Type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular risk, and the link to insulin resistance

Clinical Therapeutics

Volumn 25, Issue SUPPL. B, 2003, Pages

  Stolar, Mark W ^a,c   Chilton, Robert J ^b  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS HEALTH SCIENCE CENTER AT SAN ANTONIO   (United States)

^c NORTHWESTERN MEMORIAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular disease; Diabetes; Dyslipidemia; Hypertension; Obesity; Thiazolidinediones

Indexed keywords

2,4 THIAZOLIDINEDIONE DERIVATIVE; ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ANTIDIABETIC AGENT; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; GEMFIBROZIL; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIC AGENT; INSULIN; METFORMIN; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR AGONIST; PIOGLITAZONE; ROSIGLITAZONE; SIMVASTATIN; SULFONYLUREA DERIVATIVE; TROGLITAZONE;

ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL TRIAL; DIABETES CONTROL; DIABETIC ANGIOPATHY; DIABETIC DIET; DIET THERAPY; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TARGETING; DYSLIPIDEMIA; EDEMA; HEART INFARCTION; HEMATOCRIT; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN RESISTANCE; LIVER TOXICITY; MICROALBUMINURIA; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OBESITY; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PLASMA VOLUME; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; STROKE; WEIGHT GAIN;

EID: 0041333134     PISSN: 01492918     EISSN: 1879114X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0149-2918(03)80240-0     Document Type: Article

References (201)

1. Laakso M. Epidemiology of diabetic dyslipidemia. Diabetes Rev. 1995;3:408-422.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Diabetes Fact Sheet: National Estimates and General Information on Diabetes in the United States, 2000. Atlanta, Ga: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2003.
3. International Diabetes Federation. Diabetes Atlas 2000. Brussels, Belgium: International Diabetes Federation; 2001.
4. Tull ES, Roseman JM. Diabetes in African Americans. In: National Diabetes Data Group. Diabetes in America. 2nd ed. Bethesda, Md: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health; 1995:613-630. NIH Publication 95-1468.
5. Stern MP, Mitchell BD. Diabetes in Hispanic Americans. In: National Diabetes Data Group. Diabetes in America. 2nd ed. Bethesda, Md: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health; 1995:631-660. NIH Publication 95-1468.
6. Gohdes D. Diabetes in North American Indians and Alaska Natives. In: National Diabetes Data Group. Diabetes in America. 2nd ed. Bethesda, Md: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health; 1995:683-702. NIH Publication. 95-1468.
7. Rosenbloom AL, Joe JR, Young RS, Winter WE. Emerging epidemic of type 2 diabetes in youth. Diabetes Care. 1999;22:345-354.
8. Sinha R, Fisch G, Teague B, et al. Prevalence of impaired glucose tolerance among children and adolescents with marked obesity. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:802-810.
9. Rowell HA, Evans BJ, Quarry-Horn JL, Kerrigan JR. Type 2 diabetes mellitus in adolescents. Adolesc Med. 2002;13:1-12.
10. Hayden MR. Islet amyloid, metabolic syndrome, and the natural progressive history of type 2 diabetes mellitus. JOP. 2002;3:126-138.
11. Bonora E, Kiechl S, Willeit J, et al. Prevalence of insulin resistance in metabolic disorders: The Bruneck Study. Diabetes. 1998;47:1643-1649.
12. Bloomgarden ZT. Insulin resistance: Current concepts. Clin Ther. 1998;20:216-231.
13. Kahn SE, Prigeon RL, McCulloch DK, et al. Quantification of the relationship between insulin-sensitivity and beta-cell function in human subjects. Evidence for a hyperbolic function. Diabetes. 1993;42:1663-1672.
14. Kahne SE. The importance of the beta-cell in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Med. 2000;108(Suppl 6A):2S-8S.
15. Tuomilehto J, Lindstrom J, Eriksson JG, et al. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:1343-1350.
16. Weyer C, Bogardus C, Mott DM, Pratley RE. The natural history of insulin secretory dysfunction and insulin resistance in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus. J CIin Invest. 1999;104:787-794.
17. Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, et al. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:393-403.
18. Edelstein SL, Knowler WC, Bain RP, et al. Predictors of progression from impaired glucose tolerance to NIDDM: An analysis of six prospective studies. Diabetes. 1997;46:701-710.
19. Wingard DL, Barrett-Connor E. Heart disease and diabetes. In: National Diabetes Data Group. Diabetes in America. 2nd ed. Bethesda, Md: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health; 1995:429-448. NIH Publication 95-1468.
20. Tooke JE. Microvascular function in human diabetes. A physiological perspective. Diabetes. 1995;44:721-726.
21. Resnick HE, Shorr RI, Kuller L, et al. Prevalence and clinical implications of American Diabetes Association-defined diabetes and other categories of glucose dysregulation in older adults: The health, aging and body composition study. J Clin Epidemiol. 2001;54:869-876.
22. Feskens EJ, Kromhout D. Glucose tolerance and the risk of cardiovascular disease: The Zutphen Study. J Clin Epidemiol. 1992;45:1327-1334.
23. Newman AB, Siscovick DS, Manolio TA, et al, for the Cardiovascular Heart Study (CHS) Collaborative Research Group. Ankle-arm index as a marker of atherosclerosis in the Cardiovascular Health Study. Circulation. 1993;88:837-845.
24. Sobel BE, Woodcock-Mitchell J, Schneider DJ, et al. Increased plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 in coronary artery atherectomy specimens from type 2 diabetic compared with nondiabetic patients: A potential factor predisposing to thrombosis and its persistence. Circulation. 1998;97:2213-2221.
25. Stout LC, Kumar S, Whorton EB. Insudative lesions - their pathogenesis and association with glomerular obsolescence in diabetes: A dynamic hypothesis based on single views of advancing human diabetic nephropathy. Hum Pathol. 1994;25:1213-1227.
26. Kauppila LI, Hekali P, Penttila A. Postmortem pancreatic angiography in 45 subjects with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and 51 controls. Pancreas. 1998;16:60-65.
27. Glasser SP, Selwyn AP, Ganz P. Atherosclerosis: Risk factors and the vascular endothelium. Am Heart J. 1996;131:379-384.
28. Milstien S, Katusic Z. Oxidation of tetrahydrobiopterin by peroxynitrite: Implications for vascular endothelial function. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1999;263:681-684.
29. Luscher TF, Tanner FC, Tschudi MR, Noll G. Endothelial dysfunction in coronary artery disease. Annu Rev Med. 1993;44:395-418.
30. Williams SB, Cusco JA, Roddy MA, et al. Impaired nitric oxide-mediated vasodilation in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;27:567-574.
31. Johnstone MT, Creager SJ, Scales KM, et al. Impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Circulation. 1993;88:2510-2516.
32. De Vriese AS, Verbeuren TJ, Van de Voorde J, et al. Endothelial dysfunction in diabetes. Br J Pharmacol. 2000;130:963-974.
33. Hennes MM, O'Shaughnessy IM, Kelly TM, et al. Insulin-resistant lipolysis in abdominally obese hypertensive individuals. Role of the renin-angiotensin system. Hypertension. 1996;28:120-126.
34. Inoguchi T, Li P, Umeda F, et al. High glucose level and free fatty acid stimulate reactive oxygen species production through protein kinase C-dependent activation of NAD(P)H oxidase in cultured vascular cells. Diabetes. 2000;49:1939-1945.
35. Zou M, Yesilkaya A, Ullrich V. Peroxynitrite inactivates prostacyclin synthase by hemethiolate-catalyzed tyrosine nitration. Drug Metab Rev. 1999;31:343-349.
36. Hopfner RL, Gopalakrishnan V. Endothelin: Emerging role in diabetic vascular complications. Diabetologia. 1999;42:1383-1394.
37. Zuanetti G, Latini R, Maggioni AP, et al. Influence of diabetes on mortality in acute myocardial infarction: Data from the GISSI-2 study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1993;22:1788-1794.
38. Christlieb AR, Janka HU, Kraus B, et al. Vascular reactivity to angiotensin II and to norepinephrine in diabetic subjects. Diabetes. 1976;25:268-274.
39. Tesfamariam B, Brown ML, Deykin D, Cohen RA. Elevated glucose promotes generation of endothelium-derived vasoconstrictor prostanoids in rabbit aorta. J Clin Invest. 1990;85:929-932.
40. Libby P, Aikawa M. New insights into plaque stabilisation by lipid lowering. Drugs. 1998;56(Suppl 1):9-13.
41. Schmidt AM, Stern D. Atherosclerosis and diabetes: The RAGE connection. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2000;2:430-436.
42. Rosen P, Nawroth PP, King G, et al. The role of oxidative stress in the onset and progression of diabetes and its complications: A summary of a Congress Series sponsored by UNESCO-MCBN, the American Diabetes Association and the German Diabetes Society. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2001;17:189-212.
43. Zeiher AM, Fisslthaler B, Schray-Utz B, Busse R. Nitric oxide modulates the expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 in cultured human endothelial cells. Circ Res. 1995;76:980-986.
44. Libby P. Current concepts of the pathogenesis of the acute coronary syndromes. Circulation. 2001;104:365-372.
45. Hussain MJ, Peakman M, Gallati H, et al. Elevated serum levels of macrophage-derived cytokines precede and accompany the onset of IDDM. Diabetologia. 1996;39:60-69.
46. Uemura S, Matsushita H, Li W, et al. Diabetes mellitus enhances vascular matrix metalloproteinase activity: Role of oxidative stress. Circ Res. 2001;88:1291-1298.
47. Libby P. Molecular bases of the acute coronary syndromes. Circulation. 1995;91:2844-2850.
48. Davies MJ, Woolf N. Atherosclerosis: What is it and why does it occur? Br Heart J. 1993;69(Suppl 1):S3-S11.
49. Sobel BE. Increased plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and vasculopathy. A reconcilable paradox. Circulation. 1999;99:2496-2498.
50. Carr ME. Diabetes mellitus: A hypercoagulable state. J Diabetes Complications. 2001;15:44-54.
51. Haffner SM, Stern MP, Hazuda HP, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors in confirmed prediabetic individuals. Does the clock for coronary heart disease start ticking before the onset of clinical diabetes? JAMA. 1990;263:2893-2898.
52. Kreisberg RA. Diabetic dyslipidemia. Am J Cardiol. 1998;82:67U-73U.
53. Reaven GM. Pathophysiology of insulin resistance in human disease. Physiol Rev. 1995;75:473-486.
54. Steinberg D, Parthasarathy S, Carew TE, et al. Beyond cholesterol. Modifications of low-density lipoprotein that increase its atherogenicity. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:915-924.
55. Austin MA. Plasma triglyceride as a risk factor for coronary heart disease. The epidemiologic evidence and beyond. Am J Epidemiol. 1989;129:249-259.
56. Cominacini L, Garbin U, Pastorino AM, et al. Increased susceptibility of LDL to in vitro oxidation in patients with insulin-dependent and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Res. 1994;26:173-184.
57. Chait A, Brazg RL, Tribble DL, Krauss RM. Susceptibility of small, dense, low-density lipoproteins to oxidative modification in subjects with the atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype, pattern B. Am J Med. 1993;94:350-356.
58. de Graaf J, Hak-Lemmers HL, Hectors MP, et al. Enhanced susceptibility to in vitro oxidation of the dense low density lipoprotein subfraction in healthy subjects. Arterioscler Thromb. 1991;11:298-306.
59. Brown V. Detection and management of lipid disorders in diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1996;19(Suppl 1):S96-S102.
60. Syvanne M, Taskinen MR. Lipids and lipoproteins as coronary risk factors in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Lancet. 1997;350(Suppl 1):S120-S123.
61. Bierman EL. George Lyman Duff Memorial Lecture. Atherogenesis in diabetes. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1992;12:647-656.
62. Nordestgaard BG, Nielsen LB. Atherosclerosis and arterial influx of lipoproteins. Curr Opin Lipidol. 1994;5:252-257.
63. Meigs JB. Epidemiology of the metabolic syndrome, 2002. Am J Managed Care. 2002;8(Suppl):S283-S292.
64. Lind L, Berne C, Lithell H. Prevalence of insulin resistance in essential hypertension. J Hypertens. 1995;13:1457-1462.
65. Vanhala MJ, Pitkajarvi TK, Keinanen-Kiukaanniemi SM, et al. Hyperinsulinaemia in hypertensive subjects: Validity of a test for the detection of insulin resistance in clinical practice. J Hum Hypertens. 1998;12:463-467.
66. National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2002 With Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans. Hyattsville, Md: National Center for Health Statistics: 2002.
67. MacMahon S, Peto R, Cutler J, et al. Blood pressure, stroke, and coronary heart disease. Part 1, Prolonged differences in blood pressure: Prospective observational studies corrected for the regression dilution bias. Lancet. 1990;335:765-774.
68. Devereux RB, Roman MJ, Palmieri V, et al. Left ventricular wall stresses and wall stress-mass-heart rate products in hypertensive patients with electrocardiographic left ventricular hypertrophy: The LIFE study. Losartan Intervention For Endpoint reduction in hypertension. J Hypertens. 2000;18:1129-1138.
69. Ohtsuka S, Kakihana M, Watanabe H, et al. Alterations in left ventricular wall stress and coronary circulation in patients with isolated systolic hypertension. J Hypertens. 1996;14:1349-1355.
70. Weber KT, Brilla CG. Pathological hypertrophy and cardiac interstitium. Fibrosis and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Circulation. 1991;83:1849-1865.
71. Brown RA, Filipovich P, Walsh MF, Sowers JR. Influence of sex, diabetes and ethanol on intrinsic contractile performance of isolated rat myocardium. Basic Res Cardiol. 1996;91:353-360.
72. Ren J, Sowers JR, Walsh MF, Brown RA. Reduced contractile response to insulin and IGF-I in ventricular myocytes from genetically obese Zucker rats. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2000;279:H1708-H1714.
73. Ren J, Dominguez LJ, Sowers JR, Davidoff AJ. Troglitazone attenuates high-glucose-induced abnormalities in relaxation and intracellular calcium in rat ventricular myocytes. Diabetes. 1996;45:1822-1825.
74. Schwartzkopff B, Motz W, Knauer S, et al. Morphometric investigation of intramural coronary arteries from right septal endomyocardial biopsy in patients with hypertensive heart disease. In: Mulvany MI, Aalkjaer C, Heagerty AM, et al, eds. Resistance Arteries. Structure and Function. Amsterdam/New York/Oxford: Excerpta Medica; 1991:305-307.
75. Treasure CB, Klein JL, Vita JA, et al. Hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy are associated with impaired endothelium-mediated relaxation in human coronary resistance vessels. Circulation. 1993;87:86-93.
76. Antony I, Aptecar E, Lerebours G, Nitenberg A. Coronary artery constriction caused by the cold pressor test in human hypertension. Hypertension. 1994;24:212-219.
77. Nabel EG, Ganz P, Gordon JB, et al. Dilation of normal and constriction of atherosclerotic coronary arteries caused by the cold pressor test. Circulation. 1988;77:43-52.
78. Houghton JL, Smith VE, Strogatz DS, et al. Effect of African-American race and hypertensive left ventricular hypertrophy on coronary vascular reactivity and endothelial function. Hypertension. 1997;29:706-714.
79. Beckman JA, Creager MA, Libby P. Diabetes and atherosclerosis: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management. JAMA. 2002;287:2570-2581.
80. Lemieux S, Despres JP. Metabolic complications of visceral obesity: Contribution to the aetiology of type 2 diabetes and implications for prevention and treatment. Diabetes Metab. 1994;20:375-393.
81. Frayn KN, Williams CM, Amer P. Are increased plasma non-esterified fatty acid concentrations a risk marker for coronary heart disease and other chronic diseases? Clin Sci (Lond). 1996;90:243-253.
82. Matsuzawa Y, Shimomura I, Nakamura T, et al. Pathophysiology and pathogenesis of visceral fat obesity. Obes Res. 1995;3(Suppl 2):187S-194S.
83. Despres JP. Dyslipidaemia and obesity. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1994;8:629-660.
84. Bjorntorp P. Fatty acids, hyperinsulinemia, and insulin resistance: Which comes first? Curr Opin Lipidol. 1994;5:166-174.
85. Mora S, Pessin JE. An adipocentric view of signaling and intracellular trafficking. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2002;18:345-356.
86. Ahima RS, Flier JS. Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2000;11:327-332.
87. Brun RP, Tontonoz P, Forman BM, et al. Differential activation of adipogenesis by multiple PPAR isoforms. Genes Dev. 1996;10:974-984.
88. Neve BP, Fruchart JC, Staels B. Role of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) in atherosclerosis. Biochem Pharmacol. 2000;60:1245-1250.
89. Hotamisligil GS, Arner P, Caro JF, et al. Increased adipose tissue expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in human obesity and insulin resistance. J Clin Invest. 1995;95:2409-2415.
90. Johannsson G, Karlsson C, Lonn L, et al. Serum leptin concentration and insulin sensitivity in men with abdominal obesity. Obes Res. 1998;6:416-421.
91. Kern PA, Ranganthan S, Li C, et al. Adipose tissue tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-6 expression in human obesity and insulin resistance. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2001;280:E745-E751.
92. Beltowski J. Adiponectin and resistin - new hormones of white adipose tissue. Med Sci Monit. 2003;9:RA55-RA61.
93. Hotta K, Funahashi T, Arita Y, et al. Plasma concentrations of a novel, adipose-specific protein, adiponectin, in type 2 diabetic patients. Arterioscler Throm Vasc Biol. 2000;20:1595-1599.
94. Bastard JP, Maachi M, Van Nhieu JT, et al. Adipose tissue IL-6 content correlates with resistance to insulin activation of glucose uptake both in vivo and in vitro. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87:2084-2089.
95. Serrano Rios M. Relationship between obesity and the increased risk of major complications in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Eur J Clin Invest. 1998;28(Suppl 2):14-17.
96. Pi-Sunyer FX. Medical hazards of obesity. Ann Intern Med. 1993;119:655-660.
97. Metz JA, Stern JS, Kris-Etherton P, et al. A randomized trial of improved weight loss with a prepared meal plan in overweight and obese patients: Impact on cardiovascular risk reduction. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:2150-2158.
98. Tchernof A, Lamarche B, Prud'Homme D, et al. The dense LDL phenotype. Association with plasma lipoprotein levels, visceral obesity, and hyperinsulinemia in men. Diabetes Care. 1996;19:629-637.
99. Despres JP. Health consequences of visceral obesity. Ann Med. 2001;33:534-541.
100. Laakso M. Hypertension and macrovascular disease - the killing fields of NIDDM. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 1998;39(Suppl):S27-S33.
101. Messerli FH, Christie B, DeCarvalho JG, et al. Obesity and essential hypertension. Hemodynamics, intravascular volume, sodium excretion, and plasma renin activity. Arch Intern Med. 1981;141:81-85.
102. Grundy SM, Pasternak R, Greenland P, et al. AHA/ACC scientific statement: Assessment of cardiovascular risk by use of multiple-risk-factor assessment equations: A statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association and the American College of Cardiology. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999;34:1348-1359.
103. Haffner SM, Lehto S, Ronnemaa T, et al. Mortality from coronary heart disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes and in nondiabetic subjects with and without prior myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:229-234.
104. Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. Executive Summary of the Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA. 2001;285:2486-2497.
105. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group [published erratum appears in Lancet. 1999;354:602; see comments]. Lancet. 1998;352:837-853.
106. Pyorala K, Pedersen TR, Kjekshus J, et al. Cholesterol lowering with simvastatin improves prognosis of diabetic patients with coronary heart disease. A subgroup analysis of the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S). Diabetes Care. 1997;20:614-620.
107. National Cholesterol Education Program. Second Report of the Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel II). Circulation. 1994;89:1333-1445.
108. The sixth report of the Joint National Committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure [published erratum appears in Arch Intern Med. 1998;158:573]. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:2413-2446.
109. American Diabetes Association. Clinical practice recommendations 1999. Diabetes Care. 1999;22(Suppl 1):S1-S114.
110. Goldberg RB, Mellies MJ, Sacks FM, et al, for the Care Investigators. Cardiovascular events and their reduction with pravastatin in diabetic and glucose-intolerant myocardial infarction survivors with average cholesterol levels: Subgroup analyses in the cholesterol and recurrent events (CARE) trial. Circulation. 1998;98:2513-2519.
111. Gaede P, Vedel P, Larsen N, et al. Multifactorial intervention and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:383-393.
112. Mudaliar S, Henry RR. New oral therapies for type 2 diabetes mellitus: The glitazones or insulin sensitizers. Annu Rev Med. 2001;52:239-257.
113. Hauner H. The mode of action of thiazolidinediones. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2002;18(Suppl 2):S10-S15.
114. Aronoff S, Rosenblatt S, Braithwaite S, et al, for the Pioglitazone 001 Study Group. Pioglitazone hydrochloride monotherapy improves glycemic control in the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes: A 6-month randomized placebo-controlled dose-response study. The Pioglitazone 001 Study Group. Diabetes Care. 2000;23:1605-1611.
115. Lebovitz HE, Dole JF, Patwardhan R, et al, for the Rosiglitazone Clinical Trials Study Group. Rosiglitazone monotherapy is effective in patients with type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86:280-288.
116. Patel J, Anderson RJ, Rappaport EB. Rosiglitazone monotherapy improves glycaemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes: A twelve-week, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Diabetes Obes Metab. 1999;1:165-172.
117. Phillips LS, Grunberger G, Miller E, et al, for the Rosiglitazone Clinical Trials Study Group. Once- and twice-daily dosing with rosiglitazone improves glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2001;24:308-315.
118. Fonseca V, Rosenstock J, Patwardhan R, Salzman A. Effect of metformin and rosiglitazone combination therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2000;283:1695-1702.
119. Wolffenbuttel BH, Gomis R, Squatrito S, et al. Addition of low-dose rosiglitazone to sulphonylurea therapy improves glycaemic control in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabet Med. 2000;17:40-47.
120. Raskin P, Rendell M, Riddle MC, et al, for the Rosiglitazone Clinical Trials Study Group. A randomized trial of rosiglitazone therapy in patients with inadequately controlled insulin-treated type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2001;24:1226-1232.
121. Einhorn D, Rendell M, Rosenzweig J, et al, for the Pioglitazone 027 Study Group. Pioglitazone hydrochloride in combination with metformin in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus: A randomized, placebo-controlled study. Clin Ther. 2000;22:1395-1409.
122. Miyazaki Y, Mahankali A, Matsuda M, et al. Improved glycemic control and enhanced insulin sensitivity in type 2 diabetic subjects treated with pioglitazone. Diabetes Care. 2001;24:710-719.
123. King AB. A comparison in a clinical setting of the efficacy and side effects of three thiazolidinediones. Diabetes Care. 2000;23:557.
124. Suter SL, Nolan JJ, Wallace P, et al. Metabolic effects of new oral hypoglycemic agent CS-045 in NIDDM subjects. Diabetes Care. 1992;15:193-203.
125. Khan M, St. Peter J, Neafus K, et al. A prospective, randomized comparison of the metabolic effects of pioglitazone vs rosiglitazone in patients with type 2 diabetes who were previously treated with troglitazone. Diabetes. 2001;50(Suppl 2):A119. Abstract.
126. Gegick CG, Altheimer MD. Comparison of effects of thiazolidinediones on cardiovascular risk factors: Observations from a clinical practice. Endocr Pract. 2001;7:162-169.
127. Nolan JJ, Jones NP, Patwardhan R, Deacon LF. Rosiglitazone taken once daily provides effective glycaemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med. 2000;17:287-294.
128. Raskin P, Rappaport EB, Cole ST, et al. Rosiglitazone short-term monotherapy lowers fasting and post-prandial glucose in patients with type II diabetes. Diabetologia. 2000;43:278-284.
129. King AB, Armstrong D. Comparison of the glucose and lipid effects of rosiglitazone (ROS) and pioglitazone (PIO) following conversion from troglitazone (TRO) treatment. Diabetes. 2001;50(Suppl 2):A120. Abstract.
130. Rosenblatt S, Miskin B, Glazer NB, et al. The impact of pioglitazone on glycemic control and atherogenic dyslipidemia in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Coron Artery Dis. 2001;12:413-423.
131. Kipnes MS, Krosnick A, Rendell MS, et al. Pioglitazone hydrochloride in combination with sulfonylurea therapy improves glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A randomized, placebo-controlled study. Am J Med. 2001;111:10-17.
132. Boyle PJ, King AB, Olansky L, et al. Effects of pioglitazone and rosiglitazone on blood lipid levels and glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A retrospective review of randomly selected medical records. Clin Ther. 2002;24:378-396.
133. Troglitazone Study Group. The metabolic effects of troglitazone in non-insulin dependent diabetes. Diabetes. 1997;46:149A. Abstract.
134. Avandia® (rosiglitazone maleate) tablets [package insert]. Philadelphia, Pa: Smith-Kline Beecham Pharmaceuticals; 2001.
135. Ogihara T, Rakugi H, Ikegami H, et al. Enhancement of insulin sensitivity by troglitazone lowers blood pressure in diabetic hypertensives. Am J Hypertens. 1995;8:316-320.
136. Sung BH, Izzo JL Jr, Dandona P, Wilson MF. Vasodilatory effects of troglitazone improve blood pressure at rest and during mental stress in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Hypertension. 1999;34:83-88.
137. Nolan JJ, Ludvik B, Beerdsen P, et al. Improvement in glucose tolerance and insulin resistance in obese subjects treated with troglitazone. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1188-1193.
138. Tack CJ, Ong MK, Lutterman JA, Smits P. Insulin-induced vasodilatation and endothelial function in obesity/insulin resistance. Effects of troglitazone. Diabetologia. 1998;41:569-576.
139. Zhang F, Sowers JR, Ram JL, et al. Effects of pioglitazone on calcium channels in vascular smooth muscle. Hypertension. 1994;24:170-175.
140. Yoshimoto T, Naruse M, Nishikawa M, et al. Antihypertensive and vasculo- and renoprotective effects of pioglitazone in genetically obese diabetic rats. Am J Physiol. 1997;272:E989-E996.
141. Konrad T, Füller S, Schneider F, et al. Impact of pioglitazone on insulin resistance and blood pressure in non-diabetic patients with arterial hypertension. European Association for the Study of Diabetes; September 2-5, 2002; Budapest, Hungary.
142. Kato K, Satoh H, Endo Y, et al. Thiazolidinediones down-regulate plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 expression in human vascular endothelial cells: A possible role for PPARgamma in endothelial function. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1999;258:431-435.
143. Kruszynska YT, Yu JG, Olefsky JM, Sobel BE. Effects of troglitazone on blood concentrations of plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 in patients with type 2 diabetes and in lean and obese normal subjects. Diabetes. 2000;49:633-639.
144. Haffner SM, Greenberg AS, Weston WM, et al. Effect of rosiglitazone treatment on nontraditional markers of cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Circulation. 2002;106:679-684.
145. Tan S, Tan L, Berk LS. Comparative study of the effects of rosiglitazone and pioglitazone on interferon-γ tumor necrosis factor, interleukin-1β, interleukin-4, interleukin-6 and c-reactive protein in diabetic patients with atherosclerosis. Diabetes. 2002;51(Suppl 2):A595. Abstract.
146. Solomon SS, Usdan LS, Palazzolo MR. Mechanisms involved in tumor necrosis factor-alpha induction of insulin resistance and its reversal by thiazolidinedione(s). Am J Med Sci. 2001;322:75-78.
147. Fukuzawa M, Satoh J, Qiang X, et al. Inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha with anti-diabetic agents. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 1999;43:147-154.
148. Murase K, Odaka H, Suzuki M, et al. Pioglitazone time-dependently reduces tumour necrosis factor-alpha level in muscle and improves metabolic abnormalities in Wistar fatty rats. Diabetologia. 1998;41:257-264.
149. Souza SC, Yamamoto MT, Franciosa MD, et al. BRL 49653 blocks the lipolytic actions of tumor necrosis factor-alpha: A potential new insulin-sensitizing mechanism for thiazolidinediones. Diabetes. 1998;47:691-695.
150. Koshiyama H, Shimono D, Kuwamura N, et al. Rapid communication: Inhibitory effect of pioglitazone on carotid arterial wall thickness in type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86:3452-3456.
151. Minamikawa J, Tanaka S, Yamauchi M, et al. Potent inhibitory effect of troglitazone on carotid arterial wall thickness in type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998;83:1818-1820.
152. Nakamura T, Ushiyama C, Shimada N, et al. Comparative effects of pioglitazone, glibenclamide, and voglibose on urinary endothelin-1 and albumin excretion in diabetes patients. J Diabetes Complications. 2000;14:250-254.
153. Bakris G, Viberti G, Weston WM, et al. Rosiglitazone reduces unnary albumin excretion in type II diabetes. J Hum Hypertens. 2003;17:7-12.
154. Imano E, Kanda T, Nakatani Y, et al. Effect of troglitazone on microalbuminuria in patients with incipient diabetic nephropathy. Diabetes Care. 1998;21:2135-2139.
155. Lamarche B, Tchernof A, Moorjani S, et al. Small, dense low-density lipoprotein particles as a predictor of the risk of ischemic heart disease in men. Prospective results from the Quebec Cardiovascular Study. Circulation. 1997;95:69-75.
156. Reusch JE. Current concepts in insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and the metabolic syndrome. Am J Cardiol. 2002;90:19G-26G.
157. Meigs JB, Mittleman MA, Nathan DM, et al. Hyperinsulinemia, hyperglycemia, and impaired hemostasis: The Framingham Offspring Study. JAMA. 2000;283:221-228.
158. Mather KJ, Verma S, Anderson TJ. Improved endothelial function with metformin in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37:1344-1350.
159. Avena R, Mitchell ME, Nylen ES, et al. Insulin action enhancement normalizes brachial artery vasoactivity in patients with peripheral vascular disease and occult diabetes. J Vasc Surg. 1998;28:1024-1031.
160. Ginsberg HN. Insulin resistance and cardiovascular disease. J Clin Invest. 2000;106:453-458.
161. Garg R, Kumbkarni Y, Aljada A, et al. Troglitazone reduces reactive oxygen species generation by leukocytes and lipid peroxidation and improves flow-mediated vasodilatation in obese subjects. Hypertension. 2000;36:430-435.
162. Stratton IM, Adler AI, Neil HA, et al. Association of glycaemia with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 35): Prospective observational study. BMJ. 2000;321:405-412.
163. Actos® (pioglitazone hydrochloride) tablets [package insert]. Lincolnshire, Ill: Takeda Pharmaceuticals North America, Inc; 2002.
164. Haffner SM. Management of dyslipidemia in adults with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2003;26(Suppl 1):S83-S86.
165. Koskinen P, Manttari M, Manninen V, et al. Coronary heart disease incidence in NIDDM patients in the Helsinki Heart Study. Diabetes Care. 1992;15:820-825.
166. Rubins HB, Robins SJ, Collins D, et al. Gemfibrozil for the secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in men with low levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Veterans Affairs High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Intervention Trial Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:410-418.
167. Sacks FM, Pfeffer MA, Moye LA, et al, for the Cholesterol and Recurrent Events Trial Investigators. The effect of pravastatin on coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:1001-1009.
168. Stampfer MJ, Krauss RM, Ma J, et al. A prospective study of triglyceride level, low-density lipoprotein particle diameter, and risk of myocardial infarction. JAMA. 1996;276:882-888.
169. Elisaf M. Effects of fibrates on serum metabolic parameters. Curr Med Res Opin. 2002;18:269-276.
170. Ikeda H, Sugiyama Y. Pharmacological effects of a thiazolidinedione derivative, pioglitazone [in Japanese]. Nippon Rinsho. 2001;59:2191-2194.
171. American Diabetes Association. Treatment of hypertension in adults with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2002;25:199-201.
172. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. BMJ. 1998;317:703-713.
173. Ghazzi MN, Perez JE, Antonucci TK, et al. Cardiac and glycemic benefits of troglitazone treatment in NIDDM. The Troglitazone Study Group. Diabetes. 1997;46:433-439.
174. Takagi T, Akasaka T, Yamamuro A, et al. Troglitazone improves coronary flow reserve in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A serial intracoronary doppler ultrasound study. Circulation. 1999;100:1-82.
175. Shimoyama M, Ogino K, Tanaka Y, et al. Hemodynamic basis for the acute cardiac effects of troglitazone in isolated perfused rat hearts. Diabetes. 1999;48:609-615.
176. Yamamoto K, Ohki R, Lee RT, et al. Peroxisome proliferator-activated
177. Asakawa M, Takano H, Nagai T, et al. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma plays a critical role in inhibition of cardiac hypertrophy in vitro and in vivo. Circulation. 2002;105:1240-1246.
178. Song J, Walsh MF, Igwe R, et al. Troglitazone reduces contraction by inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell Ca2+ currents and not endothelial nitric oxide production. Diabetes. 1997;46:659-664.
179. Kawasaki J, Hirano K, Nishimura J, et al. Mechanisms of vasorelaxation induced by troglitazone, a novel antidiabetic drug, in the porcine coronary artery. Circulation. 1998;98:2446-2452.
180. Sobel BE. The potential influence of insulin and plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 on the formation of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques associated with type 2 diabetes. Proc Assoc Am Physicians. 1999;111:313-318.
181. Heinrich J, Balleisen L, Schulte H, et al. Fibrinogen and factor VII in the prediction of coronary risk. Results from the PROCAM study in healthy men. Arterioscler Thromb. 1994;14:54-59.
182. Hamsten A, de Faire U, Walldius G, et al. Plasminogen activator inhibitor in plasma: Risk factor for recurrent myocardial infarction. Lancet. 1987;2:3-9.
183. Meade TW, Mellows S, Brozovic M, et al. Haemostatic function and ischaemic heart disease: Principal results of the Northwick Park Heart Study. Lancet. 1986;2:533-537.
184. Ridker PM, Glynn RJ, Hennekens CH. C-reactive protein adds to the predictive value of total and HDL cholesterol in determining risk of first myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1998;97:2007-2011.
185. Devaraj S, Xu DY, Jialal I. C-reactive protein increases plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 expression and activity in human aortic endothelial cells: Implications for the metabolic syndrome and atherothrombosis. Circulation. 2003;107:398-404.
186. Bryant D, Becker L, Richardson J, et al. Cardiac failure in transgenic mice with myocardial expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Circulation. 1998;97:1375-1381.
187. Shiomi T, Tsutsui H, Hayashidani S, et al. Pioglitazone, a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma agonist, attenuates left ventricular remodeling and failure after experimental myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2002;106:3126-3132.
188. Sugawara A, Takeuchi K, Uruno A, et al. Transcriptional suppression of type 1 angiotensin II receptor gene expression by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma in vascular smooth muscle cells. Endocrinology. 2001;142:3125-3134.
189. Sugawara A, Takeuchi K, Uruno A, et al. Differential effects among thiazolidinediones on the transcription of thromboxane receptor and angiotensin II type 1 receptor genes. Hypertens Res. 2001;24:229-233.
190. Hattori Y, Akimoto K, Kasai K. The effects of thiazolidinediones on vascular smooth muscle cell activation by angiotensin II. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2000;273:1144-1149.
191. Sakai S, Miyauchi T, Irukayama-Tomobe Y, et al. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma activators inhibit endothelin-1-related cardiac hypertrophy in rats. Clin Sci (Lond). 2002;103(Suppl 48):16S-20S.
192. Martin-Nizard F, Furman C, Delarive P, et al. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activators inhibit oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced endothelin-1 secretion in endothelial cells. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2002;40:822-831.
193. Satoh H, Tsukamoto K, Hashimoto Y, et al. Thiazolidinediones suppress endothelin-1 secretion from bovine vascular endothelial cells: A new possible role of PPARgamma on vascular endothelial function. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1999;254:757-763.
194. Yue TL, Chen J, Bao W, et al. In vivo myocardial protection from ischemia/reperfusion injury by the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma agonist rosiglitazone. Circulation. 2001;104:2588-2594.
195. Wayman NS, Hatton Y, McDonald MC, et al. Ligands of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR-gamma and PPAR-alpha) reduce myocardial infarct size. FASEB J. 2002;16:1027-1040.
196. Rezulin® (troglitazone) tablets [package insert]. Morris Plains, NJ: Parke-Davis; 1999. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/cder/foi/label/1999/20720s12lbl.pdf.
197. Niemeyer NV, Janney LM. Thiazolidinedione-induced edema. Pharmacotherapy. 2002;22:924-929.
198. Makimattila S, Nikkila K, Yki-Jarvinen H. Causes of weight gain during insulin therapy with and without metformin in patients with type II diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia. 1999;42:406-412.
199. Thomas ML, Lloyd SJ. Pulmonary edema associated with rosiglitazone and troglitazone. Ann Pharmacother. 2001;35:123-124.
200. Hirsch IB, Kelly J, Cooper S. Pulmonary edema associated with troglitazone therapy. Arch Intern Med. 1999;159:1811.
201. American Diabetes Association. Clinical practice recommendations. Diabetes Care. 2003;26(Suppl 1):S1-S156.