Health benefits of heat-killed (Tyndallized) probiotics: An overview

International Journal of Molecular Sciences

Volumn 20, Issue 10, 2019, Pages

  Piqué, Núria ^a   Berlanga, Mercedes ^a   Miñana Galbis, David ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BARCELONA   (Spain)

Author keywords

Bifidobacterium; Heat killed; Immunomodulatory; Lactobacillus; Probiotics; Tyndallized

Indexed keywords

BACTERIOCIN; CRYOPYRIN; EXOPOLYSACCHARIDE; INFLAMMASOME; LIPOTEICHOIC ACID; PEPTIDOGLYCAN; PROBIOTIC AGENT; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR;

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; BACTERIAL COLONIZATION; BACTERICIDAL ACTIVITY; BIFIDOBACTERIUM; BLOATING; CELL COMPONENT; CELL WALL; CYTOLYSIS; DIARRHEA; ENTEROPATHY; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASE; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; HEAT; HELICOBACTER PYLORI; HUMAN; IMMUNOMODULATION; INFANTILE COLIC; INFLAMMATION; LACTIC ACID BACTERIUM; LACTOBACILLUS PLANTARUM; LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; SALMONELLA; TYNDALLIZATION; ANIMAL; BACTERIAL INFECTION; CYTOLOGY; LACTOBACILLUS; MICROBIAL VIABILITY; MICROBIOLOGY;

ANIMALS; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; BIFIDOBACTERIUM; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASES; HOT TEMPERATURE; HUMANS; IMMUNOMODULATION; LACTOBACILLUS; MICROBIAL VIABILITY; PROBIOTICS;

EID: 85066959435     PISSN: 16616596     EISSN: 14220067     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ijms20102534     Document Type: Review

References (184)

1. Jovel, J.; Patterson, J.; Wang, W.; Hotte, N.; O’Keefe, S.; Mitchel, T.; Perry, T.; Kao, D.; Mason, A.L.; Madsen, K.L.; et al. Characterization of the Gut Microbiome Using 16S or Shotgun Metagenomics. Front. Microbiol. 2016, 7, 459. [CrossRef]
2. Palau, M.; Kulmann, M.; Ramírez-Lázaro, M.J.; Lario, S.; Quilez, M.E.; Campo, R.; Piqué, N.; Calvet, X.; Miñana-Galbis, D. Usefulness of Housekeeping Genes for the Diagnosis of Helicobacter pylori Infection, Strain Discrimination and Detection of Multiple Infection. Helicobacter 2016, 21, 481–487. [CrossRef]
3. Zhao, Y.; Jaber, V.; Lukiw, W. Secretory products of the human GI tract microbiome and their potential impact on Alzheimer´s Disease (AD): Detection of Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in AD hippocampus. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 2017, 7, 318. [CrossRef]
4. Piqué, N.; Gómez-Guillén, M.D.C.; Montero, M.P. Xyloglucan, a Plant Polymer with Barrier Protective Properties over the Mucous Membranes: An Overview. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19, 673. [CrossRef]
5. Janssen, M.; Busch, C.; Rödiger, M.; Hamm, U. Motives of consumers following a vegan diet and their attitudes towards animal agriculture. Appetite 2016, 105, 643–651. [CrossRef]
6. Nagpal, R.; Yadav, H.; Marotta, F. Gut microbiota: The next-gen frontier in preventive and therapeutic medicine? Front. Med. 2014, 1, 15. [CrossRef]
7. Mosca, A.; Leclerc, M.; Hugot, J.P. Gut Microbiota Diversity and Human Diseases: Should We Reintroduce Key Predators in Our Ecosystem? Front. Microbiol. 2016, 7, 455. [CrossRef]
8. Crow, J.R.; Davis, S.L.; Chaykosky, D.M.; Smith, T.T.; Smith, J.M. Probiotics and Fecal Microbiota Transplant for Primary and Secondary Prevention of Clostridium difficile Infection. Pharmacotherapy 2015, 35, 1016–1025. [CrossRef]
9. Wilkins, T.; Sequoia, J. Probiotics for Gastrointestinal Conditions: A Summary of the Evidence. Am. Fam. Physician 2017, 96, 170–178.
10. Dronkers, T.M.G.; Krist, L.; Van Overveld, F.J.; Rijkers, G.T. The ascent of the blessed: Regulatory issues on health effects and health claims for probiotics in Europe and the rest of the world. Benef. Microbes 2018, 9, 717–723. [CrossRef]
11. Boyle, R.J.; Robins-Browne, R.M.; Tang, M.L. Probiotic use in clinical practice: What are the risks? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2006, 83, 1256–1264. [CrossRef]
12. Hill, C.; Guarner, F.; Reid, G.; Gibson, G.R.; Merenstein, D.J.; Pot, B.; Morelli, L.; Canani, R.B.; Flint, H.J.; Salminen, S.; et al. Expert consensus document. The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics consensus statement on the scope and appropriate use of the term probiotic. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2014, 11, 506–514. [CrossRef]
13. O’Toole, P.W.; Marchesi, J.R.; Hill, C. Next-generation probiotics: The spectrum from probiotics to live biotherapeutics. Nat. Microbiol. 2017, 2, 17057. [CrossRef]
14. Deshpande, G.; Athalye-Jape, G.; Patole, S. Para-probiotics for Preterm Neonates. Next. Front. Nutr. 2018, 10, E871.
15. Linares, D.M.; Gómez, C.; Renes, E.; Fresno, J.M.; Tornadijo, M.E.; Ross, R.P.; Stanton, C. Lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria with potential to design natural biofunctional health-promoting dairy foods. Front. Microbiol. 2017, 8, 846. [CrossRef]
16. Guandalini, S. Probiotics for prevention and treatment of diarrhea. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 2011, 45, S149–S153. [CrossRef]
17. Mills, J.P.; Rao, K.; Young, V.B. Probiotics for prevention of Clostridium difficile infection. Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol. 2018, 34, 3–10. [CrossRef]
18. Zyrek, A.A.; Cichon, C.; Helms, S.; Enders, C.; Sonnenborn, U.; Schmidt, M.A. Molecular mechanisms underlying the probiotic effects of Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 involve ZO-2 and PKCzeta redistribution resulting in tight junction and epithelial barrier repair. Cell. Microbiol. 2007, 9, 804–816. [CrossRef]
19. Bermúdez-Brito, M.; Plaza-Díaz, J.; Muñoz-Quezada, S.; Gómez-Llorente, C.; Gil, A. Probiotic mechanisms of action. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 2012, 61, 160–174. [CrossRef]
20. Pamer, E.G. Resurrecting the intestinal microbiota to combat antibiotic-resistant pathogens. Science 2016, 352, 535–538. [CrossRef]
21. Draper, K.; Ley, C.; Parsonnet, J. Probiotic guidelines and physician practice: A cross-sectional survey and overview of the literature. Benef. Microbes 2017, 8, 507–519. [CrossRef]
22. Adams, C.A. The probiotic paradox: Live and dead cells are biological response modifiers. Nutr. Res. Rev. 2010, 23, 37–46. [CrossRef]
23. Goldenberg, J.Z.; Yap, C.; Lytvyn, L.; Lo, C.K.; Beardsley, J.; Mertz, D.; Johnston, B.C. Probiotics for the prevention of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in adults and children. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2017, 12, CD006095. [CrossRef]
24. Bafeta, A.; Koh, M.; Riveros, C.; Ravaud, P. Harms Reporting in Randomized Controlled Trials of Interventions Aimed at Modifying Microbiota: A Systematic Review. Ann. Intern. Med. 2018, 169, 240–247. [CrossRef]
25. Sanders, M.E.; Merenstein, D.J.; Ouwehand, A.C.; Reid, G.; Salminen, S.; Cabana, M.D.; Paraskevakos, G.; Leyer, G. Probiotic use in at-risk populations. J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. 2016, 56, 680–686. [CrossRef]
26. Ohishi, A.; Takahashi, S.; Ito, Y.; Ohishi, Y.; Tsukamoto, K.; Nanba, Y.; Ito, N.; Kakiuchi, S.; Saitoh, A.; Morotomi, M.; et al. Bifidobacterium septicemia associated with postoperative probiotic therapy in a neonate with omphalocele. J. Pediatr. 2010, 156, 679–681. [CrossRef]
27. Taverniti, V.; Guglielmetti, S. The immunomodulatory properties of probiotic microorganisms beyond their viability (ghost probiotics: Proposal of paraprobiotic concept). Genes Nutr. 2011, 6, 261–274. [CrossRef]
28. Sarkar, A.; Mandal, S. Bifidobacteria-Insight into clinical outcomes and mechanisms of its probiotic action. Microbiol. Res. 2016, 192, 159–171. [CrossRef]
29. Castro-Bravo, N.; Wells, J.M.; Margolles, A.; Ruas-Madiedo, P. Interactions of Surface Exopolysaccharides From Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus Within the Intestinal Environment. Front. Microbiol. 2018, 9, 2426. [CrossRef]
30. Vandenplas, Y.; Bacarea, A.; Marusteri, M.; Bacarea, V.; M, C.; Manolache, M. Efficacy and safety of APT198K for the treatment of infantile colic: A pilot study. J. Comp. Effect Res. 2017, 6, 137–144. [CrossRef]
31. Burta, O.; Iacobescu, C.; Mateescu, R.B.; Nicolaie, T.; Tiuca, N.; Pop, C.S. Efficacy and safety of APT036 versus simethicone in the treatment of functional bloating: A multicentre, randomised, double-blind, parallel group, clinical study. Transl. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2018, 3, 72. [CrossRef]
32. Kataria, J.; Li, N.; Wynn, J.L.; Neu, J. Probiotic microbes: Do they need to be alive to be beneficial? Nutr. Rev. 2009, 67, 546–550. [CrossRef]
33. Ashraf, R.; Shah, N.P. Immune system stimulation by probiotic microorganisms. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2014, 54, 938–956. [CrossRef]
34. Kato, K.; Odamaki, T.; Mitsuyama, E.; Sugahara, H.; Xiao, J.Z.; Osawa, R. Age-Related Changes in the Composition of Gut Bifidobacterium Species. Curr. Microbiol. 2017, 74, 987–995. [CrossRef]
35. Kim, K.W.; Kang, S.S.; Woo, S.J.; Park, O.J.; Ahn, K.B.; Song, K.D.; Lee, H.K.; Yun, C.H.; Han, S.H. Lipoteichoic Acid of Probiotic Lactobacillus plantarum Attenuates Poly I:C-Induced IL-8 Production in Porcine Intestinal Epithelial Cells. Front. Microbiol. 2017, 8, 1827. [CrossRef]
36. Goldstein, E.J.; Tyrrell, K.L.; Citron, D.M. Lactobacillus species: Taxonomic complexity and controversial susceptibilities. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2015, 60, s98–s107. [CrossRef]
37. Dimidi, E.; Christodoulides, S.; Scott, S.M.; Whelan, K. Mechanisms of Action of Probiotics and the Gastrointestinal Microbiota on Gut Motility and Constipation. Adv. Nutr. 2017, 8, 484–494. [CrossRef]
38. Arai, S.; Iwabuchi, N.; Takahashi, S.; Xiao, J.Z.; Abe, F.; Hachimura, S. Orally administered heat-killed Lactobacillus paracasei MCC1849 enhances antigen-specific IgA secretion and induces follicular helper T cells in mice. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0199018. [CrossRef]
39. do Carmo, M.S.; Santos, C.I.D.; Araújo, M.C.; Girón, J.A.; Fernandes, E.S.; Monteiro-Neto, V. Probiotics, mechanisms of action, and clinical perspectives for diarrhea management in children. Food Funct. 2018, 9, 5074–5095. [CrossRef]
40. Christensen, H.R.; Frokiaer, H.; Pestka, J.J. Lactobacilli differentially modulate expression of cytokines and maturation surface markers in murine dendritic cells. J. Immunol. 2002, 168, 171–178. [CrossRef]
41. Thomas, C.M.; Versalovic, J. Probiotics-host communication: Modulation of signaling pathways in the intestine. Gut Microbes 2010, 1, 148–163. [CrossRef]
42. Wang, J.; Ji, H.; Wang, S.; Liu, H.; Zhang, W.; Zhang, D.; Wang, Y. Probiotic Lactobacillus plantarum Promotes Intestinal Barrier Function by Strengthening the Epithelium and Modulating Gut Microbiota. Front Microbiol. 2018, 9, 1953. [CrossRef]
43. Donato, K.A.; Gareau, M.G.; Wang, Y.J.; Sherman, P.M. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG attenuates interferon-γ and tumour necrosis factor-α-induced barrier dysfunction and pro-inflammatory signalling. Microbiology 2010, 156, 3288–3297. [CrossRef]
44. Hidalgo-Cantabrana, C.; Delgado, S.; Ruiz, L.; Ruas-Madiedo, P.; Sánchez, B.; Margolles, A. Bifidobacteria and Their Health-Promoting Effects. Microbiol. Spectr. 2017, 5. [CrossRef]
45. Noh, S.Y.; Kang, S.S.; Yun, C.H.; Han, S.H. Lipoteichoic acid from Lactobacillus plantarum inhibits Pam2CSK4-induced IL-8 production in human intestinal epithelial cells. Mol. Immunol. 2015, 64, 183–189. [CrossRef]
46. Oh, N.S.; Joung, J.Y.; Lee, J.Y.; Kim, Y. Probiotic and anti-inflammatory potential of Lactobacillus rhamnosus 4B15 and Lactobacillus gasseri 4M13 isolated from infant feces. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0192021. [CrossRef]
47. Groeger, D.; O’Mahony, L.; Murphy, E.F.; Bourke, J.F.; Dinan, T.G.; Kiely, B.; Shanahan, F.; Quigley, E.M. Bifidobacterium infantis 35624 modulates host inflammatory processes beyond the gut. Gut Microbes 2013, 4, 325–339. [CrossRef]
48. Mujagic, Z.; de Vos, P.; Boekschoten, M.V.; Govers, C.; Pieters, H.H.; de Wit, N.J.; Bron, P.A.; Masclee, A.A.; Troost, F.J. The effects of Lactobacillus plantarum on small intestinal barrier function and mucosal gene transcription; a randomized double-blind placebo controlled trial. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 40128. [CrossRef]
49. Hou, Q.; Ye, L.; Liu, H.; Huang, L.; Yang, Q.; Turner, J.R.; Yu, Q. Lactobacillus accelerates ISCs regeneration to protect the integrity of intestinal mucosa through activation of STAT3 signaling pathway induced by LPLs secretion of IL-22. Cell Death Differ. 2018, 25, 1657–1670. [CrossRef]
50. Sartor, R.B. Mechanisms of disease: Pathogenesis of Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. Nat. Clin. Pract. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2006, 3, 390–407. [CrossRef]
51. Gareau, M.G.; Sherman, P.M.; Walker, W.A. Probiotics and the gut microbiota in intestinal health and disease. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2010, 7, 503–514. [CrossRef]
52. Lopetuso, L.; Graziani, C.; Guarino, A.; Lamborghini, A.; Masi, S.; Stanghellini, V. Gelatin tannate and tyndallized probiotics: A novel approach for treatment of diarrhea. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci. 2017, 21, 873–883.
53. Soares, J.B.; Pimentel-Nunes, P.; Roncon-Albuquerque, R.; Leite-Moreira, A. The role of lipopolysaccharide/toll-like receptor 4 signaling in chronic liver diseases. Hepatol. Int. 2010, 4, 659–672. [CrossRef]
54. Hoang, T.K.; He, B.; Wang, T.; Tran, D.Q.; Rhoads, J.M.; Liu, Y. Protective effect of Lactobacillus reuteri DSM 17938 against experimental necrotizing enterocolitis is mediated by Toll-like receptor 2. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 2018, 315, G231–G240. [CrossRef]
55. Cario, E.; Gerken, G.; Podolsky, D.K. Toll-like receptor 2 controls mucosal inflammation by regulating epithelial barrier function. Gastroenterology 2007, 132, 1359–1374. [CrossRef]
56. Zaki, M.H.; Boyd, K.L.; Vogel, P.; Kastan, M.B.; Lamkanfi, M.; Kanneganti, T.D. The NLRP3 inflammasome protects against loss of epithelial integrity and mortality during experimental colitis. Immunity 2010, 32, 379–391. [CrossRef]
57. Seo, S.U.; Kamada, N.; Muñoz-Planillo, R.; Kim, Y.G.; Kim, D.; Koizumi, Y.; Hasegawa, M.; Himpsl, S.D.; Browne, H.P.; Lawley, T.D.; et al. Distinct Commensals Induce Interleukin-1β via NLRP3 Inflammasome in Inflammatory Monocytes to Promote Intestinal Inflammation in Response to Injury. Immunity 2015, 42, 744–755. [CrossRef]
58. Delcaru, C.; Alexandru, I.; Podgoreanu, P.; Cristea, V.C.; Bleotu, C.; Chifiriuc, M.C.; Bezirtzoglou, E.; Lazar, V. Antagonistic activities of some Bifidobacterium sp. strains isolated from resident infant gastrointestinal microbiota on Gram-negative enteric pathogens. Anaerobe 2016, 39, 39–44. [CrossRef]
59. Canducci, F.; Armuzzi, A.; Cremonini, F.; Cammarota, G.; Bartolozzi, F.; Pola, P.; Gasbarrini, G.; Gasbarrini, A. A lyophilized and inactivated culture of Lactobacillus acidophilus increases Helicobacter pylori eradication rates. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 2000, 14, 1625–1629. [CrossRef]
60. Evivie, S.E.; Li, B.; Ding, X.; Meng, Y.; Yu, S.; Du, J.; Xu, M.; Li, W.; Jin, D.; Huo, G.; et al. Complete Genome Sequence of Streptococcus thermophilus KLDS 3.1003, A Strain with High Antimicrobial Potential against Foodborne and Vaginal Pathogens. Front. Microbiol. 2017, 8, 1238. [CrossRef]
61. Mu, Q.; Tavella, V.J.; Luo, X.M. Role of Lactobacillus reuteri in Human Health and Diseases. Front. Microbiol. 2018, 9, 757. [CrossRef]
62. Surendran Nair, M.; Amalaradjou, M.A.; Venkitanarayanan, K. Antivirulence Properties of Probiotics in Combating Microbial Pathogenesis. Adv. Appl. Microbiol. 2017, 98, 1–29.
63. Woo, J.; Ahn, J. Probiotic-mediated competition, exclusion and displacement in biofilm formation by food-borne pathogens. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 2013, 56, 307–313. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
64. Zalan, Z.; Hudáček, J.; Štětina, J.; Chumchalová, J.; Halasz, A. Production of organic acids by Lactobacillus strains in three different media. Eur. Food. Res. Technol. 2010, 230, 395. [CrossRef]
65. Gonzalez-Ochoa, G.; Flores-Mendoza, L.K.; Icedo-Garcia, R.; Gomez-Flores, R.; Tamez-Guerra, P. Modulation of rotavirus severe gastroenteritis by the combination of probiotics and prebiotics. Arch. Microbiol. 2017, 199, 953–961. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
66. Martínez, M.G.; Prado Acosta, M.; Candurra, N.A.; Ruzal, S.M. S-layer proteins of Lactobacillus acidophilus inhibits JUNV infection. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2012, 422, 590–595. [CrossRef]
67. Jorgensen, M.R.; Kragelund, C.; Jensen, P.O.; Keller, M.K.; Twetman, S. Probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri has antifungal effects on oral Candida species in vitro. J. Oral Microbiol. 2017, 9, 1274582. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
68. De Marco, S.; Sichetti, M.; Muradyan, D.; Piccioni, M.; Traina, G.; Pagiotti, R.; Pietrella, D. Probiotic Cell-Free Supernatants Exhibited Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidant Activity on Human Gut Epithelial Cells and Macrophages Stimulated with LPS. Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2018, 1756308. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
69. Doron, S.; Snydman, D.R. Risk and safety of probiotics. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2015, 60, S129–S134. [CrossRef]
70. Appel-da-Silva, M.C.; Narvaez, G.A.; Perez, L.R.R.; Drehmer, L.; Lewgoy, J. Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii fungemia following probiotic treatment. Med. Mycol. Case. Rep. 2017, 18, 15–17. [CrossRef]
71. Mater, D.D.; Langella, P.; Corthier, G.; Flores, M. A probiotic Lactobacillus strain can acquire vancomycin resistance during digestive transit in mice. J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2008, 14, 123–127. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
72. Snydman, D.R. The safety of probiotics. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2008, 46, S104–S111. [CrossRef]
73. Reid, G.; Gadir, A.A.; Dhir, R. Probiotics: Reiterating what they are and what they are not. Front. Microbiol. 2019, 10, 424. [CrossRef]
74. Thumu, S.C.R.; Halami, P. Conjugal transfer of ERM(B) and multiple tet genes from Lactobacillus spp. to bacterial pathogens in animal gut, in vitro and during food fermentation. Food Res. Int. 2019, 116, 1066–1075. [CrossRef]
75. Neu, J. Perinatal and neonatal manipulation of the intestinal microbiome: A note of caution. Nutr. Rev. 2007, 65, 282–285. [CrossRef]
76. Aceti, A.; Beghetti, I.; Maggio, L.; Martini, S.; Faldella, G.; Corvaglia, L. Filling the Gaps: Current Research Directions for a Rational Use of Probiotics in Preterm Infants. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1472. [CrossRef]
77. Campeotto, F.; Suau, A.; Kapel, N.; Magne, F.; Viallon, V.; Ferraris, L.; Waligora-Dupriet, A.J.; Soulaines, P.; Leroux, B.; Kalach, N.; et al. A fermented formula in pre-term infants: Clinical tolerance, gut microbiota, down-regulation of faecal calprotectin and up-regulation of faecal secretory IgA. Br. J. Nutr. 2011, 105, 1843–1851. [CrossRef]
78. Jenke, A.; Ruf, E.M.; Hoppe, T.; Heldmann, M.; Wirth, S. Bifidobacterium septicaemia in an extremely low-birthweight infant under probiotic therapy. Arch. Dis. Child Fetal. Neonatal. 2012, 97, F217–F218. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
79. Dani, C.; Coviello, C.C.; Corsini, I.I.; Arena, F.; Antonelli, A.; Rossolini, G.M. Lactobacillus Sepsis and Probiotic Therapy in Newborns: Two New Cases and Literature. Rev. AJP Rep. 2016, 6, e25–e29.
80. Wagner, R.D.; Warner, T.; Roberts, L.; Farmer, J.; Balish, E. Colonization of congenitally immunodeficient mice with probiotic bacteria. Infect. Immun. 1997, 65, 3345–3351.
81. Lherm, T.; Monet, C.; Nougière, B.; Soulier, M.; Larbi, D.; Le Gall, C.; Caen, D.; Malbrunot, C. Seven cases of fungemia with Saccharomyces boulardii in critically ill patients. Intensive. Care Med. 2002, 28, 797–801. [CrossRef]
82. Lolis, N.; Veldekis, D.; Moraitou, H.; Kanavaki, S.; Velegraki, A.; Triandafyllidis, C.; Tasioudis, C.; Pefanis, A.; Pneumatikos, I. Saccharomyces boulardii fungaemia in an intensive care unit patient treated with caspofungin. Crit. Care 2008, 12, 414.
83. Atici, S.; Soysal, A.; Karadeniz Cerit, K.; Yilmaz, Ş.; Aksu, B.; Kiyan, G.; Bakir, M. Catheter-related Saccharomyces cerevisiae Fungemia Following Saccharomyces boulardii Probiotic Treatment: In a child in intensive care unit and review of the literature. Med. Mycol. Case Rep. 2017, 15, 33–35. [CrossRef]
84. Zorzela, L.; Ardestani, S.K.; McFarland, L.V.; Vohra, S. Is there a role for modified probiotics as beneficial microbes: A systematic review of the literature. Benef. Microbes 2017, 8, 739–754. [CrossRef]
85. Lee, S.H.; Yoon, J.M.; Kim, Y.H.; Jeong, D.G.; Park, S.; Kang, D.J. Therapeutic effect of tyndallized Lactobacillus rhamnosus IDCC 3201 on atopic dermatitis mediated by down-regulation of immunoglobulin E in NC/Nga mice. Microbiol. Immunol. 2016, 60, 468–476. [CrossRef]
86. Kim, H.; Kim, H.; Bang, J.; Kim, Y.; Beuchat, L.R.; Ryu, J.H. Reduction of Bacillus cereus spores in sikhye, a traditional Korean rice beverage, by modified tyndallization processes with and without carbon dioxide injection. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 2012, 55, 218–223. [CrossRef]
87. Daelemans, S.; Peeters, L.; Hauser, B.; Vandenplas, Y. Recent advances in understanding and managing infantile colic. F1000Res 2018, 7, F1000. [CrossRef]
88. Ananta, E.; Knorr, D. Comparison of inactivation pathways of thermal or high pressure inactivated Lactobacillusrhamnosus ATCC 53103 by flow cytometry analysis. Food. Microbiol. 2009, 26, 542–546. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
89. Aiba, Y.; Ishikawa, H.; Tokunaga, M.; Komatsu, Y. Anti-Helicobacter pylori activity of non-living, heat-killed form of lactobacilli including Lactobacillus johnsonii No.1088. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 2017, 364. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
90. Schwartz, J.S.; Peres, A.G.; Mfuna Endam, L.; Cousineau, B.; Madrenas, J.; Desrosiers, M. Topical probiotics as a therapeutic alternative for chronic rhinosinusitis: A preclinical proof of concept. Am. J. Rhinol. Allergy 2016, 30, 202–205. [CrossRef]
91. Piqué, N.; Miñana-Galbis, D.; Merino, S.; Tomás, J.M. The lipopolysaccharide of Aeromonas spp: Structure-activity relationships. Curr. Top. Biochem. Res. 2013, 15, 41–56.
92. Lenz, J.D.; Hackett, K.T.; Dillard, J.P. A Single Dual-Function Enzyme Controls the Production of Inflammatory NOD Agonist Peptidoglycan Fragments by Neisseria gonorrhoeae. MBio 2017, 8, e01464-17. [CrossRef]
93. Ragland, SA.; Criss, A. From bacterial killing to immune modulation: Recent insights into the functions of lysozyme. PLoS Pathog. 2017, 13, e1006512. [CrossRef]
94. Donaldson, G.P.; Lee, S.M.; Mazmanian, S. Gut biogeography of the bacterial microbiota. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2016, 14, 20–32. [CrossRef]
95. Liu, Y.; Gibson, G.R.; Walton, G.E. An In Vitro Approach to Study Effects of Prebiotics and Probiotics on the Faecal Microbiota and Selected Immune Parameters Relevant to the Elderly. PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0162604. [CrossRef]
96. Bron, P.A.; Tomita, S.; Mercenier, A.; Kleerebezem, M. Cell surface-associated compounds of probiotic lactobacilli sustain the strain-specificity dogma. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2013, 16, 262–269. [CrossRef]
97. Lee, I.C.; Tomita, S.; Kleerebezem, M.; Bron, P.A. The quest for probiotic effector molecules–unraveling strain specificity at the molecular level. Pharmacol. Res. 2013, 69, 61–74. [CrossRef]
98. Galdeano, C.M.; Perdigón, G. Role of viability of probiotic strains in their persistence in the gut and in mucosal immune stimulation. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2004, 97, 673–681. [CrossRef]
99. Liu, Z.; Zhang, Z.; Qiu, L.; Zhang, F.; Xu, X.; Wei, H.; Tao, X. Characterization and bioactivities of the exopolysaccharide from a probiotic strain of Lactobacillus plantarum WLPL04. J. Dairy Sci. 2017, 100, 6895–6905. [CrossRef]
100. Matsuguchi, T.; Takagi, A.; Matsuzaki, T.; Nagaoka, M.; Ishikawa, K.; Yokokura, T.; Yoshikai, Y. Lipoteichoic acids from Lactobacillus strains elicit strong tumor necrosis factor alpha-inducing activities in macrophages through Toll-like receptor 2. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 2003, 10, 259–266. [CrossRef]
101. Hirose, Y.; Murosaki, S.; Yamamoto, Y.; Yoshikai, Y.; Tsuru, T. Daily intake of heat-killed Lactobacillus plantarum L-137 augments acquired immunity in healthy adults. J. Nutr. 2006, 136, 3069–3073. [CrossRef]
102. Chen, C.Y.; Tsen, H.Y.; Lin, C.L.; Lin, C.K.; Chuang, L.T.; Chen, C.S.; Chiang, Y.C. Enhancement of the immune response against Salmonella infection of mice by heat-killed multispecies combinations of lactic acid bacteria. J. Med. Microbiol. 2013, 62, 1657–1664. [CrossRef]
103. Miyauchi, E.; Morita, H.; Tanabe, S. Lactobacillus rhamnosus alleviates intestinal barrier dysfunction in part by increasing expression of zonula occludens-1 and myosin light-chain kinase in vivo. J. Dairy Sci. 2009, 92, 2400–2408. [CrossRef]
104. Liévin-Le Moal, V.; Sarrazin-Davila, L.E.; Servin, A.L. An experimental study and a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial to evaluate the antisecretory activity of Lactobacillus acidophilus strain LB against nonrotavirus diarrhea. Pediatrics 2007, 120, e795–e803. [CrossRef]
105. Chang, B.; Sang, L.; Wang, Y.; Tong, J.; Zhang, D.; Wang, B. The protective effect of VSL#3 on intestinal permeability in a rat model of alcoholic intestinal injury. BMC Gastroenterol. 2013, 13, 151.
106. Sugahara, H.; Yao, R.; Odamaki, T.; Xiao, J.Z. Differences between live and heat-killed bifidobacteria in the regulation of immune function and the intestinal environment. Benef. Microbes 2017, 8, 463–472. [CrossRef]
107. Nakamura, Y.; Terahara, M.; Iwamoto, T.; Yamada, K.; Asano, M.; Kakuta, S.; Iwakura, Y.; Totsuka, M. Upregulation of Polymeric Immunoglobulin Receptor Expression by the Heat-Inactivated Potential Probiotic Bifidobacterium bifidum OLB6378 in a Mouse Intestinal Explant. Model. Scand. J. Immunol. 2012, 75, 176–183. [CrossRef]
108. Griet, M.; Zelaya, H.; Mateos, M.V.; Salva, S.; Juarez, G.E.; de Valdez, G.F.; Villena, J.; Salvador, G.A.; Rodriguez, A.V. Soluble factors from Lactobacillus reuteri CRL1098 have anti-inflammatory effects in acute lung injury induced by lipopolysa, E110027. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e110027. [CrossRef]
109. Yan, F.; Cao, H.; Cover, T.L.; Whitehead, R.; Washington, M.K.; Polk, D.B. Soluble proteins produced by probiotic bacteria regulate intestinal epithelial cell survival and growth. Gastroenterology 2007, 132, 562–575. [CrossRef]
110. Hoarau, C.; Lagaraine, C.; Martin, L.; Velge-Roussel, F.; Lebranchu, Y. Supernatant of Bifidobacterium breve induces dendritic cell maturation, activation, and survival through a Toll-like receptor 2 pathway. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2006, 117, 696–702. [CrossRef]
111. Chauvière, G.; Coconnier, M.H.; Kerneis, S.; Darfeuille-Michaud, A.; Joly, B.; Servin, A.L. Competitive exclusion of diarrheagenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) from human enterocyte-like Caco-2 cells by heat-killed Lactobacillus. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 1992, 70, 213–217. [CrossRef]
112. Moyen, E.N.; Bonneville, F.; Fauchère, J.L. Modification of intestinal colonization and translocation of Campylobacter jejuni by erythromycin and an extract of Lactobacillus acidophilus in axenic mice. Ann. Inst. Pasteur. Microbiol. 1986, 137A, 199–207. [CrossRef]
113. Ishikawa, H.; Kutsukake, E.; Fukui, T.; Sato, I.; Shirai, T.; Kurihara, T.; Okada, N.; Danbara, H.; Toba, M.; Kohda, N.; et al. Oral administration of heat-killed Lactobacillus plantarum strain b240 protected mice against Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2010, 74, 1338–1342. [CrossRef]
114. Shkarupeta, M.M.; Korshunov, V.M.; Savenkova, V.T.; Pinegin, B.V. Influence of the oral administration of indigenous microorganisms on the resistance of mice to Salmonella infection. Zh. Mikrobiol. Epidemiol. Immunobiol. 1988, 7, 46–50.
115. Schwendicke, F.; Horb, K.; Kneist, S.; Dörfer, C.; Paris, S. Effects of heat-inactivated Bifidobacterium BB12 on cariogenicity of Streptococcus mutans in vitro. Arch. Oral Biol. 2014, 59, 1384–1390. [CrossRef]
116. Juturu, V.; Wu, J.C. Microbial production of bacteriocins: Latest research development and applications. Biotechnol. Adv. 2018, 36, 2187–2200. [CrossRef]
117. Corr, S.C.; Li, Y.; Riedel, C.U.; O’Toole, P.W.; Hill, C.; Gahan, C.G. Bacteriocin production as a mechanism for the antiinfective activity of Lactobacillus salivarius UCC118. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 2007, 104, 7617–7621. [CrossRef]
118. Bali, V.; Panesar, P.S.; Bera, M.B. Trends in utilization of agro-industrial byproducts for production of bacteriocins and their biopreservative applications. Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 2016, 36, 204–214. [CrossRef]
119. Liu, G.; Ren, L.; Song, Z.; Wang, C.; Sun, B. Purification and characteristics of bifidocin A, a novel bacteriocin produced by Bifidobacterium animals BB04 from centenarians’ intestine. Food Control. 2015, 50, 889–895. [CrossRef]
120. Vinogradov, E.; Sadovskaya, I.; Grard, T.; Chapot-Chartier, M.P. Structural studies of the rhamnose-rich cell wall polysaccharide of Lactobacillus casei BL23. Carbohydr. Res. 2016, 435, 156–161. [CrossRef]
121. Hirose, Y.; Murosaki, S.; Fujiki, T.; Yamamoto, Y.; Yoshikai, Y.; Yamashita, M. Lipoteichoic acids on Lactobacillus plantarum cell surfaces correlate with induction of interleukin-12p40 production. Microbiol. Immunol. 2010, 54, 143–151. [CrossRef]
122. Kolling, Y.; Salva, S.; Villena, J.; Alvarez, S. Are the immunomodulatory properties of Lactobacillus rhamnosus CRL1505 peptidoglycancommon for all Lactobacilli during respiratory infection in malnourished mice? PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0194034. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
123. Wu, Z.; Pan, D.; Guo, Y.; Sun, Y.; Zeng, X. Peptidoglycan diversity and anti-inflammatory capacity in Lactobacillus strains. Carbohydr. Polym. 2015, 128, 130–137. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
124. Fanning, S.; Hall, L.J.; Cronin, M.; Zomer, A.; MacSharry, J.; Goulding, D.; Motherway, M.O.; Shanahan, F.; Nally, K.; Dougan, G.; et al. Bifidobacterial surface-exopolysaccharide facilitates commensal-host interaction through immune modulation and pathogen protection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2012, 109, 2108–2113. [CrossRef]
125. Whitfield, G.B.; Marmont, L.S.; Howell, P.L. Enzymatic modifications of exopolysaccharides enhance bacterial persistence. Front. Microbiol. 2015, 6, 471. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
126. Berlanga, M.; Guerrero, R. Living together in biofilms: The microbial cell factory and its biotechnological implications. Microb. Cell Fact. 2016, 15, 165. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
127. Patten, D.A.; Leivers, S.; Chadha, M.J.; Maqsood, M.; Humphreys, P.N.; Laws, A.P.; Collett, A. The structure and immunomodulatory activity on intestinal epithelial cells of the EPSs isolated from Lactobacillus helveticus sp. Rosyjski and Lactobacillus acidophilus sp. 5e2. Carbohydr. Res. 2014, 384, 119–127. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
128. Hynönen, U.; Palva, A. Lactobacillus surface layer proteins: Structure, function and applications. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2013, 97, 5225–5243. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
129. Konstantinov, S.R.; Smidt, H.; de Vos, W.M.; Bruijns, S.C.; Singh, S.K.; Valence, F.; Molle, D.; Lortal, S.; Altermann, E.; Klaenhammer, T.R.; et al. S layer protein A of Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM regulates immature dendritic cell and T cell functions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105, 19474–19479. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
130. Ashraf, R.; Vasiljevic, T.; Smith, S.C.; Donkor, O.N. Effect of cell-surface components and metabolites of lactic acid bacteria and probiotic organisms on cytokine production and induction of CD25 expression in human peripheral mononuclearcells. J Dairy Sci. 2014, 97, 2542–2558. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
131. Nagaoka, M.; Muto, M.; Nomoto, K.; Matuzaki, T.; Watanabe, T.; Yokokura, T. Structure of polysaccharide-peptidoglycan complex from the cell wall of Lactobacillus caseiYIT9018. J. Biochem. 1990, 108, 568–571. [CrossRef]
132. Ruas-Madiedo, P.; Medrano, M.; Salazar, N.; De Los Reyes-Gavilán, C.G.; Pérez, P.F.; Abraham, A.G. Exopolysaccharides produced by Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strains abrogate in vitro the cytotoxic effect of bacterial toxins on eukaryotic cells. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2010, 109, 2079–2086. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
133. Bozzi Cionci, N.; Baffoni, L.; Gaggìa, F.; Di Gioia, D. Therapeutic Microbiology: The Role of Bifidobacterium breve as Food Supplement for the Prevention/Treatment of Pediatric. Dis. Nutr. 2018, 10, E1723.
134. Wu, M.H.; Pan, T.M.; Wu, Y.J.; Chang, S.J.; Chang, M.S.; Hu, C.Y. Exopolysaccharide activities from probiotic bifidobacterium: Immunomodulatory effects (on J774A.1 macrophages) and antimicrobial properties. Int. J. Food. Microbiol. 2010, 144, 104–110. [CrossRef]
135. Marcial, G.; Villena, J.; Faller, G.; Hensel, A.; de Valdéz, G.F. Exopolysaccharide-producing Streptococcus thermophilus CRL1190 reduces the inflammatory response caused by Helicobacter pylori. Benef. Microbes 2017, 8, 451–461. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
136. Johnson-Henry, K.C.; Hagen, K.E.; Gordonpour, M.; Tompkins, T.A.; Sherman, P.M. Surface-layer protein extracts from Lactobacillus helveticus inhibit enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 adhesion to epithelial cells. Cell. Microbiol. 2007, 9, 356–367. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
137. Mariam, S.H.; Zegeye, N.; Tariku, T.; Andargie, E.; Endalafer, N.; Aseffa, A. Potential of cell-free supernatants from cultures of selected lactic acid bacteria and yeast obtained from local fermented foods as inhibitors of Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp. and Staphylococcus aureus. BMC Res. Notes 2014, 7, 606. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
138. Lukic, J.; Chen, V.; Strahinic, I.; Begovic, J.; Lev-Tov, H.; Davis, S.C.; Tomic-Canic, M.; Pastar, I. Probiotics or pro-healers: The role of beneficial bacteria in tissue repair. Wound. Repair. Regen. 2018, 25, 912–922. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
139. Kolling, G.L.; Wu, M.; Warren, C.A.; Durmaz, E.; Klaenhammer, T.R.; Timko, M.P.; Guerrant, R.L. Lactic acid production by Streptococcus thermophilus alters Clostridium difficile infection and in vitro Toxin A production. Gut Microbes 2012, 3, 523–529. [CrossRef]
140. Schaefer, L.; Auchtung, T.A.; Hermans, K.E.; Whitehead, D.; Borhan, B.; Britton, R.A. The antimicrobial compound reuterin (3-hydroxypropionaldehyde) induces oxidative stress via interaction with thiol groups. Microbiology 2010, 156, 1589–1599. [CrossRef]
141. De Servi, B.; Meloni, M. Antidiarrhoeal agents and paracellular permeability of E. coli-infected Caco-Goblet intestinal model. In Proceedings of the XXV Belgian Week of Gastroenterology, Ostend, Belgium, 9 February 2013. Abstract B22.
142. Servi, D.B.; Ranzini, F. Protective efficacy of antidiarrheal agents in a permeability model of Escherichia coli-infected CacoGoblet® cells. Futur. Microbiol. 2017, 12, 1449–1455. [CrossRef]
143. De Servi, B.; Ranzini, F.; Piqué, N. Protective barrier properties of Rhinosectan® spray (containing xyloglucan) on an organotypic 3D airway tissue model (MucilAir): Results of an in vitro study. Allergy Asthma. Clin. Immunol. 2017, 13, 37. [CrossRef]
144. Piqué, N.; De Servi, B. Rhinosectan® spray (containing xyloglucan) on the ciliary function of the nasal respiratory epithelium; results of an in vitro study. Allergy Asthma Clin. Immunol. 2018, 14, 41. [CrossRef]
145. Allegrini, A.; Pavone, D.; Carluccio, F.A. A randomized controlled trial comparing a xyloglucan-based nasal spray with saline in adults with symptoms of rhinosinusitis. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 2018, 34, 377–385. [CrossRef]
146. Konrad, P.; Chojnacki, J.; Gasiorowska, A.; Rudnicki, C.; Kaczka, A.; Chojnacki, C. Therapeutic efficacy of amoxicillin and rifaximin in patients with small intestinal bacterial overgrowth and Helicobacter pylori infection. Prz. Gastroenterol. 2018, 13, 213–217. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
147. Enko, D.; Kriegshäuser, G. Functional 13C-urea and glucose hydrogen/methane breath tests reveal significant association of small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in individuals with active Helicobacter pylori infection. Clin. Biochem. 2017, 50, 46–49. [CrossRef]
148. Grace, E.; Shaw, C.; Whelan, K.; Andreyev, H. Review article: Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth— Prevalence, clinical features, current and developing diagnostic tests, and treatment. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 2013, 38, 674–688. [CrossRef]
149. Mello, C.S.; Rodrigues, M.S.D.C.; Filho, H.B.A.; Melli, L.C.F.L.; Tahan, S.; Pignatari, A.C.C.; de Morais, M.B. Fecal microbiota analysis of children with small intestinal bacterial overgrowth among residents of an urban slum in Brazil. J. Pediatr. 2018, 94, 483–490. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
150. Azpiroz, F.; Serra, J. Treatment of Excessive Intestinal Gas. Curr. Treat. Options. Gastroenterol. 2004, 7, 299–305. [CrossRef]
151. de Servi, B.; Ranzini, F.; Piqué, N. Effect of Utipro® (containing gelatin-xyloglucan) against Escherichia coli invasion of intestinal epithelial cells: Results of an in vitro study. Future Microbiol. 2016, 11, 651–658. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
152. Esposito, E.; Campolo, M.; Casili, G.; Lanza, M.; Franco, D.; Filippone, A.; Peritore, A.F.; Cuzzocrea, S. Protective Effects of Xyloglucan in Association with the Polysaccharide Gelose in an Experimental Model of Gastroenteritis and Urinary Tract Infections. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19, 1844. [CrossRef]
153. Graspeuntner, S.; Waschina, S.; Künzel, S.; Twisselmann, N.; Rausch, T.K.; Cloppenborg-Schmidt, K.; Zimmermann, J.; Viemann, D.; Herting, E.; Göpel, W.; et al. Gut dysbiosis with Bacilli dominance and accumulation of fermentation products precedes late-onset sepsis in preterm infants. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2018. [CrossRef]
154. Al Nabhani, Z.; Dulauroy, S.; Marques, R.; Cousu, C.; Al Bounny, S.; Déjardin, F.; Sparwasser, T.; Bérard, M.; Cerf-Bensussan, N.; Eberl, G. A Weaning Reaction to Microbiota Is Required for Resistance to Immunopathologies in the Adult. Immunity 2019, S1074-7613(19)30081-0. [CrossRef]
155. Athalye-Jape, G.; Rao, S.; Patole, S. Lactobacillus reuteri DSM 17938 as a Probiotic for Preterm Neonates: A Strain-Specific Systematic Review. JPEN. J. Parenter. Enteral. Nutr. 2016, 40, 783–794. [CrossRef]
156. Martinelli, M.; Ummarino, D.; Giugliano, F.P.; Sciorio, E.; Tortora, C.; Bruzzese, D.; De Giovanni, D.; Rutigliano, I.; Valenti, S.; Romano, C.; et al. Efficacy of a standardized extract of Matricariae chamomilla L., Melissa officinalis L. and tyndallized Lactobacillus acidophilus (HA122) in infantile colic: An open randomized controlled trial. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 2017, 29. [CrossRef]
157. Halpern, M.D.; Denning, P.W. The role of intestinal epithelial barrier function in the development of NEC. Tissue Barriers 2015, 3, E1000707. [CrossRef]
158. Xiao, S.D.; Zhang, D.Z.; Lu, H.; Jiang, S.H.; Liu, H.Y.; Wang, G.S.; Xu, G.M.; Zhang, Z.B.; Lin, G.J.; Wang, G.L. Multicenter, randomized, controlled trial of heat-killed Lactobacillus acidophilus LB in patients with chronic diarrhea. Adv. Ther. 2003, 20, 253–260. [CrossRef]
159. Simakachorn, N.; Pichaipat, V.; Rithipornpaisarn, P.; Kongkaew, C.; Tongpradit, P.; Varavithya, W. Clinical evaluation of the addition of lyophilized, heat-killed Lactobacillus acidophilus LB to oral rehydration therapy in the treatment of acute diarrhea in children. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 2000, 30, 68–72. [CrossRef]
160. Eutamene, H.; Beaufrand, C.; Harkat, C.; Theodorou, V. The role of mucoprotectants in the management of gastrointestinal disorders. Expert. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2018, 12, 83–90. [CrossRef]
161. Ruszczyński, M.; Urbańska, M.; Szajewska, H. Gelatin tannate for treating acute gastroenteritis: A systematic review. Ann. Gastroenterol. 2014, 27, 121–124.
162. Gnessi, L.; Bacarea, V.; Marusteri, M.; Piqué, N. Xyloglucan for the treatment of acute diarrhea: Results of a randomized, controlled, open-label, parallel group, multicentre, national clinical trial. BMC Gastroenterol. 2015, 15, 153. [CrossRef]
163. Plesea Condratovici, C.; Bacarea, V.; Piqué, N. Xyloglucan for the treatment of acute gastroenteritis in children: Results of a randomized controlled, clinical trial. Gastroenterol. Res. Pract. 2016, 2016, 6874207. [CrossRef]
164. Kara, S.S.; Volkan, B.; Erten, İ. The therapeutic effect of gelatin tannate in acute diarrhea in children. Turk. J. Pediatr. 2017, 59, 531–536. [CrossRef]
165. Tokudome, Y. Influence of Oral Administration of Lactic Acid Bacteria Metabolites on Skin Barrier Function and Water Content in a Murine Model of Atopic Dermatitis. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1858. [CrossRef]
166. Warda, A.; Rea, K.; Fitzgerald, P.; Hueston, C.; Gonzalez-Tortuero, E.; Dinan, T.; Hill, C. Heat-killed lactobacilli alter both microbiota composition and behaviour. Behav. Brain Res. 2019, 362, 213–223. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
167. Björkstén, B.; Sepp, E.; Julge, K.; Voor, T.; Mikelsaar, M. Allergy development and the intestinal microflora during the first year of life. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2001, 108, 516–520. [CrossRef]
168. Rather, I.A.; Bajpai, V.K.; Kumar, S.; Lim, J.; Paek, W.K.; Park, Y.H. Probiotics and Atopic Dermatitis: An Overview. Front. Microbiol. 2016, 7, 507. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
169. Huang, R.; Ning, H.; Shen, M.; Li, J.; Zhang, J.; Chen, X. Probiotics for the Treatment of Atopic Dermatitis in Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 2017, 7, 392. [CrossRef]
170. Sawada, J.; Morita, H.; Tanaka, A.; Salminen, S.; He, F.; Matsuda, H. Ingestion of heat-treated Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG prevents development of atopic dermatitis in NC/Nga mice. Clin. Exp. Allergy 2007, 37, 296–303. [CrossRef]
171. Segawa, S.; Hayashi, A.; Nakakita, Y.; Kaneda, H.; Watari, J.; Yasui, H. Oral administration of heat-killed Lactobacillus brevis SBC8803 ameliorates the development of dermatitis and inhibits immunoglobulin E production in atopic dermatitis model NC/Nga mice. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2008, 31, 884–889. [CrossRef]
172. Morisset, M.; Aubert-Jacquin, C.; Soulaines, P.; Moneret-Vautrin, D.A.; Dupont, C. A non-hydrolyzed, fermented milk formula reduces digestive and respiratory events in infants at high risk of allergy. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 65, 175–183. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
173. Lau, S. Bacterial lysates in food allergy prevention. Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2013, 13, 293–295. [CrossRef]
174. Nie, W.; Deters, A.M. Tamarind Seed Xyloglucans Promote Proliferation and Migration of Human Skin Cells through Internalization via Stimulation of Proproliferative Signal Transduction Pathways. Dermatol. Res. Pract. 2013, 359756. [CrossRef]
175. Keith, J.W.; Pamer, E.G. Enlisting commensal microbes to resist antibiotic-resistant pathogens. J. Exp. Med. 2018. [CrossRef]
176. Costelloe, C.; Metcalfe, C.; Lovering, A.; Mant, D.; Hay, A.D. Effect of antibiotic prescribing in primary care on antimicrobial resistance in individual patients: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2010, 349, c2096. [CrossRef]
177. WHO. Global Priority List of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria to Guide Research, Discovery, and Development of New Antibiotics. Available online: http://www.who.int/medicines/publications/global-priority-list-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria/en/(accessed on 20 July 2012).
178. Zhang, Y.; Zhang, B.; Dong, L.; Chang, P. Potential of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Managing Chemotherapy-or Radiotherapy-Related Intestinal Microbial Dysbiosis. Adv. Nutr. 2019, 10, 133–147. [CrossRef]
179. David Boothe, W.; Tarbox, J.A.; Tarbox, M.B. Atopic Dermatitis: Pathophysiology. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 2017, 1027, 21–37. [PubMed]
180. Schliemann, S.; Kleesz, P.; Elsner, P. Protective creams fail to prevent solvent-induced cumulative skin irritation—Results of a randomized double-blind study. Contact Dermat. 2013, 69, 363–371. [CrossRef]
181. Fraile, B.; Alcover, J.; Royuela, M.; Rodríguez, D.; Chaves, C.; Palacios, R.; Piqué, N. Xyloglucan, hibiscus and propolis for the prevention of urinary tract infections: Results of in vitro studies. Futur. Microbiol. 2017, 12, 721–731. [CrossRef]
182. Atassi, F.; Servin, A.L. Individual and co-operative roles of lactic acid and hydrogen peroxide in the killing activity of enteric strain Lactobacillus johnsonii NCC933 and vaginal strain Lactobacillus gasseri KS120.1 against enteric, uropathogenic and vaginosis-associated pathog. Microbiol. Lett. 2010, 304, 29–38. [CrossRef]
183. Sihra, N.; Goodman, A.; Zakri, R.; Sahai, A.; Malde, S. Nonantibiotic prevention and management of recurrent urinary tract infection. Nat. Rev. Urol. 2018, 15, 750–776. [CrossRef]
184. Kafshdooz, T.; Akbarzadeh, A.; Majdi Seghinsara, A.; Pourhassan, M.; Nasrabadi, H.T.; Milani, M. Role of Probiotics in Managing of Helicobacter pylori Infection: A Review. Drug Res. 2017, 67, 88–93. [CrossRef] [PubMed]