Redox activation of p21Cip1/WAF1/Sdi1: A multifunctional regulator of cell survival and death

Antioxidants and Redox Signaling

Volumn 7, Issue 1-2, 2005, Pages 108-118

  O'Reilly, Michael A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER SCHOOL OF MEDICINE AND DENTISTRY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

APOPTOSIS SIGNAL REGULATING KINASE 1; ATM PROTEIN; CIGARETTE SMOKE; CYCLIN D1; CYCLIN DEPENDENT KINASE; CYCLIN DEPENDENT KINASE 2; CYCLIN DEPENDENT KINASE 4; CYCLIN DEPENDENT KINASE 6; CYCLIN DEPENDENT KINASE INHIBITOR; CYCLIN E; CYCLINE; DNA; HYDROGEN PEROXIDE; HYDROXYL RADICAL; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE; NITRIC OXIDE; PEROXYNITRITE; PROTEIN INK4; PROTEIN MDM2; PROTEIN P21; PROTEIN P27; PROTEIN P57; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; REDOX EFFECTOR FACTOR 1; RETINOBLASTOMA PROTEIN; SINGLET OXYGEN; SUPEROXIDE; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR AP 1; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR E2F; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; CDKN1A PROTEIN, HUMAN; CELL CYCLE PROTEIN; CYCLIN DEPENDENT KINASE INHIBITOR 1A; OXIDIZING AGENT; PROTEIN P53;

APOPTOSIS; ASTHMA; CELL CYCLE; CELL CYCLE G1 PHASE; CELL CYCLE S PHASE; CELL DEATH; CELL DIVISION; CELL FATE; CELL PROLIFERATION; CELL SURVIVAL; CHRONIC LUNG DISEASE; DNA DAMAGE; DNA REPAIR; ENZYME ACTIVITY; HUMAN; LUNG FIBROSIS; MITOSIS; NONHUMAN; OXIDATION REDUCTION REACTION; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; REVIEW; ANIMAL; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; ENZYME ACTIVATION; METABOLISM;

ANIMALS; APOPTOSIS; CELL CYCLE; CELL CYCLE PROTEINS; CELL DEATH; CELL SURVIVAL; CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE INHIBITOR P21; DNA REPAIR; ENZYME ACTIVATION; G1 PHASE; HUMANS; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; OXIDANTS; OXIDATION-REDUCTION; OXIDATIVE STRESS; TUMOR SUPPRESSOR PROTEIN P53;

EID: 13244269752     PISSN: 15230864     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1089/ars.2005.7.108     Document Type: Review

References (135)

1. Aktas H, Cai H, and Cooper GM. Ras links growth factor signaling to the cell cycle machinery via regulation of cyclin D1 and the Cdk inhibitor p27KIP1. Mol Cell Biol 17: 3850-3857, 1997.
2. Asada M, Yamada T, Ichijo H, Delia D, Miyazono K, Fukumuro K, and Mizutani S. Apoptosis inhibitory activity of cytoplasmic p21(Cip1/WAF1) in monocytic differentiation. EMBO J 18: 1223-1234, 1999.
3. Banin S, Moyal L, Shieh S, Taya Y, Anderson CW, Chessa L, Smorodinsky NI, Prives C, Reiss Y, Shiloh Y, and Ziv Y. Enhanced phosphorylation of p53 by ATM in response to DNA damage. Science 281: 1674-1677, 1998.
4. Barcellos-Hoff MH and Dix TA. Redox-mediated activation of latent transforming growth factor-beta 1. Mol Endocrinol 10: 1077-1083, 1996.
5. Barlow C, Brown KD, Deng CX, Tagle DA, and Wynshaw-Boris A. Atm selectively regulates distinct p53-dependent cell-cycle checkpoint and apoptotic pathways. Nat Genet 17: 453-456, 1997.
6. Bellido T, O'Brien CA, Roberson PK, and Manolagas SC. Transcriptional activation of the p21(WAF1,CIP1,SDI1) gene by interleukin-6 type cytokines. A prerequisite for their pro-differentiating and anti-apoptotic effects on human osteoblastic cells. J Biol Chem 273: 21137-21144, 1998.
7. Bendjennat M, Boulaire J, Jascur T, Brickner H, Barbier V, Sarasin A, Fotedar A, and Fotedar R. UV irradiation triggers ubiquitin-dependent degradation of p21 (WAF1) to promote DNA repair. Cell 114: 599-610, 2003.
8. Benitez-Bribiesca L and Sanchez-Suarez P. Oxidative damage, bleomycin, and gamma radiation induce different types of DNA strand breaks in normal lymphocytes and thymocytes. A comet assay study. Ann N Y Acad Sci 887: 133-149, 1999.
9. Bilodeau JF, Faure R, Piedboeuf B, and Mirault ME. Hyperoxia induces S-phase cell-cycle arrest and p21(Cip1/Waf1)-independent Cdk2 inhibition in human carcinoma T47D-H3 cells. Exp Cell Res 256: 347-357, 2000.
10. Burcham PC. Genotoxic lipid peroxidation products: their DNA damaging properties and role in formation of endogenous DNA adducts. Mutagenesis 13: 287-305, 1998.
11. Cadenas E and Davies KJ. Mitochondrial free radical generation, oxidative stress, and aging. Free Radic Biol Med 29: 222-230, 2000.
12. Canman CE, Wolff AC, Chen CY, Fornace AJ Jr, and Kastan MB. The p53-dependent G1 cell cycle checkpoint pathway and ataxia-telangiectasia. Cancer Res 54: 5054-5058, 1994.
13. Canman CE, Lim DS, Cimprich KA, Taya Y, Tamai K, Sakaguchi K, Appella E, Kastan MB, and Siliciano JD. Activation of the ATM kinase by ionizing radiation and phosphorylation of p53. Science 281: 1677-1679, 1998.
14. Chandel NS, Vander Heiden MG, Thompson CB, and Schumacker PT. Redox regulation of p53 during hypoxia. Oncogene 19: 3840-3848, 2000.
15. Chang BD, Watanabe K, Broude EV, Fang J, Poole JC, Kalinichenko TV, and Roninson IB. Effects of p21Waf1/ Cip1/Sdi1 on cellular gene expression: implications for carcinogenesis, senescence, and age-related diseases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97: 4291-4296, 2000.
16. Chen IT, Akamatsu M, Smith ML, Lung FD, Duba D, Roller PP, Fornace AJ Jr, and O'Connor PM. Characterization of p21Cip1/Waf1 peptide domains required for cyclin E/Cdk2 and PCNA interaction. Oncogene 12: 595-607, 1996.
17. 2 response of normal human fibroblasts. Biochem J 347: 543-551, 2000.
18. Cheng M, Olivier R, Diehl JA, Fero M, Roussel MF, Roberts JM, and Sherr CJ. The p21(Cip1) and p27(Kip1) CDK "inhibitors" are essential activators of cyclin D-dependent kinases in murine fibroblasts. EMBO J 18: 1571-1583, 1999.
19. Chung YW, Jeong DW, Won JY, Choi EJ, Choi YH, and Kim IY. H2O2-induced AP-1 activation and its effect on p21(WAF1/CIP1)-mediated G2/M arrest in a p53-deficient human lung cancer cell. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 293: 1248-1253, 2002.
20. Cliby WA, Roberts CJ, Cimprich KA, Stringer CM, Lamb JR, Schreiber SL, and Friend SH. Overexpression of a kinase-inactive ATR protein causes sensitivity to DNA-damaging agents and defects in cell cycle checkpoints. EMBO J 17: 159-169, 1998.
21. Conger A and Fairchild L. Breakage of chromosomes by oxygen. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 38: 289-299, 1952.
22. Cooper MP, Balajee AS, and Bohr VA. The C-terminal domain of p21 inhibits nucleotide excision repair in vitro and in vivo. Mol Biol Cell 10: 2119-2129, 1999.
23. Coqueret O and Gascan H. Functional interaction of STAT3 transcription factor with the cell cycle inhibitor P21WAF1/CIP1/SDI1. J Biol Chem 275: 18794-18800, 2000.
24. Corroyer S, Maitre B, Cazals V, and Clement A. Altered regulation of G1 cyclins in oxidant-induced growth arrest of lung alveolar epithelial cells. Accumulation of inactive cyclin E-DCK2 complexes. J Biol Chem 271: 25117-25125, 1996.
25. Das KC and Dashnamoorthy R. Hyperoxia activates ATR-Chk1 pathway and phosphorylates p53 at multiple sites. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 286: L87-L97, 2003.
26. Delavaine L and La Thangue NB. Control of E2F activity by p21Waf1/Cip1. Oncogene 18: 5381-5392, 1999.
27. Deng C, Zhang P, Harper JW, Elledge SJ, and Leder P. Mice lacking p21CIP1/WAF1 undergo normal development, but are defective in G1 checkpoint control. Cell 82: 675-684, 1995.
28. Dizdaroglu M. Measurement of radiation-induced damage to DNA at the molecular level. Int J Radiat Biol 61: 175-183, 1992.
29. Dumaz N and Meek DW. Serine 15 phosphorylation stimulates p53 transactivation but does not directly influence interaction with HDM2. EMBO J 18: 7002-7010, 1999.
30. el-Deiry WS, Tokino T, Velculescu VE, Levy DB, Parsons R, Trent JM, Lin D, Mercer WE, Kinzler KW, and Vogelstein B. WAF1, a potential mediator of p53 tumor suppression. Cell 75: 817-825, 1993.
31. el-Deiry WS, Tokino T, Waldman T, Oliner JD, Velculescu VE, Burrell M, Hill DE, Healy E, Rees JL, Hamilton SR, et al. Topological control of p21WAF1/CIP1 expression in normal and neoplastic tissues. Cancer Res 55: 2910-2919, 1995.
32. Esposito F, Cuccovillo F, Vanoni M, Cimino F, Anderson CW, Appella E, and Russo T. Redox-mediated regulation of p21(waf1/cip1) expression involves a post-transcriptional mechanism and activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. Eur J Biochem 245: 730-737, 1997.
33. Fan S, Chang JK, Smith ML, Duba D, Fornace AJ Jr, and O'Connor PM. Cells lacking CIP1/WAF1 genes exhibit preferential sensitivity to cisplatin and nitrogen mustard. Oncogene 14: 2127-2136, 1997.
34. Friedlander P, Haupt Y, Prives C, and Oren M. A mutant p53 that discriminates between p53-responsive genes cannot induce apoptosis. Mol Cell Biol 16: 4961-4971, 1996.
35. Gaiddon C, Moorthy NC, and Prives C. Ref-1 regulates the transactivation and pro-apoptotic functions of p53 in vivo. EMBO J 18: 5609-5621, 1999.
36. Gartel AL and Tyner AL. Transcriptional regulation of the p21((WAF1/CIP1)) gene. Exp Cell Res 246: 280-289, 1999.
37. Gary R, Ludwig DL, Cornelius HL, MacInnes MA, and Park MS. The DNA repair endonuclease XPG binds to proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and shares sequence elements with the PCNA-binding regions of FEN-1 and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21. J Biol Chem 272: 24522-24529, 1997.
38. Gary R, Kim K, Cornelius HL, Park MS, and Matsumoto Y. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen facilitates excision in long-patch base excision repair. J Biol Chem 274: 4354-4363, 1999.
39. Gentry LE and Nash BW. The pro domain of pre-pro-transforming growth factor beta 1 when independently expressed is a functional binding protein for the mature growth factor. Biochemistry 29: 6851-6857, 1990.
40. Gerschman R, Gilbert D, Nye SW, Dwyer R, and Fenn WO. Oxygen poisoning and X-irradiation: a mechanism in common. Science 119: 623-629, 1954.
41. Gervais JL, Seth P, and Zhang H. Cleavage of CDK inhibitor p21(Cip1/Waf1) by caspases is an early event during DNA damage-induced apoptosis. J Biol Chem 273: 19207-19212, 1998.
42. Gilbert D, Gerschman R, Cohen J, and Sherwood W. The influence of high oxygen pressures on the viscosity of solutions of sodium desoxyribonucleic acid and of sodium algenate. J Am Chem Soc 79: 5677-5680, 1957.
43. Gille JJ and Joenje H. Cell culture models for oxidative stress: superoxide and hydrogen peroxide versus normobaric hyperoxia. Mutat Res 275: 405-414, 1992.
44. Gille JJ, van Berkel CG, and Joenje H. Effect of iron chelators on the cytotoxic and genotoxic action of hyperoxia in Chinese hamster ovary cells. Mutat Res 275: 31-39, 1992.
45. Gille JJ, van Berkel CG, and Joenje H. Mechanism of hyperoxia-induced chromosomal breakage in Chinese hamster cells. Environ Mol Mutagen 22: 264-270, 1993.
46. Gorospe M, Wang X, Guyton KZ, and Holbrook NJ. Protective role of p21(Waf1/Cip1) against prostaglandin A2-mediated apoptosis of human colorectal carcinoma cells. Mol Cell Biol 16: 6654-6660, 1996.
47. Gorospe M, Cirielli C, Wang X, Seth P, Capogrossi MC, and Holbrook NJ. p21(Waf1/Cip1) protects against p53-mediated apoptosis of human melanoma cells. Oncogene 14: 929-935, 1997.
48. Gu Y, Turck CW, and Morgan DO. Inhibition of CDK2 activity in vivo by an associated 20K regulatory subunit. Nature 366: 707-710, 1993.
49. Gulbis JM, Kelman Z, Hurwitz J, O'Donnell M, and Kuriyan J. Structure of the C-terminal region of p21(WAF1/CIP1) complexed with human PCNA. Cell 87: 297-306, 1996.
50. Hainaut P and Milner J. Redox modulation of p53 conformation and sequence-specific DNA binding in vitro. Cancer Res 53: 4469-4473, 1993.
51. Hall M, Bates S, and Peters G. Evidence for different modes of action of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors: p15 and p16 bind to kinases, p21 and p27 bind to cyclins. Oncogene 11: 1581-1588, 1995.
52. Hammond EM, Denko NC, Dorie MJ, Abraham RT, and Giaccia AJ. Hypoxia links ATR and p53 through replication arrest. Mol Cell Biol 22: 1834-1843, 2002.
53. Harper JW, Adami GR, Wei N, Keyomarsi K, and Elledge SJ. The p21 Cdk-interacting protein Cip1 is a potent inhibitor of G1 cyclin-dependent kinases. Cell 75: 805-816, 1993.
54. Helt CE, Rancourt RC, Staversky RJ, and O'Reilly MA. p53-dependent induction of p21 Cip1/Waf1/Sdi1 protects against oxygen-induced toxicity. Toxicol Sci 63: 214-222, 2001.
55. Helt CE, Staversky RJ, Lee YJ, Bambara RA, Keng PC, and O'Reilly MA. The CDK and PCNA domains on p21 Cip1 both function to inhibit G1/S progression during hyperoxia. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 286: L506-L513, 2003.
56. Javelaud D and Besancon F. Inactivation of p21WAF1 sensitizes cells to apoptosis via an increase of both p14ARF and p53 levels and an alteration of the Bax/ Bcl-2 ratio. J Biol Chem 277: 37949-37954, 2002.
57. Jayaraman L, Murthy KG, Zhu C, Curran T, Xanthoudakis S, and Prives C. Identification of redox/repair protein Ref-1 as a potent activator of p53. Genes Dev 11: 558-570, 1997.
58. Jiang H, Lin J, Su ZZ, Herlyn M, Kerbel RS, Weissman BE, Welch DR, and Fisher PB. The melanoma differentiation-associated gene mda-6, which encodes the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21, is differentially expressed during growth, differentiation and progression in human melanoma cells. Oncogene 10: 1855-1864, 1995.
59. Joenje H, van den Berg J, and van Rijn J. Lack of cross-resistance to X-irradiation in oxygen-resistant mammalian cell lines. J Free Radic Biol Med 1: 307-310, 1985.
60. Kardassis D, Papakosta P, Pardali K, and Moustakas A. c-Jun transactivates the promoter of the human p21(WAF1/Cip1) gene by acting as a superactivator of the ubiquitous transcription factor Sp1. J Biol Chem 274: 29572-29581, 1999.
61. Khosravi R, Maya R, Gottlieb T, Oren M, Shiloh Y, and Shkedy D. Rapid ATM-dependent phosphorylation of MDM2 precedes p53 accumulation in response to DNA damage. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96: 14973-14977, 1999.
62. Kitaura H, Shinshi M, Uchikoshi Y, Ono T, Iguchi-Ariga SM, and Ariga H. Reciprocal regulation via protein-protein interaction between c-Myc and p21 (cip1/waf1/sdi1) in DNA replication and transcription. J Biol Chem 275: 10477-10483, 2000.
63. Knaapen AM, Seiler F, Schilderman PA, Nehls P, Bruch J, Schins RP, and Borm PJ. Neutrophils cause oxidative DNA damage in alveolar epithelial cells. Free Radic Biol Med 27: 234-240, 1999.
64. Kuwano K, Kunitake R, Kawasaki M, Nomoto Y, Hagimoto N, Nakanishi Y, and Hara N. P21Waf1/Cip1/Sdi1 and p53 expression in association with DNA strand breaks in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 154: 477-483, 1996.
65. LaBaer J, Garrett MD, Stevenson LF, Slingerland JM, Sandhu C, Chou HS, Fattaey A, and Harlow E. New functional activities for the p21 family of CDK inhibitors. Genes Dev 11: 847-862, 1997.
66. Lau CC and Pardee AB. Mechanism by which caffeine potentiates lethality of nitrogen mustard. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 79: 2942-2946, 1982.
67. Lee MH, Reynisdottir I, and Massague J. Cloning of p57KIP2, a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor with unique domain structure and tissue distribution. Genes Dev 9: 639-649, 1995.
68. Lee S and Helfman DM. Cytoplasmic p21Cip1 is involved in Ras-induced inhibition of the ROCK/LIMK/Cofilin pathway. J Biol Chem 279: 1885-1891, 2004.
69. Li Y, Dowbenko D, and Lasky LA. AKT/PKB phosphorylation of p21Cip/WAF1 enhances protein stability of p21Cip/WAF1 and promotes cell survival. J Biol Chem 277: 11352-11361, 2002.
70. Linke SP, Clarkin KC, Di Leonardo A, Tsou A, and Wahl GM. A reversible, p53-dependent G0/G1 cell cycle arrest induced by ribonucleotide depletion in the absence of detectable DNA damage. Genes Dev 10: 934-947, 1996.
71. Lu Y, Parkyn L, Otterbein LE, Kureishi Y, Walsh K, Ray A, and Ray P. Activated Akt protects the lung from oxidant-induced injury and delays death of mice. J Exp Med 193: 545-549, 2001.
72. Luo Y, Hurwitz J, and Massague J. Cell-cycle inhibition by independent CDK and PCNA binding domains in p21Cip1. Nature 375: 159-161, 1995.
73. Marwick JA, Kirkham P, Gilmour PS, Donaldson K, Mac Nee W, and Rahman I. Cigarette smoke-induced oxidative stress and TGF-beta1 increase p21waf1/cip1 expression in alveolar epithelial cells. Ann N Y Acad Sci 973: 278-283, 2002.
74. Matsuoka S, Edwards MC, Bai C, Parker S, Zhang P, Baldini A, Harper JW, and Elledge SJ. p57KIP2, a structurally distinct member of the p21CIP1 Cdk inhibitor family, is a candidate tumor suppressor gene. Genes Dev 9: 650-662, 1995.
75. Mattock H, Lane DP, and Warbrick E. Inhibition of cell proliferation by the PCNA-binding region of p21 expressed as a GFP miniprotein. Exp Cell Res 265: 234-241, 2001.
76. McDonald ER 3rd, Wu GS, Waldman T, and El-Deiry WS. Repair defect in p21 WAF1/CIP1 -/- human cancer cells. Cancer Res 56: 2250-2255, 1996.
77. McGrath SA. Induction of p21WAF/CIP1 during hyperoxia. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 18: 179-187, 1998.
78. Mishra A, Doyle NA, and Martin WJ. Bleomycin-mediated pulmonary toxicity: evidence for a p53-mediated response. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 22: 543-549, 2000.
79. Moustakas A and Kardassis D. Regulation of the human p21/WAF1/Cip1 promoter in hepatic cells by functional interactions between Sp1 and Smad family members. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95: 6733-6738, 1998.
80. Munger JS, Huang X, Kawakatsu H, Griffiths MJ, Dalton SL, Wu J, Pittet JF, Kaminski N, Garat C, Matthay MA, Rifkin DB, and Sheppard D. The integrin alpha v beta 6 binds and activates latent TGF beta 1: a mechanism for regulating pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis. Cell 96: 319-328, 1999.
81. Nakamura T, Nakamura H, Hoshino T, Ueda S, Wada H, and Yodoi J. Redox regulation of lung inflammation by thioredoxin. Antioxid Redox Signal 7: 60-71, 2005.
82. Nelson WG and Kastan MB. DNA strand breaks: the DNA template alterations that trigger p53-dependent DNA damage response pathways. Mol Cell Biol 14: 1815-1823, 1994.
83. Nieuwint AW, Aubry JM, Arwert F, Kortbeek H, Herzberg S, and Joenje H. Inability of chemically generated singlet oxygen to break the DNA backbone. Free Radic Res Commun 1: 1-9, 1985.
84. Noda A, Ning Y, Venable SF, Pereira-Smith OM, and Smith JR. Cloning of senescent cell-derived inhibitors of DNA synthesis using an expression screen. Exp Cell Res 211: 90-98, 1994.
85. O'Reilly MA, Staversky RJ, Watkins RH, and Maniscalco WM. Accumulation of p21(Cip1/WAF1) during hyperoxic lung injury in mice. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 19: 777-785, 1998.
86. O'Reilly MA, Staversky RJ, Watkins RH, Reed CK, de Mesy Jensen KL, Finkelstein JN, and Keng PC. The cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21 protects the lung from oxidative stress. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 24: 703-710, 2001.
87. O'Reilly MA, Watkins RH, Staversky RJ, and Maniscalco WM. Induced p21 Cip1 in premature baboons with CLD: implications for alveolar hypoplasia. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 285: L964-L971, 2003.
88. Pardali K, Kurisaki A, Moren A, ten Dijke P, Kardassis D, and Moustakas A. Role of smad proteins and transcription factor Sp1 in p21Waf1/Cip1 regulation by transforming growth factor-beta [In Process Citation]. J Biol Chem 275: 29244-29256, 2000.
89. Park JA, Kim KW, Kim SI, and Lee SK. Caspase 3 specifically cleaves p21WAF1/CIP1 in the earlier stage of apoptosis in SK-HEP-1 human hepatoma cells. Eur J Biochem 257: 242-248, 1998.
90. Polyak K, Kato JY, Solomon MJ, Sherr CJ, Massague J, Roberts JM, and Koff A. p27Kip1, a cyclin-Cdk inhibitor, links transforming growth factor-beta and contact inhibition to cell cycle arrest. Genes Dev 8: 9-22, 1994.
91. Polyak K, Lee MH, Erdjument-Bromage H, Koff A, Roberts JM, Tempst P, and Massague J. Cloning of p27Kip1, a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor and a potential mediator of extracellular antimitogenic signals. Cell 78: 59-66, 1994.
92. Puddicombe SM, Torres-Lozano C, Richter A, Bucchieri F, Lordan JL, Howarth PH, Vrugt B, Albers R, Djukanovic R, Holgate ST, Wilson SJ, and Davies DE. Increased expression of p21(waf) cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor in asthmatic bronchial epithelium. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 28: 61-68, 2003.
93. Rancourt RC, Keng PC, Helt CE, and O'Reilly MA. The role of p21 Cip1/WAF1 in growth of epithelial cells exposed to hyperoxia. Am J Physiol 280: L617-L626, 2001.
94. Rancourt RC, Hayes DD, Chess PR, Keng PC, and O'Reilly MA. Growth arrest in G1 protects against oxygen-induced DNA damage and cell death. J Cell Physiol 193: 26-36, 2002.
95. Reynisdottir I, Polyak K, Iavarone A, and Massague J. Kip/Cip and Ink4 Cdk inhibitors cooperate to induce cell cycle arrest in response to TGF-beta. Genes Dev 9: 1831-1845, 1995.
96. Rousseau D, Cannella D, Boulaire J, Fitzgerald P, Fotedar A, and Fotedar R. Growth inhibition by CDK-cyclin and PCNA binding domains of p21 occurs by distinct mechanisms and is regulated by ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Oncogene 18: 4313-4325, 1999.
97. Russo T, Zambrano N, Esposito F, Ammendola R, Cimino F, Fiscella M, Jackman J, O'Connor PM, Anderson CW, and Appella E. A p53-independent pathway for activation of WAF1/CIP1 expression following oxidative stress. J Biol Chem 270: 29386-29391, 1995.
98. Saitoh M, Nishitoh H, Fujii M, Takeda K, Tobiume K, Sawada Y, Kawabata M, Miyazono K, and Ichijo H. Mammalian thioredoxin is a direct inhibitor of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase (ASK) 1. EMBO J 17: 2596-2606, 1998.
99. Seoane J, Le HV, and Massague J. Myc suppression of the p21(Cip1) Cdk inhibitor influences the outcome of the p53 response to DNA damage. Nature 419: 729-734, 2002.
100. Sheikh MS, Chen YQ, Smith ML, and Fornace AJ Jr. Role of p21Waf1/Cip1/Sdi1 in cell death and DNA repair as studied using a tetracycline-inducible system in p53-deficient cells. Oncogene 14: 1875-1882, 1997.
101. Shenberger JS and Dixon PS. Oxygen induces S-phase growth arrest and increases p53 and p21(WAF1/CIP1) expression in human bronchial smooth-muscle cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 21: 395-402, 1999.
102. Sherr CJ and Roberts JM. CDK inhibitors: positive and negative regulators of G1-phase progression. Genes Dev 13: 1501-1512, 1999.
103. Shieh SY, Ikeda M, Taya Y, and Prives C. DNA damage-induced phosphorylation of p53 alleviates inhibition by MDM2. Cell 91: 325-334, 1997.
104. Shivji MK, Ferrari E, Ball K, Hubscher U, and Wood RD. Resistance of human nucleotide excision repair synthesis in vitro to p21Cdn1. Oncogene 17: 2827-2838, 1998.
105. Siliciano JD, Canman CE, Taya Y, Sakaguchi K, Appella E, and Kastan MB. DNA damage induces phosphorylation of the amino terminus of p53. Genes Dev 11: 3471-3481, 1997.
106. Sionov RV and Haupt Y. The cellular response to p53: the decision between life and death. Oncogene 18: 6145-6157, 1999.
107. Snowden AW, Anderson LA, Webster GA, and Perkins ND. A novel transcriptional repression domain mediates p21(WAF1/CIP1) induction of p300 transactivation. Mol Cell Biol 20: 2676-2686, 2000.
108. Staversky RJ, Watkins RH, Wright TW, Hernady E, LoMonaco MB, D'Angio CT, Williams JP, Maniscalco WM, and O'Reilly MA. Normal remodeling of the oxygen-injured lung requires the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21 Cip1/WAF1/Sdi1. Am J Pathol 161: 1383-1393, 2002.
109. 2-mediated injury. Am J Physiol 262: L748-L756, 1992.
110. Suzuki A, Tsutomi Y, Akahane K, Araki T, and Miura M. Resistance to Fas-mediated apoptosis: activation of caspase 3 is regulated by cell cycle regulator p21WAF1 and 1AP gene family ILP. Oncogene 17: 931-939, 1998.
111. Tanaka H, Yamashita T, Asada M, Mizutani S, Yoshikawa H, and Tohyama M. Cytoplasmic p21(Cip1/WAF1) regulates neurite remodeling by inhibiting Rho-kinase activity. J Cell Biol 158: 321-329, 2002.
112. Tao W and Levine AJ. p19(ARF) stabilizes p53 by blocking nucleo-cytoplasmic shuttling of Mdm2. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96: 6937-6941, 1999.
113. Thannickal VJ and Fanburg BL. Activation of an H2O2-generating NADH oxidase in human lung fibroblasts by transforming growth factor beta 1. J Biol Chem 270: 30334-30338, 1995.
114. Thannickal VJ and Fanburg BL. Reactive oxygen species in cell signaling [In Process Citation]. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 279: L1005-L1028, 2000.
115. Tibbetts RS, Brumbaugh KM, Williams JM, Sarkaria JN, Cliby WA, Shieh SY, Taya Y, Prives C, and Abraham RT. A role for ATR in the DNA damage-induced phosphorylation of p53. Genes Dev 13: 152-157, 1999.
116. Tom S, Henricksen LA, and Bambara RA. Mechanism whereby proliferating cell nuclear antigen stimulates flap endonuclease 1. J Biol Chem 275: 10498-10505, 2000.
117. Toyoshima H and Hunter T. p27, a novel inhibitor of G1 cyclin-Cdk protein kinase activity, is related to p21. Cell 78: 67-74, 1994.
118. Tsvetkov LM, Yeh KH, Lee SJ, Sun H, and Zhang H. p27(Kip1) ubiquitination and degradation is regulated by the SCF(Skp2) complex through phosphorylated Thr187 in p27. Curr Biol 9: 661-664, 1999.
119. Ueno M, Masutani H, Arai RJ, Yamauchi A, Hirota K, Sakai T, Inamoto T, Yamaoka Y, Yodoi J, and Nikaido T. Thioredoxin-dependent redox regulation of p53-mediated p21 activation. J Biol Chem 274: 35809-35815, 1999.
120. Villunger A, Michalak EM, Coultas L, Mullauer F, Bock G, Ausserlechner MJ, Adams JM, and Strasser A. p53- and drug-induced apoptotic responses mediated by BH3-only proteins puma and noxa. Science 302: 1036-1038, 2003.
121. Vlach J, Hennecke S, and Amati B. Phosphorylation-dependent degradation of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27. Embo J 16: 5334-5344, 1997.
122. Waga S, Hannon GJ, Beach D, and Stillman B. The p21 inhibitor of cyclin-dependent kinases controls DNA replication by interaction with PCNA. Nature 369: 574-578, 1994.
123. Waldman T, Kinzler KW, and Vogelstein B. p21 is necessary for the p53-mediated G1 arrest in human cancer cells. Cancer Res 55: 5187-5190, 1995.
124. Wang Y, Blandino G, and Givol D. Induced p21waf expression in H1299 cell line promotes cell senescence and protects against cytotoxic effect of radiation and doxorubicin. Oncogene 18: 2643-2649, 1999.
125. Wang YA, Elson A, and Leder P. Loss of p21 increases sensitivity to ionizing radiation and delays the onset of lymphoma in atm-deficient mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 94: 14590-14595, 1997.
126. Ward NS, Waxman AB, Homer RJ, Mantell LL, Einarsson O, Du Y, and Elias JA. Interleukin-6-induced protective in hyperoxic acute lung injury. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 22: 535-542, 2000.
127. Xie S, Wang Q, Wu H, Cogswell J, Lu L, Jhanwar-Uniyal M, and Dai W. Reactive oxygen species-induced phosphorylation of p53 on serine 20 is mediated in part by polo-like kinase-3. J Biol Chem 276: 36194-36199, 2001.
128. Xie S, Wu H, Wang Q, Cogswell JP, Husain I, Conn C, Stambrook P, Jhanwar-Uniyal M, and Dai W. Plk3 functionally links DNA damage to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis at least in part via the p53 pathway. J Biol Chem 276: 43305-43312, 2001.
129. Xiong Y, Hannon GJ, Zhang H, Casso D, Kobayashi R, and Beach D. p21 is a universal inhibitor of cyclin kinases. Nature 366: 701-704, 1993.
130. Xiong Y, Zhang H, and Beach D. Subunit rearrangement of the cyclin-dependent kinases is associated with cellular transformation. Genes Dev 7: 1572-1583, 1993.
131. Yin Y, Solomon G, Deng C, and Barrett JC. Differential regulation of p21 by p53 and Rb in cellular response to oxidative stress. Mol Carcinog 24: 15-24, 1999.
132. Zhan Q, Carrier F, and Fornace AJ Jr. Induction of cellular p53 activity by DNA-damaging agents and growth arrest. Mol Cell Biol 13: 4242-4250, 1993.
133. Zhang H, Xiong Y, and Beach D. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen and p21 are components of multiple cell cycle kinase complexes. Mol Biol Cell 4: 897-906, 1993.
134. Zhang Y, Fujita N, and Tsuruo T. Caspase-mediated cleavage of p21Waf1/Cip1 converts cancer cells from growth arrest to undergoing apoptosis. Oncogene 18: 1131-1138, 1999.
135. Zweier JL, Duke SS, Kuppusamy P, Sylvester JT, and Gabrielson EW. Electron paramagnetic resonance evidence that cellular oxygen toxicity is caused by the generation of superoxide and hydroxyl free radicals. FEBS Lett 252: 12-16, 1989.