. Wu X.-W., Oshima Y., Koda S. Chem. Lett. (Jpn.). 10:1997;1045.
172. Srinivas P., Mukhopadhyay M. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 36:1997;2066.
173. G. Jenzer, T. Mallat, M. Maciejewski, F. Eigenmann, A. Baiker, Appl. Catal. A: Gen. (2001) 125.
174. Nolen S.A., Lu J., Brown J.S., Pollet P., Eason B.C., Griffith K.N., Glaeser R., Bush D., Lamb D.R., Liotta C.L., Eckert C.A., Thiele G.F., Bartels K.A. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 41:2002;316.
175. Hancu D., Green J., Beckman E.J. Industr. Eng. Chem. 41:2002;4466.
176. Yao H., Richardson D.E. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 122:2000;3220.
177. Richardson D.E., Yao H., Frank K.M., Bennett D.A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 122:2000;1729.
178. Birnbaum E.R., Le Lacheur R.M., Horton A., Tumas W. J. Mol. Cat. A: Chem. 139:1999;11.
179. Loeker F., Leitner W. Chem. Eur. J. 6:2000;2011.
180. Hans G.R., Kolis J.W. Organometallics. 17:1998;4454.
181. Jiang H., Jia L., Li J. Green Chem. 2:2000;161.
182. Busch D.H., Wei M., Musie G.T., Subramaniam B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 124:2002;2513.
183. R. Pitchai, A.P. Kahn, A.M. Gaffney, US Patent No. 5,625,084, 1997, Apr. 27.
184. Kumar A., Gupta R.K. Fundamentals of Polymers. 1998;McGraw-Hill, New York.
185. Flory P.J. Principles of Polymer Chemistry. 1953;Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.
186. Wiesmet V., Weidner E., Behme S., Sadowski G., Arlt W. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 17:2000;1.
187. Wissinger R.G., Paulaitis M.E. J. Polym. Sci. Part B: Polym. Phys. 25:1987;2497.
188. Wissinger R.G., Paulaitis M.E. J. Polym. Sci. Part B: Polym. Phys. 29:1991;631.
189. Ehrlich P. J. Polym. Sci. A3:1965;131.
190. Ehrlich P., Mortimer G.A. Adv. Polym. Sci. 7:1970;386.
191. Kirby C., McHugh M.A. Chem. Rev. 99:1999;565. for a review.
192. Allada S.R. Ind. Eng. Chem. Proc. Des. Dev. 23:1984;344.
193. F.M. Orr, J.P. Heller, J.T. Taber, R.J. Card, Chemtech (1983) 482.
194. McFann G.J., Howdle S.M., Johnston K.P. AIChE J. 40:1994;543.
195. M.E. Sikorski, J.L. Lundberg, Abstract HS 22, American Physical Society Meeting, Detroit, MI, 1983.
196. T.V. Harris, C.A. Irani, W.R. Pretzer, US Patent No. 5,045,220, 1991, Sept. 3.
197. Iezzi A., Bendale P., Enick R.M., Turberg M., Brady J. Fluid Phase. Equil. 52:1989;307.
198. Hoefling T.A., Enick R.M., Beckman E.J. J. Phys. Chem. 95:1991;7127.
199. Hoefling T.A., Newman D.A., Enick R.M., Beckman E.J. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 6:1993;165.
200. Hoefling T.A., Newman D.A., Enick R.M., Beckman E.J. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 6:1993;205.
201. G.G. Ghenciu, Extraction of Proteins in Liquid Carbon Dioxide, PhD Thesis, Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1997.
202. McClain J.B., Betts D.E., Canelas D.A., Samulski E.T., DeSimone J.M., Londono J.D., Cochran H.D., Wignall G.D., ChilluraMartino D., Triolo R. Science. 274:1996;2049.
203. McHugh M.A., Park I.-H., Reisinger J.J., Ren Y., Lodge T.P., Hillmyer M.A. Macromolecules. 35:2002;4653.
204. DiNoia T.P., Conway S.E., Lim J.S., McHugh M.A. J. Polym. Sci. Part. B: Polym. Phys. 38:2000;2832.
205. Lora M., Lim J.S., McHugh M.A. J. Phys. Chem. B. 103:1999;2818.
206. Mertogan C.A., McHugh M.A., Tuminello W.H. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 74:1999;2039.
207. Dardin A., DeSimone J.M., Samulski E.T. J. Phys. Chem. 102:1998;1775.
208. Dardin A., Cain J.B., DeSimone J.M., Johnson J.C.S. Jr, Samulski E.T. Macromolecules. 30:1997;3593.
209. Diep P., Jordan K.D., Johnson J.K., Beckman E.J. J. Phys. Chem. A. 102:1998;2231. An example.
210. 2-philic materials.
211. Meredith J.C., Johnston K.P., Seminario J.M., Kazarian S.G., Eckert C.A. J. Phys. Chem. 100:1996;10837.
212. Kazarian S.G., Vincent M.F., Bright F.V., Liotta C., Eckert C.A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 118:1996;1729.
213. Nelson M.R., Borkman R.F. J. Phys. Chem. A. 102:1998;7860.
214. Rindfleisch F., DiNoia T.P., McHugh M.A. J. Phys. Chem. 100:1996;15581.
215. E.J. Beckman, Unpublished results.
216. Lepilleur C., Beckman E.J. Fluid Phase. Equil. 134:1997;285.
217. Kleintjens L.A., Koningsveld R., Gordon M. Macromolecules. 13:1980;303.
218. Chen S.-J., Banaszak M., Radosz M. Macromolecules. 28:1995;1812.
219. Sarbu T., Styranec T., Beckman E.J. Nature. 405:2000;165.
220. Fink R., Hancu D., Valentine R., Beckman E.J. J. Phys. Chem. B. 103:1999;6441.
221. Xiang Y., Kiran E. Polymer. 36:1995;4817.
222. S. Wallen, International Symposium on Supercritical Fluid Technology, Myrtle Beach, SC, 2001.
223. Odian G. Principles of Polymerization. third ed :1991;Wiley and Sons, New York.
224. K. Fukui, T. Kagiya, H. Yokota, Y. Toriuchi, F. Kuniyoshi, US Patent No. 3,522,228, 1970.
225. O'Neill M.L., Newman D., Beckman E.J. Polym. Eng. Sci. 39:1999;862.
226. Romack T.J., DeSimone J.M. Macromolecules. 28:1995;8429.
227. T.J. Romack, J.M. DeSimone, US Patent No. 5,674,957, 1997.
228. T.J. Romack, J.M. DeSimone, US Patent No. 5,939,501, 1999.
229. T.J. Romack, J.M. DeSimone, US Patent No. 5,939,502, 1999.
230. T.J. Romack, J.M. DeSimone, US Patent No. 5,981,673, 1999.
231. E.R. George (Zeus, Inc.), personal communication, 2002.
232. Romack T.J., Maury E.E., DeSimone J.M. Macromolecules. 28:1995;912.
233. Hyatt J.A. J. Org. Chem. 49:1984;5097.
234. Adamsky F., Beckman E.J. Salamone J.C. The Polymeric Materials Encyclopedia. 1A-B:1996;54 CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
235. E.J. Singley, Development of Fluoroether Amphiphiles and their Applications in Heterogeneous Polymerizations in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide, PhD Thesis, University of Pittsburgh, 1997.
236. R. Fink, E.J. Beckman. V. Hildebrandt, PCT Int. Appl. (2000) WO 0053639.
237. R. Fink, E.J. Beckman, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. (2002) (submitted).
238. Bunyard W.C., Kadla J.F., DeSimone J.M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 123:2001;7199.
239. Barrett K.E.J. Dispersion Polymerization in Organic Media. 1975;Wiley and Sons, New York.
240. DeSimone J.M., Maury E.E., Mencelogu Y.Z., McClain J.B., Romack T.R., Combes J.R. Science. 265:1994;356.
241. Canelas D.A., Betts D.E., DeSimone J.M. Macromolecules. 29:1996;2818.
242. Canelas D.A., DeSimone J.M. Macromolecules. 30:1997;5673.
243. O'Neill M.L., Yates M.Z., Harrison K.L., Johnston K.P., Canelas D.A., Betts D.E., DeSimone J.M., Wilkinson S.P. Macromolecules. 30:1997;5050.
244. Yates M.Z., O'Neill M.L., Johnston K.P., Webber S., Canelas D.A., Betts D.E., DeSimone J.M. Macromolecules. 30:1997;5060.
245. Lepilleur C., Beckman E.J. Macromolecules. 30:1997;745.
246. Christian P., Giles M.R., Griffiths R.M.T., Irvine D.J., Major R.C., Howdle S.M. Macromolecules. 33:2000;9222.
247. Shaffer K.A., Jones T.A., Canelas D.A., DeSimone J.M., Wilkinsonj S.P. Macromolecules. 29:1996;2704.
248. Yates M.Z., Li G., Shim J.J., Maniar S., Johnston K.P., Lim K.T., Webber S. Macromolecules. 32:1999;1018.
249. Li G., Yates M.Z., Johnston K.P., Lim K.T., Webber S. Macromolecules. 33:2000;1606.
250. Shiho H., DeSimone J.M. Macromolecules. 34:2001;1198.
251. Romack T.J., Maury E.E., DeSimone J.M. Macromolecules. 28:1995;912.
252. Wood C.D., Cooper A.I. Macromolecules. 34:2001;5.
253. R.H. Biddulph, P.H. Plesch, J. Chem. Soc. (1960) 3913.
254. Pernecker T., Kennedy J.P. Polym. Bull. (Berl.). 33:1994;13.
255. Clark M.R., DeSimone J.M. Polym. Prepr. (Am. Chem. Soc. Div. Polym. Chem.). 35:1994;482.
256. Clark M.R., DeSimone J.M. Macromolecules. 28:1995;3002.
257. Mistele C.D., Thorp H.H., DeSimone J.M. J. Macromol. Sci. A. 33:1996;953.
258. US Patent No. 5,840,820, 1998.
259. E.F. Debrabander, P.D. Brothers, US Patent No. 6,051,682, 2000, Apr. 18.
260. R.C. Wheland, P.D. Brothers, US Patent No. 6,107,423, 2000, Aug. 22.
261. R.C. Wheland, P.D. Brothers, C. Anolick, C.W. Stewart, US Patent No. 6,228,963, 2001, May 8.
262. P.D. Brothers, US Patent No. 6,103,844, 2000, Aug 15.
263. M.F. Cunningham, H.K. Mahabadi, US Patent No. 6,057,409, 2000, May 2.
264. G.L. Eian, C.L.S. Elsbernd, US Patent No. 5,559,198, 1996, Sept. 24.
265. http://europa.eu.int/comm./research/growth/gcc/pressroom.html.
266. Burke A.L.C., Givens R.D., Jikei M., DeSimone J.M. Polym. Prepr. 38:1997;387.
267. Givens R.D., Jikei M., DeSimone J.M. Polym. Prepr. 38:1997;468.
268. Gross S.M., Roberts G.W., Kiserow D.J., DeSimone J.M. Macromolecules. 33:2000;40.
269. Shi C., DeSimone J.M., Roberts G., Kiserow D.J. Macromolecules. 34:2001;7744.
270. R.V. Chaudhari, S.P. Gupte, A.A. Kelkar, S. Kanagasabapathy, S. Radhakrishnan, US Patent No. 5,917,077, 1999, June 29.
271. Chem. Eng. News 79 (21) (2001) 27.
272. W.D. McGhee, M.K. Stern, T.E. Waldman, US Patent No. 5,233,010, 1993, Aug 3.
273. Hoelderich W.F., Dahlhoff G. Chem. Innov. 31:2001;29.
274. Klempner D., Frisch K.C. Handbook of Polymeric Foams. 1991;Oxford University Press, New York.
275. C. Fiorentini, A.C.M. Griffiths, US Patent No. 5,629,027, 1997, May 13.
276. C. Fiorentini, A.C.M. Griffiths, US Patent No. 5,665,287, 1997, Sept. 9.
277. C. Fiorentini, A.C.M. Griffiths, US Patent No. 5,639,483, 1997, June 17.
278. H.-M. Sulzbach, H. Steilen, R. Raffel, R. Eiben, W. Ebeling, US Patent No. 6,127,442, 2000, Oct. 3.
279. P. Merriman, US Patent No. 3,184,419, 1965, May 18.
280. Inoue S., Koinuma H., Tsuruta T. Makromol. Chem. 130:1969;210.
281. Inoue S., Koinuma H., Tsuruta T. J. Polym. Sci. B. 7:1969;287.
282. Inoue S. Chemtech. 588:1976.
283. Rokicki A., Kuran W. Macromol. Sci. Rev. Macromol. Chem. C21:1981;135.
284. Kuran W. Prog. Polym. Sci. 23:1998;919.
285. Aida T., Inoue S. Macromolecules. 15:1982;682.
286. Aida T., Ishikawa M., Inoue S. Macromolecules. 19:1986;8.
287. Darensbourg D., Holtcamp M. Macromolecules. 28:1995;7577.
288. Super M., Berluche E., Costello C., Beckman E.J. Macromolecules. 30:1997;368.
289. Cheng M., Moore D.R., Reczek J.J., Chamberlain B.M., Lobkovsky E.B., Coates G.W. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 123:2001;8738.
290. 2 Utilization, Breckenridge, CO, September 10-14, 2001.
291. Super M., Beckman E.J. Trends Polym. Sci. 5:1997;236.
292. Soga K., Hosoda S., Tazuke Y., Ikeda S. J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Lett. 13:1975;265.
293. Soga K., Sato M., Hosoda S., Ikeda S. J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Lett. 13:1995;543.
294. D.E. Sargent, US Patent No. 2,462,680, 1949.
295. P.G. Odell, US Patent No. 5,698,665, 1997, Dec. 16.
296. K.-S. Kim, S. Danishevsky, C.B. Peterson, US Patent No. 6,100,372, 2000, Aug. 8.
297. Berens A.R., Huvard G.S., Korsmeyer R.W., Kunig F.W. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 46:1992;231.
298. Kazarian S.G., Brantley N.H., West B.L., Vincent M.F., Eckert C.A. Appl. Spectr. 51:1997;491.
299. Montero G.A., Smith C.B., Hendrix W.A., Butcher D.L. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 39:2000;4806. for recent review.
300. Bach E., Cleve E., Schollmeyer E. Rev. Prog. Colorat. Rel. Top. 32:2002;88. for recent review.
301. Bach E., Cleve E., Schollmeyer E., Bork M., Korner P. Melliand. Int. 3:1998;192.
302. E. Bach, E. Cleve, E. Schollmeyer, T. Vardag, P. Korner, 2 (1999) 165.
303. M.D. Argyle, W.A. Propp, US Patent No. 5,709,910, 1999, Jan. 20.
304. R. Eggers, J. von Schnitzler, K. Truckenmuller, US Patent No. 5,938,794, 1999, Aug. 17.
305. E. Schollmeyer, E. Bach, E. Cleve, M. Bork, M. Steinhauer, J.-P. Korner, US Patent No. 5,953,780, 1999, Sept. 21.
306. R. Eggers, J. von Schnitzler, R. Huber, G. Worner, US Patent No. 5,958,085, 1999, Sept. 28.
307. R. Eggers, J. von Schnitzler, G. Worner, US Patent No. 5,972,045, 1999, Oct. 26.
308. C.B. Smith, G.A. Montero, W.A. Hendrix, US Patent No. 6,048,369, 2000, Apr. 11.
309. N. Poddevin, J. Fages, R. Guidoin, US Patent No. 6,120,558, 2000, Sept. 19.
310. W.A. Hendrix, G.A. Montero, C.B. Smith, D.L. Butcher, US Patent No. 6,261,326, 2001, July 17.
311. Shim J.J., Johnston K.P. AIChE J. 37:1991;607.
312. Shim J.J., Johnston K.P. AIChE J. 35:1989;1097.
313. Hendrix W.A. J. Industr. Tex. 31:2001;43.
314. A.D. Shine, J. Gelb, US Patent 5,766,637, 1998.
315. S.M. Howdle, M.S. Watson, M.J. Whitaker, M.C. Davies, K.M. Shakesheff, V.K. Popov, F.S. Mandel, D.J. Wang, Chem. Commun. (2001) 109.
316. F. Mandel, US Patent No. 6,054,103, 2000, April 25.
317. F. Mandel, US Patent No. 5,993,747, 1999, Nov. 30.
318. F. Mandel, C.D. Green, A.S. Scheibelhoffer, US Patent No. 5,548,004, 1996, Aug 20.
319. E.J. Beckman, M. O'Neill, US Patent No. 6,184,270, 2001, Feb. 6.
320. G. Mura, S. Pozzoli, Eur. Pat. Appl. 94119470.6, 1994, Dec. 9.
321. D. Pierick, The MuCell Molding Technology: Microcellular Foam. Paper presented at Molding '99 (1999), New Orleans, March 1-3.
322. Goel S., Beckman E.J. AIChE J. 41:1995;357.
323. Stafford C.M., Russell T.P., McCarthy T.J. Macromolecules. 32:1999;7610.
324. Arora K.A., Lesser A.J., McCarthy T.J. Macromolecules. 31:1998;4614.
325. Sparacio D., Beckman E.J. Generation of microcellular biodegradable polymers using supercritical carbon dioxide. Hunt M., Long T. Solvent-Free Polymerizations and Processes: Minimization of Conventional Organic Solvents. 713:1998;181-195. ACS Symposium Series.
326. Berens A.R., Huvard G.S. Supercritical Fluid Science and Technology. 1989;207. ACS Symposium Series 406.
327. Liau I.S., McHugh M.A. High pressure solid polymer - supercritical fluid phase behavior. Penninger J.M.L., Radosz M., McHugh M.A., Krukonis V.J. Supercritical Fluid Technology. 1985;415 Elsevier, Amsterdam.
328. Wang W., Kramer E.J., Sachse W.H. J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Phys. Ed. 20:1982;1371.
329. Kwag C., Manke C.W., Gulari E. J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Phys. 37:1999;2771.
330. Royer J.R., Gay Y.J., DeSimone J.M., Khan S.A. J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Phys. 38:2000;3168.
331. K. Suh, Extruded Thermoplastic Foams Produced with Supercritical Fluids. Paper presented at the Conference on Supercritical Fluids in Materials Processing and Synthesis, Davos Switzerland, 1999, 9/26-10/1.
332. G.R. Wilkes, K.A. Bly, H.A. Dunbar, E.R. Uhl, J.L. Zwynenburg, US Patent No. 5,993,706, 1999, Nov. 30.
333. J. Cebien, Bayer Corporation, personal communication.
334. Perry R.H., Chilton C.H. Chemical Engineering Handbook. fifth ed :1973;McGraw-Hill, New York.
335. Shi C., Huang Z., Kilic S., Xu J., Enick R.M., Beckman E.J., Carr A.J., Melendez R.E., Hamilton A.D. Science. 286:1999;1540.
336. C.B. Park, N.P. Suh, D.F. Baldwin, US Patent No. 6,051,174, 2000, Apr. 18.
337. International Roadmap for Semiconductors, Semiconductor Industry Association, San Jose, CA, 1999.
338. R.D. Allen, G. Wallraff, US Patent No. 5,665,527, 1997, Sept. 9.
339. Pryce Lewis H.G., Weibel G.L., Ober C.K., Gleason K.K. Chem. Vap. Dep. 7:2001;195.
340. Sundararajan N., Yang S., Ogino K., Valiyaveettil S., Wang J., Zhou X., Ober C.K., Obendorf S., Allen R.D. Chem. Mat. 12:2000;41.
341. Yang S., Wang J., Ogino K., Valiyaveettil S., Ober C.K. Chem. Mat. 12:2000;33.
342. Taylor D.K., Carbonell R., DeSimone J.M. Ann. Rev. Energy Envir. 25:2000;115.
343. J. Kendall, J.M. DeSimone, R.G. Carbonell, C.L. McAdams, PCT Int. Appl. (2002), WO 0231596.
344. Brodsky C., Byers J., Conley W., Hung R., Yamada S., Patterson K., Somervell M., Trinique B., Tran H.V., Cho S., Chiba T., Lin S.-H., Jamieson A., Johnson H., Vander Heyden T., Willson C.G. J. Vac. Sci. Tech. B. 18:2000;3396.
345. R.C. Carbonell, J.M. DeSimone, B.J. Novick, US Patent No. 6,083,565.
346. J.M. DeSimone, R.C. Carbonell, US Patent No. 6,001,418.
347. McCoy M. Chem. Eng. News. 79:(38):2001;10.
348. Voss D. Tech. Rev. 105:2002;27.
349. Chem. Eng. News 79 (38) (2001) 10.
350. Chem. Eng. News 79 (50) (2001) 14.
351. V.K. Agarwal, US Patent No. 6,306,754, 2001, Oct. 23.
352. H-J. Lee, D.G.-K. Jeng, US Patent No. 6,319,858, 2001, Nov. 20.
353. Klibanov A.M. Trends Biotech. 15:1997;97.
354. Mesiano A., Beckman E.J., Russell A.J. Chem. Rev. 99:1999;623.
355. Kamat S., Barrera J., Beckman E.J., Russell A.J. Biotech. Bioeng. 40:1992;158.
356. Kamat S., Critchley G., Beckman E.J., Russell A.J. Biotech. Bioeng. 46:1995;610.
357. Johnston K.P., Harrison K.L., Clarke M.J., Howdle S.M., Heitz M.P., Bright F.V., Carlier C., Randolph T.W. Science. 271:1996;624.
358. Ghenciu E., Russell A.J., Beckman E.J. Biotech. Bioeng. 58:1998;572.
359. Ghenciu E.G., Beckman E.J. Industr. Eng. Chem. 36:1997;5366.
360. Chaudhary A.K., Beckman E.J., Russell A.J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117:1995;3728.
361. Weinstein R.D., Winslo A.R., Danheiser R.L., Harris J.G., Tester J.W. J. Phys. Chem. 100:1996;12337.
362. Reaves J.T., Roberts C.B. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 38:1999;855.
363. J. Matsuo, T. Tsuchiya, K. Odashima, S. Kobayashi, Chem. Lett. (2000) 178.
364. Ikushima Y., Saito N., Arai M. J. Phys. Chem. 96:1992;2293.
365. Renslo A.R., Weinstein R.D., tester J.W., Danheiser R.L. J. Org. Chem. 62:1997;4530.
366. R.S. Oakes, T.J. Heppenstall, N. Shezad, A.A. Clifford, C.M. Rayner, Chem. Commun. (1999) 1459.
367. Totoe H., McGowin A.E., Turnbull K. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 18:2000;131.
368. Chateauneuf J.E., Nie K. Adv. Envir. Res. 4:2000;307.
369. Kawada A., Mitamura S., Matsuo J., Tsuchiya T., Kobayashi S. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jap. 73:2000;2325.
370. Kobayashi S., Manabe K. Pure. Appl. Chem. 72:2000;1373.
371. M.G. Hitzler, F.R. Smail, S.K. Ross, M. Poliakoff, Chem. Commun. (1998), 359.
372. Olah G.A., Marinez E., Torok B., Surya Prakash G.K. Catal. Lett. 61:1999;105.
373. Pernecker T., Kennedy J.P. Polym. Bull. (Berl.). 32:1994;537.
374. R. Fornika, H. Gorls, B. Seemann, W. Leitner, Chem. Commun. (1995) 1479.
375. Leitner W. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Eng. 34:1995;2207.
376. Jessop P.E., Hsiao Y., Ikariya T., Noyori R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 118:1996;344.
377. Shi M., Nicholas K.M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 119:1997;5057.
378. Ushikoshi K., Mori K., Watanabe T., Takeuchi M., Saito M. Inui T., Anpo M., Izui K., Yanagida S., Yamaguchi T. Advances in Chemical Conversions for Mitigating Carbon Dioxide. Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis. 114:1998;357 Elsevier Science, New York.
379. Arakawa H., et al. Chem. Rev. 101:2001;953.
380. Yamazaki N., Nakahama S., Higashi F. Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev. 18:1979;249.
381. A.-A.G. Shaikh, S. Sivaram, Chem. Rev. (1996) 951.
382. Behr A. Carbon Dioxide Activation by Metal Complexes. 1988;VCH, New York.
383. 2 into Useful Products. 1993;CRC Press, London.
384. Gibson D.H. Chem. Rev. 96:1996;2063. Also, see Ref. [124] from our Ref. [245].
385. Jia L., Jiang H., Li J. Green Chem. 1:1999;91.
386. Kishimoto Y., Ikariya T. J. Org. Chem. 65:2000;7656.
387. D.K. Morita, D.R. Pesiri, S.A. David, W.H. Glaze, W. Tumas, Chem. Commun. (1998) 1397.
388. Chen W., Xu L., Xiao J. Org. Lett. 2:2000;2675.
389. Bhanage B.M., Ikushima Y., Shirai M., Arai M. Tetrahed. Lett. 40:1999;6427.
390. Osswald T., Schneider S., Wang S., Bannwarth W. Tetrahed. Lett. 42:2001;2965.
391. Cacchi S., Fabrizi G., Gasparrini F., Villani C. Synlett. 3:1999;345.
392. He L.-N., Choi J.-C., Sakakura T. Tetrahed. Lett. 42:2001;2169.
393. Montilla F., Clara E., Aviles T., Casimiro T., Aguicar Ricardo A., Nunes de Ponte M. J. Organomet. Chem. 626:2001;227.
394. Kabir A., Marshall W.D. Green Chem. 3:2001;47.
395. Jeong N., Hwang S.H. Angew Chem. Int. Ed. Eng. 39:2000;636.
396. M. Poliakoff, T.M. Swan, T. Tacke, M.G. Hitzler, S.K. Ross, S. Wieland, F.R. Smail, US Patent No. 6,303,840, 2001, Oct. 16.
397. B. Subramaniam, M.C. Clark, US Patent No. 5,907,075, 1999, May 25.
398. Ritter S.K. Chem. Eng. News. 79:(40):2001;63.
399. R. Harris, S.H. Jureller, J.L. Kerschner, P.T. Trzasko, R.W.R. Humphreys, US Patent No. 5,977,348, 1999, Nov. 2.
400. D.A. Schiraldi, J.S. Brown, K. Chandler, C.A. Eckert, J.S. Hurley, D.R. Lamb, P.H. Lesutis, C.L. Liotta, US Patent No. 6,204,386, 2001, March 20.
401. R. Lowack, J. Meyer, M. Eggersdorfer, P. Grafen, US Patent No. 5,523,420, 1996, Jun. 4.
402. D.W. Matson, J.L. Fulton, R.D. Smith, K.A. Consani, US Patent No. 5,238,671, 1993, Aug. 24.
403. Ji M., Chen X.Y., Wai C.M., Fulton J.L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 121:1999;2631.
404. Cason J.P., Khamwasadkar K., Roberts C.B. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 39:2000;4749.
405. Laintz K.E., Wai C.M., Yonker C.R., Smith R.D. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 4:1991;194.
406. Erkery C. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 17:2000;259. for a review.
407. Wai C.M., Wang S. J. Chromatogr. A. 785:1997;369. for a review.
408. Smart N.G., Carleson T., Kast T., Clifford A.A., Burford M.D., Wai C.M. Talanta. 44:1997;137. for a review.
409. Lagalante A.F., Hansen B.N., Bruno T.J., Sievers R.E. Inorg. Chem. 34:1995;5781.
410. Anderson W.C., Sievers R.E., Lagalante A.F., Bruno T.J. J. Chem. Eng. Data. 45:2001;1045.
411. Dicinoski W. Min. Mag. 182:2000;258. also pp. 260 and 262.
412. White R.H. Copper Leaching, Solvent Extraction and Electrowinning. 1999;229 Society of Mineral and Metallic Exploration, Littleton, CO.
413. Townsend B., Sievers K.J. Min. Mag. 162:1990;26. also pp. 29, 32, 35.
414. Flett D.S. Inst. Min. Met. Trans. Sect. C. 83:1974;C30.
415. M. Olper, M. Maccagni, C.J.N. Buisman, C.E. Schultz, In: S.K. Young (Ed.), Proceedings of the Copper 99-Cobre Ninety-ninth International Conference, vol. 4, (fourth ed.), Mineral, Metallic and Materials Society, 1999, p. 597.
416. D. Valic, A.S. Tombalakian, A. Alfantazi, R.R. Moskalyk, In: S.K. Young (Ed.), Proceedings of the Copper 99-Cobre Ninety-ninth International Conference, vol. 3, (fourth ed.), Mineral, Metallic and Materials Society, 1999, p. 711.
417. W.G. Davenport, In: S.K. Young (Ed.), Proceedings of the Copper 99-Cobre Ninety-ninth International Conference, vol. 1, (fourth ed.), Mineral, Metallic and Materials Society, 1999, p. 55.
418. Braun T.B. J. Met. 33:1981;59.
419. L.S. Benner, T. Suzuki, K. Meguro, S. Tanaka (Eds.), Precious Metals: Science and Technology, Institute of Precious Metals Institute, Allentown, PA, 1991.
420. Harris G.B.A. Mishra R.K. Precious Metals. 1993;351 Pergamon Press, Toronto, Canada.
421. Powell C.J., Beckman E.J. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 40:2001;2897.
422. Izatt R.M., Bradshaw J.S., Bruening R.L. Pure Appl. Chem. 68:1996;1237. for example.
423. List of publications on IBC web site: http://www.ibcmrt.com/publications.
424. J.H. Sherman, J.W. Hershberger, R.T. Taylor, G.M. Garrett, PCT Int. Appl. (2000), WO 0056842.
425. B.J. Bertus, D.W. Walker, US Patent No. 4,727,053, 1988.
426. Macedo J.C.D., Duarte M.A.I. Appl. Cat. A. 110:1994;87.
427. Roussel, J.-C., Boulet, R., Pet. Refin. (1995) 1 (Crude Oil, Petroleum Products, Process Flowsheets), 1-15, 453-60.
428. Pearson C.D., Green J.B. Energy Fuels. 7:1993;338.
429. Mitchell P.C.H. Catal. Today. 7:1990;439.
430. J.G. Reynolds, US Patent No. 4,789,463, 1988.
431. Li J.-T., Beckman E.J. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 37:1998;4768.
432. Laintz K.E., Hale C.D., Stark P., Rouquette C.L. Anal. Chem. 70:1998;400.
433. Yu J.-J., Chiu K.-H., Wang S. J. Chin. Inst. Chem. Eng. 32:2001;263.
434. Lin Y., Wu H., Smart N.G., Wai C.M. Sep. Sci. Tech. 36:2001;1149.
435. Gervais F., Perre C., Sarrade S., Moszkowicz P., Barna L. Rec. Prog. Gen. Proc. 13:1999;197.
436. Shamsipur M., Ghiasvand A.R., Yamini Y. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 20:2001;163.
437. Wai C.M., Waller B. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 39:2000;4837.
438. Kersch C., Woerlee G.F., Witkamp G.J. Liddell K.C. Metal Separation Technologies Beyond : Integrating Novel Chemistry with Processing. 2000;2002 Mineral, Metallic and Material Society, Warrendale, PA.
439. F.G. Baglin, US Patent No. 5,897,704, 1999, April 27.
440. R.H. Jones, US Patent No. 5,965,201, 1999, Oct. 12.
441. M.A. Douglas, A.C. Templeton, US Patent No. 5,868,856, 1999, Feb. 9.
442. B.A. Vaartstra, US Patent No. 6,149,828, 2000, Nov. 12.
443. Chandler K., Culp C.W., Lamb D.R., Liotta C.L., Eckert C.A. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 37:1998;3252.
444. Jacobsen G.B., Lee C.T., Johnston K.P. J. Org. Chem. 64:1999;1201-1207.
445. R.J. Bonilla, B.R. James, P.G. Jessop, Chem. Commun. (2000) 941.
446. Quadir M.A., Snook R., Gilbert R.G., DeSimone J.M. Macromolecules. 30:1997;6015.
447. Blanchard L.A., Hancu D., Beckman E.J., Brennecke J.F. Nature. 399:1999;28.
448. M.F. Sellin, P.B. Webb, D.J. Cole-Hamilton, Chem. Commun. (2001) 781.
449. Bosmann A., Francio G., Janssen E., Solinas M., Leitner W., Wasserscheid P. Angew Chem. Int. Ed. Eng. 40:2001;2697.
450. Blanchard L.A., Brennecke J.F. Green Chem. 3:2001;17.
451. Matson D.W., Peterson R.C., Smith R.D. J. Mater. Sci. 22:1987;1919.
452. Jung J., Perrut M. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 20:2001;179.
453. Bungert B., Sadowski G., Arlt W. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 37:1998;3208.
454. Kompella U.B., Koushik K. Crit. Rev. Ther. Drug. Carr. Sys. 18:2001;173.
455. Reverchon E., Della Porta G. Pure Appl. Chem. 73:2001;1293.
456. Marr R., Gamse T. Chem. Eng. Proc. 39:2000;19.
457. Palakodaty S., York P. Pharm. Res. 16:1999;976.
458. Reverchon E. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 15:1999;21.
459. Gallagher P.M., Coffey M.P., Krukonis V.J., Klasutis N. Johnston K.P., Penninger J.M.L. Supercritical Science and Technology. 1989;American Chemical Society, Washington, DC. ACS Symp. Ser. 406.
460. M. Hanna, P. York, World Patent WO 95/01221, 1994.
461. M. Hanna, P. York, World Patent WO 96/00610, 1995.
462. M. Hanna, P. York, US Patent 6,063,138, 2000.
463. R.E. Sievers, U. Karst, Eur. Pat. 0 677 332, 1995; and US Patent No. 5,639,441, 1997.
464. Sievers R.E., Karst U., Milewski P.D., Sellers S.P., Miles B.A., Schaefer J.D., Stoldt C.R., Xu C.Y. Aer. Sci. Tech. 30:1999;3.
465. R.E. Sievers, U. Karst, US Patent No. 6,095,134, 2000.
466. Maa Y.-F., Prestrelski S.J. Curr. Pharma. Biotech. 1:2000;283.
467. R. Thibert, R. Tawashi, Microspheres, Microcapsules, and Liposomes (Preparation and Applications), 1 (1999) 327.
468. Perry R.H., Chilton C.H. Chemical Engineers Handbook. fifth ed :1973;McGraw-Hill, New York.
469. Kileen M. Powd. Bulk. Eng. 8:1994;39.
470. Mortensen S., Lohmann D. Chem.-Tech. 21:1992;72.
471. Weers J. Innov. Pharm. Tech. 1:2000;111-114.
472. Jono K., Ichikawa H., Fukumori Y. Powd. Tech. 113:2000;269.
473. Shekunov B.Y., York P. J. Cryst. Growth. 211:2000;122.
474. Weber M., Russell L.M., Debenedetti P.G. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 23:2002;65.
475. Werling J.O., Debenedetti P.G. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 18:2000;11.
476. Werling J.O., Debenedetti P.G. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 16:1999;167.
477. Kwauk X., Debenedetti P.G. J. Aerosol. Sci. 24:1993;445.
478. Tom J.W., Debenedetti P.G. J. Aerosol. Sci. 22:1991;555.
479. Debenedetti P.G. AIChE J. 36:1990;1289.
480. Lengsfeld C.S., Delplanque J.P., Barocas V.H., Randolph T.W. J. Phys. Chem. B. 104:2000;2725.
481. Texter J. Surfact. Sci. Ser. 100:2001;577. Reactions and Synthesis in Surfactant Systems.
482. Hong L., Guo J., Gao Y., Yuan W.-K. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 39:2000;4882.
483. M.C. Manning, T.W. Randolph, E. Shefter, R.F. Falk, US Patent No. 5,981,474, 1999.
484. M.C. Manning, T.W. Randolph, E. Shefter, R.F. Falk, US Patent No. 5,770,559, 1998.
485. B. Subramaniam, S. Saim, R.A. Rajewski, V. Stella, US Patent No. 5,874,029, 1999.
486. B. Subramaniam, S. Saim, R.A. Rajewski, V. Stella, US Patent No. 5,833,891, 1998.
487. A.T. Daly, O.H. Decker, R. Wursthorn, US Patent No. 5,766,522, 1998.
488. A.T. Daly, N.B. Shah, G.D. Cornell, K.R. Wursthorn, US Patent No. 5,708,039.
489. Sheldon R.A. Tundo P., Clemenza L., Perosa A. College Lectures of Summer Schools on Green Chemicals. 2001;41.