Glucocorticoid Action: Physiology

Endocrinology: Adult and Pediatric

Volumn 2-2, Issue , 2015, Pages 1727-1740.e5

  Chrousos, George P ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS MEDICAL SCHOOL   (Greece)

^b EUNICE KENNEDY SHRIVER NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF CHILD HEALTH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85049330790     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-323-18907-1.00099-8     Document Type: Chapter

References (201)

1. Chrousos G.P. Stress and disorders of the stress system. Nature Rev Endocrinol 2009, 5(7):374-378.
2. Addison T. On the constitutional and local effects of disease of the suprarenal capsules 1855, Highley, London.
3. Selye H. Textbook of Endocrinology 1947, Acta Endocrinologica, Montreal.
4. Wells B.B., Kendall E.C. A qualitative difference in the effect of compounds separated from the adrenal cortex on distribution of electrolytes and on atrophy of the adrenal and thymus glands of rats. Proc Mayo Clinic 1940, 15:133-139.
5. Long C.N.H., Lukens F.D.W. The effects of adrenalectomy and hypophysectomy upon experimental diabetes in the cat. J Exp Med 1936, 63:465-490.
6. Houssay B.A., Biasotti A. The hypophysis, carbohydrate metabolism and diabetes. Endocrinology 1931, 15:511-523.
7. Long C.N.H., Katzin B., Fry E.G. The adrenal cortex and carbohydrate metabolism. Endocrinology 1940, 26:309-344.
8. Ingle D.J. The production of glycosuria in the normal rat by means of 17-hydroxy-11-dehydrocorticosterone. Endocrinology 1941, 29:649-652.
9. Ingle D.J., Sheppard R., Evans J.S., et al. A comparison of adrenal steroid diabetes and pancreatic diabetes in the rat. Endocrinology 1945, 37:341-356.
10. Greenwood M., Woods H.M. "Status thymico-lymphaticus" considered in the light of recent work on the thymus. J Hyg (Lond) 1927, 26:305-326.
11. Selye H. Thymus and adrenals in the response of the organism to injuries and intoxications. Br J Exp Path 1936, 17:234-248.
12. Wyllie A.H. Glucocorticoid-induced thymocyte apoptosis is associated with endogenous endonuclease activation. Nature 1980, 284:555-556.
13. Sayers G. The adrenal cortex and homeostasis. Physiol Rev 1950, 30:241-320.
14. Selye H. The general adaptation syndrome and the diseases of adaptation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1946, 6:117-230.
15. Ingle D.J. The role of the adrenal cortex in homeostasis. J Endocrinol 1952, 8:xxiii-xxxvii.
16. Ingle D.J. Permissibility of hormone action, A review. Acta Endocrinol 1954, 17:172-186.
17. Ingle D.J., Kendall E.C. Atrophy of the adrenal cortex of the rat produced by the administration of large amounts of cortin. Science 1937, 86:245.
18. Ingle D.J. The time for the occurrence of cortico-adrenal hypertrophy in rats during continued work. Am J Physiol 1938, 124:627-630.
19. Harris G.W. The induction of ovulation in the rabbit, by electrical stimulation of the hypothalamo-hypophy-sial mechanism. Proc Roy Soc Lond B 1937, 122:374-394.
20. Harris G.W. Neural control of the pituitary gland. Physiol Rev 1948, 28:139-179.
21. Hench P.S., Kendall E.C., Slocumb C.H., et al. The effect of a hormone of the adrenal cortex (17-hydroxy-11-dehydrocorticosterone: compound E) and of pituitary adrenocorticotropic hormone on rheumatoid arthritis. Proc Mayo Clinic 1949, 24:181-197.
22. Kendall E.C. Cortisone 1971, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.
23. Hoffman F.G. Role of the adrenal cortex in homeostasis and growth. The human adrenal cortex 1971, 303-316. Harper & Row, New York. N.P. Christy (Ed.).
24. Chrousos G.P. The Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and immune-mediated inflammation. N Engl J Med 1995, 332:1351-1362.
25. Munck A., Guyre P.M., Holbrook N.J. Physiological functions of glucocorticoids in stress and their relation to pharmacological actions. Endocr Rev 1984, 5:25-44.
26. Sapolsky R.M., Romero L.M., Munck A. How do glucocorticoids influence stress-responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions. Endocr Rev 2000, 21:55-89.
27. Chrousos G.P., Kino T. Intracellular glucocorticoid signaling: A formerly simple system turns stochastic. Science STKE 2005, 304:pe48.
28. Charmandari E., Kino T. Chrousos syndrome: a seminal report, a phylogenetic enigma and the clinical implications of glucocorticoid signalling changes. Eur J Clin Invest 2010, 40(10):932-942. 2010.
29. Wintermantel T.M., Berger S., Greiner E.F., et al. Evaluation of steroid receptor function by gene targeting in mice. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2005, 93:107-112.
30. Bridgham J.T., Carroll S.M., Thornton J.W. Evolution of hormone-receptor complexity by molecular exploitation. Science 2006, 312:97-101.
31. Charmandari E., Chrousos G.P., Kino T. Identification of natural human glucocorticoid receptor (hGR) mutations or polymorphisms and their functional consequences at the hormone-receptor interaction level. Methods Mol Biol 2009, 590:33-60.
32. Duma D., Jewell C.M., Cidlowski J.A. Multiple glucocorticoid receptor isoforms and mechanisms of post-translational modification. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2006, 102:11-21.
33. Beck I.M., Vanden Berghe W., Vermeulen L., et al. Altered subcellular distribution of MSK1 induced by glucocorticoids contributes to NF-κB inhibition. EMBO J 2008, 27:1682-1693.
34. Reichardt H.M., Tuckermann J.P., Gottlicher M., et al. Repression of inflammatory responses in the absence of DNA binding by the glucocorticoid receptor. EMBO J 2001, 20:7168-7173.
35. Reichardt H.M., Kaestner K.H., Tuckermann J., et al. DNA binding of the glucocorticoid receptor is not essential for survival. Cell 1998, 93:531-541.
36. Adams M., Meijer O.C., Wang J., et al. Homodimerization of the glucocorticoid receptor is not essential for response element binding: Activation of the phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase gene by dimerization-defective mutants. Mol Endocrinol 2003, 17:2583-2592.
37. Schacke H., Schottelius A., Docke W.D., et al. Dissociation of transactivation from transrepression by a selective glucocorticoid receptor agonist leads to separation of therapeutic effects from side effects. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004, 101:227-232.
38. Kleiman A., Tuckermann J. Glucocorticoid receptor action in beneficial and side effects of steroid therapy: Lessons from conditional knockout mice. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2007, 275:98-108.
39. Funder J.W., Pearce P.T., Smith R., et al. Mineralocorticoid action: Target tissue specificity is enzyme, not receptor, mediated. Science 1988, 242:583-585.
40. Náray-Fejes-Tóth A., Watlington C.O., Fejes-Tóth G. 11 β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity in the renal target cells of aldosterone. Endocrinology 1991, 129:17-21.
41. Rusvai E., Náray-Fejes-Tóth A. A new isoform of 11 β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in aldosterone target cells. J Biol Chem 1993, 268:10717-10720.
42. De Kloet E.R., Vreugdenhil E., Oitzl M.S., et al. Brain corticosteroid receptor balance in health and disease. Endocr Rev 1998, 19:269-301.
43. Seckl J., Holmes M. Mechanisms of disease: Glucocorticoids, their placental metabolism and fetal "programming" of adult pathophysiology. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 2007, 3:479-488.
44. Drake A., Tang J., Nyirenda M. Mechanisms underlying the role of glucocorticoids in the early life programming of adult disease. Clin Sci (Lond) 2007, 113:219-232.
45. Vegiopoulos A., Herzig S. Glucocorticoids, metabolism and metabolic diseases. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2007, 275:43-61.
46. Stewart P.M. Tissue-specific Cushing's syndrome, 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases and the redefinition of corticosteroid hormone action. Eur J Endocrinol 2003, 149:163-168.
47. Masuzaki H., Yamamoto H., Kenyon C.J., et al. Transgenic amplification of glucocorticoid action in adipose tissue causes high blood pressure in mice. J Clin Invest 2003, 112:83-90.
48. Balachandran A., Guan H., Sellan M., et al. Insulin and dexamethasone dynamically regulate adipocyte 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1. Endocrinology 2008, 149:4069-4079.
49. Rabbitt E.H., Gittoes N.J., Stewart P.M., et al. 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases, cell proliferation and malignancy. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2003, 85:415-421.
50. Strickland I., Kisich K., Hauk P.J., et al. High constitutive glucocorticoid receptor β in human neutrophils enables them to reduce their spontaneous rate of cell death in response to corticosteroids. J Exp Med 2001, 193:585-594.
51. Irusen E., Matthews J.G., Takahashi A., et al. p38 Mitogen-activated protein kinase-induced glucocorticoid receptor phosphorylation reduces its activity: Role in steroid-insensitive asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002, 109:649-657.
52. Charmandari E., Kino T., Ichijo T., et al. Generalized glucocorticoid resistance: Clinical aspects, molecular mechanisms, and implications of a rare genetic disorder. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008, 93:1563-1572.
53. Chikanza I.C. Mechanisms of corticosteroid resistance in rheumatoid arthritis: A putative role for the corticosteroid receptor beta isoform. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2002, 966:39-48.
54. Meijer O.C., Karssen A.M., de Kloet E.R. Cell- and tissue-specific effects of corticosteroids in relation to glucocorticoid resistance: Examples from the brain. J Endocrinol 2003, 178:13-18.
55. Adcock I., Ford P., Bhavsar P., et al. Steroid resistance in asthma: Mechanisms and treatment options. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2008, 8:171-178.
56. Makara G.B., Haller J. Non-genomic effects of glucocorticoids in the neural system, evidence, mechanisms and implications. Prog Neurobiol 2001, 65:367-390.
57. Tasker J., Di S., Malcher-Lopes R. Minireview: Rapid glucocorticoid signaling via membrane-associated receptors. Endocrinology 2006, 147:5549-5556.
58. de Kloet R.E. Hormones, brain and stress. Endocr Regul 2003, 37:51-68.
59. Sorrells S.F., Sapolsky R.M. An inflammatory review of glucocorticoid actions in the CNS. Brain Behav Immun 2006, 21:259-272.
60. Nader N., Chrousos G.P., Kino T. Interactions of the circadian CLOCK system and the HPA axis. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2010, 21(5):277-286.
61. Charmandari E., Chrousos G.P., Lambrou G.I., et al. Peripheral CLOCK regulates target-tissue glucocorticoid receptor transcriptional activity in a circadian fashion in man. PLoS One 2011, 6(9):e25612.
62. Kellendonk C., Gass P., Kretz O., et al. Corticosteroid receptors in the brain: Gene targeting studies. Brain Res Bull 2002, 57:73-83.
63. Erdmann G., Berger S., Schutz G. Genetic dissection of glucocorticoid receptor function in the mouse brain. J Neuroendocrinol 2008, 20:655-659.
64. Tronche F., Kellendonk C., Kretz O., et al. Disruption of the glucocorticoid receptor gene in the nervous system results in reduced anxiety. Nat Genet 1999, 23:99-103.
65. Eskandari F., Sternberg E.M. Neural-immune interactions in health and disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2002, 966:20-27.
66. Goshen I., Yirmiya R., Iverfeldt K., et al. The role of endogenous interleukin-1 in stress-induced adrenal activation and adrenalectomy-induced adrenocorticotropic hormone hypersecretion. Endocrinology 2003, 144:4453-4458.
67. Gaillard R.C., Spinedi E., Chautard T., et al. Cytokines, leptin, and the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2000, 917:647-657.
68. Dallman M.F., Akana S.F., Laugero K.D., et al. A spoonful of sugar: Feedback signals of energy stores and corticosterone regulate responses to chronic stress. Physiol Behav 2003, 79:3-12.
69. Ashwell J.D., Lu F.W., Vacchio M.S. Glucocorticoids in T cell development and function. Annu Rev Immunol 2000, 18:309-345.
70. Cima I., Corazza N., Dick B., et al. Intestinal epithelial cells synthesize glucocorticoids and regulate T cell activation. J Exp Med 2004, 200:1635-1646.
71. Turnbull A.V., Smith G.W., Lee S., et al. CRF type I receptor-deficient mice exhibit a pronounced pituitary-adrenal response to local inflammation. Endocrinology 1999, 140:1013-1017.
72. Akana S.F., Dallman M.F., Bradbury M.J., et al. Feedback and facilitation in the adrenocortical system: Unmasking facilitation by partial inhibition of the glucocorticoid response to prior stress. Endocrinology 1992, 131:57-68.
73. Bradbury M.J., Akana S.F., Dallman M.F. Role of Type I and Type II corticosteroid receptors in regulation of basal activity in the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis during the diurnal trough and the peak: Evidence for a nonadditive effect of combined receptor occupancy. Endocrinology 1994, 134:1286-1296.
74. Yao M., Denver R. Regulation of vertebrate corticotropin-releasing factor genes. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2007, 153:200-216.
75. Di S., Malcher-Lopes R., Halmos K.C., et al. Nongenomic glucocorticoid inhibition via endocannabinoid release in the hypothalamus: A fast feedback mechanism. J Neurosci 2003, 23:4850-4857.
76. Schmidt E.D., Aguilera G., Binnekade R., et al. Single administration of interleukin-1 increased corticotropin releasing hormone and corticotropin releasing hormone-receptor mRNA in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus which paralleled long-lasting (weeks) sensitization to emotional stressors. Neuroscience 2003, 116:275-283.
77. Tanimura S.M., Watts A.G. Corticosterone can facilitate as well as inhibit corticotropin-releasing hormone gene expression in the rat hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. Endocrinology 1998, 139:3830-3836.
78. Wang J., Kuliszewski M., Yee W., et al. Cloning and espression of glucocorticoid-induced genes in fetal rat lung fibroblasts. J Biol Chem 1995, 270:2722-2728.
79. Jeong K.-H., Jacobson L., Pacák K., et al. Impaired basal and restraint-induced epinephrine secretion in corticotropin-releasing hormone-deficient mice. Endocrinology 2000, 141:1142-1150.
80. Seres J., Bornstein S.R., Seres P., et al. Corticotropin-releasing hormone system in human adipose tissue. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004, 89:965-970.
81. Besedovsky H., Sorkin E. Network of immune-neuro-endocrine interactions. Clin Exp Immunol 1977, 27:1-12.
82. Besedovsky H.O., del Rey A. Immuno-neuro-endocrine interactions: facts and hypotheses. Endocr Rev 1996, 17:64-102.
83. Horai R., Asano M., Sudo K., et al. Production of mice deficient in genes for interleukin Horai, and IL-1 receptor antagonist shows that IL-1β is crucial in turpentine-induced fever development and glucocorticoid secretion. J Exp Med 1998, 187:1463-1475.
84. Service FJ Hypoglycemic disorders. N Engl J Med 1995, 332:1144-1152.
85. Dallman M.F., Strack A.M., Akana S.F., et al. Feast and famine: Critical role of glucocorticoids with insulin in daily energy flow. Front Neuroendocrinol 1993, 14:303-347.
86. Gounarides J., Korach-Andre M., Killary K., et al. Effect of dexamethasone on glucose tolerance and fat metabolism in a diet-induced obesity mouse model. Endocrinology 2008, 149:758-766.
87. Bernal-Mizrachi C., Weng S., Feng C., et al. Dexamethasone induction of hypertension and diabetes is PPAR-alpha dependent in LDL receptor-null mice. Nat Med 2003, 9:1069-1075.
88. Pilkis S.J., Granner D.K. Molecular physiology of the regulation of hepatic gluconeogenesis and glycolysis. Annu Rev Physiol 1992, 54:885-909.
89. Kotelevtsev Y., Holmes M.C., Burchell A., et al. 11 β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 knockout mice show attenuated glucocorticoid-inducible responses and resist hyperglycemia on obesity or stress. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997, 94:14924-14929.
90. Waltner-Law M., Duong D.T., Daniels M.C., et al. Elements of the glucocorticoid and retinoic acid response units are involved in cAMP-mediated expression of the PEPCK gene. J Biol Chem 2003, 278:10427-10435.
91. Stafford J.M., Waltner-Law M., Granner D.K. Role of accessory factors and steroid receptor coactivator 1 in the regulation of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase gene transcription by glucocorticoids. J Biol Chem 2001, 276:3811-3819.
92. Munck A. Glucocorticoid inhibition of glucose uptake by peripheral tissues: Old and new evidence, molecular mechanisms, and physiological significance. Perspect Biol Med 1971, 14:265-289.
93. Carter-Su C., Okamoto K. Effect of glucocorticoids on hexose transport in rat adipocytes: Evidence for decreased transporters in the plasma membrane. J Biol Chem 1985, 260:11091-11098.
94. Horner H.C., Munck A., Lienhard G.E. Dexamethasone causes translocation of glucose transporters from the plasma membrane to an intracellular site in human fibroblasts. J Biol Chem 1987, 262:17696-17702.
95. Fain J.N. Inhibition of glucose transport in fat cells and activation of lipolysis by glucocorticoids. Glucocorticoid hormone action 1979, 547-560. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. J.D. Baxter, G.G. Rousseau (Eds.).
96. Richard D., Chapdelaine S., Deshaies Y., et al. Energy balance and lipid metabolism in transgenic mice bearing an antisense CGR construct. Am J Physiol 1993, 265:R146-R150.
97. Menconi M., Fareed M., O'Neal P., et al. Role of glucocorticoids in the molecular regulation of muscle wasting. Crit Care Med 2007, 35(9Suppl):S602-S608.
98. Canalis E., Delany A.M. Mechanisms of glucocorticoid action in bone. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2002, 966:73-81.
99. McCarthy T.L., Ji C., Chen Y., et al. Time- and dose-related interactions between glucocorticoid and cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate on CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein-dependent insulin-like growth factor I expression by osteoblasts. Endocrinology 2000, 141:127-137.
100. Karalis C., Sano H., Redwine J., et al. Autocrine or paracrine inflammatory actions of corticotropin releasing hormone in vivo. Science 1991, 254:421-423.
101. Takuma A., Kaneda T., Sato T., et al. Dexamethasone enhances osteoclast formation synergistically with transforming growth factor-beta by stimulating the priming of osteoclast progenitors for differentiation into osteoclasts. J Biol Chem 2003, 278:44667-44674.
102. Webster E.L., Barrientos R.M., Contoreggi C., et al. Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) antagonist attenuates adjuvant induced arthritis: Role of CRH in peripheral inflammation. J Rheumatol 2002, 29:1252-1261.
103. Reading P.C., Moore J.B., Smith G.L. Steroid hormone synthesis by vaccinia virus suppresses the inflammatory response to infection. J Exp Med 2003, 197:1269-1278.
104. Chikanza I.C., Petrou P., Chrousos G.P., et al. Detective hypothalamic response to immune/inflammatory stimuli in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism 1992, 35:1281-1288.
105. Harbuz M.S., Chover-Gonzalez A.J., Jessop D.S. Hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis and chronic immune activation. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2003, 992:99-106.
106. Umland S.P., Schleimer R.P., Johnston S.L. Review of the molecular and cellular mechanisms of action of glucocorticoids for use in asthma. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 2002, 15:35-50.
107. Stojadinovic O., Lee B., Vouthounis C., et al. Novel genomic effects of glucocorticoids in epidermal kerati-nocytes: Inhibition of apoptosis, interferon-gamma pathway, and wound healing along with promotion of terminal differentiation. J Biol Chem 2007, 282:4021-4034.
108. Annane D., Cavaillon J.M. Corticosteroids in sepsis: From bench to bedside?. Shock 2003, 20:197-207.
109. Elenkov I.J., Papanicolaou D.A., Wilder R.L., et al. Modulatory effects of glucocorticoids and catecholamines on human interleukin-12 and interleukin-10 production: Clinical implications. Proc Assn Am Phys. 1996, 108:374-381.
110. Barber A.E., Coyle S.M., Marano M.A., et al. Glucocorticoid therapy alters hormonal and cytokine responses to endotoxin in man. J Immunol 1993, 150:1999-2006.
111. Wiegers G.J., Reul J.M.H.M. Induction of cytokine receptors by glucocorticoids: Functional and pathological significance. Trends Pharmacol Sci 1998, 19:317-321.
112. Yeager M.P., Guyre P.M., Munck A.U. Glucocorticoid regulation of the inflammatory response to injury. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2004, 48:799-813.
113. Dhabhar F.S. Stress, leukocyte trafficking, and the augmentation of skin immune function. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2003, 992:205-217.
114. Tuckermann J.P., Kleiman A., Moriggl R., et al. Macrophages and neutrophils are the targets for immune suppression by glucocorticoids in contact allergy. J Clin Invest 2007, 117:1381-1390.
115. Janeway J.r., Medzhitov R. Innate immune recognition. Annu Rev Immunol 2002, 20:197-216.
116. Nadeau S., Rivest S. Glucocorticoids play a fundamental role in protecting the brain during innate immune response. J Neurosci 2003, 23:5536-5544.
117. Zhang N., Truong-Tran Q., Tancowny B., et al. Glucocorticoids enhance or spare innate immunity: Effects in airway epithelium are mediated by CCAAT/enhancer binding proteins. J Immunol 2007, 179:578-589.
118. Stellato C. Glucocorticoid actions on airway epithelial responses in immunity: Functional outcomes and molecular targets. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007, 120:1247-1263.
119. Zhang T., Daynes R. Glucocorticoid conditioning of myeloid progenitors enhances TLR4 signaling via negative regulation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-akt pathway. J Immunol 2007, 178:2517-2526.
120. Mogensen T., Berg R., Paludan S., et al. Mechanisms of dexamethasone-mediated inhibition of toll-like receptor signaling induced by Neisseria meningitidis and Streptococcus pneumoniae. Infect Immun 2008, 76:189-197.
121. Reichardt H.M., Umland T., Bauer A., et al. Mice with an increased glucocorticoid receptor gene dosage show enhanced resistance to stress and endotoxic shock. Mol Cell Biol 2000, 20:9009-9017.
122. Standiford T.J., Strieter R.M., Lukacs N.W., et al. Neutralization of IL-10 increases lethality in endotoxemia: Cooperative effects of macrophage inflammatory protein-2 and tumor necrosis factor. J Immunol 1995, 155:2222-2229.
123. Fillinger M.P., Rassias A.J., Guyre P.M., et al. Glucocorticoid effects on the inflammatory and clinical responses to cardiac surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2002, 16:163-169.
124. van der Poll T., Barber A.E., Coyle S.M., et al. Hypercorti-solemia increases plasma interleukin-10 concentrations during human endotoxemia-A clinical research center study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996, 81:3604-3606.
125. Shanks N., Windle R.J., Perks P.A., et al. Early-life exposure to endotoxin alters hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function and predisposition to inflammation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000, 97:5645-5650.
126. Brewer J.A., Kanagawa O., Sleckman B.P., et al. Thymocyte apoptosis induced by T cell activation is mediated by glucocorticoids in vivo. J Immunol 2002, 169:1837-1843.
127. Brewer J.A., Sleckman B.P., Swat W., et al. Green fluorescent protein-glucocorticoid receptor knockin mice reveal dynamic receptor modulation during thymocyte development. J Immunol 2002, 169:1309-1318.
128. Pazirandeh A., Xue Y., Prestegaard T., et al. Effects of altered glucocorticoid sensitivity in the T cell lineage on thymocyte and T cell homeostasis. FASEB J 2002, 16:727-729.
129. Herr I., Gassler N., Friess H., et al. Regulation of differential pro- and anti-apoptotic signaling by glucocorticoids. Apoptosis 2007, 12:271-291.
130. Espina B., Liang M., Russell R., et al. Regulation of bim in glucocorticoid-mediated osteoblast apoptosis. J Cell Physiol 2008, 215:488-496.
131. Nichols N., Agolley D., Zieba M., et al. Glucocorticoid regulation of glial responses during hippocampal neurodegeneration and regeneration. Brain Res Rev 2005, 48:287-301.
132. Viegas L.R., Hoijman E., Beato M., et al. Mechanisms involved in tissue-specific apopotosis regulated by glucocorticoids. Journal Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2008, 109:273-278.
133. Jeanneteau F., Garabedian M., Chao M. Activation of Trk neurotrophin receptors by glucocorticoids provides a neuroprotective effect. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008, 105:4862-4867.
134. Abbas A.K. Die and let live: Eliminating dangerous lymphocytes. Cell 1996, 84:655-657.
135. Refojo D., Liberman A.C., Giacomini D., et al. Integrating systemic information at the molecular level: Cross-talk between steroid receptors and cytokine signaling on different target cells. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2003, 992:196-204.
136. VanMolle W., Libert C. How glucocorticoids control their own strength and the balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators. Eur J Immunol 2005, 35:3396-3399.
137. Wallen N., Kita H., Weiler D., et al. Glucocorticoids inhibit cytokine-mediated eosinophil survival. J Immunol 1991, 147:3490-3495.
138. Goulding N.J. Corticosteroids-A case of mistaken identity. Br J Rheumatol 1998, 37:477-483.
139. Taylor A.D., Christian H.C., Morris J.F., et al. An antisense oligodeoxynucleotide to lipocortin 1 reverses the inhibitory actions of dexamethasone on the release of adrenocorticotropin from rat pituitary tissue in vitro. Endocrinology 1997, 138:2909-2918.
140. Baugh J.A., Donnelly S.C. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor: A neuroendocrine modulator of chronic inflammation. J Endocrinol 2003, 179:15-23.
141. Roger T., Chanson A., Knaup-Reymond M., et al. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor promotes innate immune responses by suppressing glucocorticoid-induced expression of mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-1. Eur J Immunol 2005, 35:3405-3413.
142. Thorn C.F., Whitehead A.S. Differential glucocorticoid enhancement of the cytokine-driven transcriptional activation of the human acute phase serum amyloid A genes, SAA1 and SAA2. J Immunol 2002, 169:399-406.
143. De Bosscher K., Vanden Berghe W. Haegeman G: The interplay between the glucocorticoid receptor and nuclear factor-kappaB or activator protein-1: Molecular mechanisms for gene repression. Endocr Rev 2003, 24:488-522.
144. van den Buuse M., van Acker S.A., Fluttert M.F., et al. Involvement of corticosterone in cardiovascular responses to an open-field novelty stressor in freely moving rats. Physiol Behav 2002, 75:207-215.
145. Sakaue M., Hoffman B.B. Glucocorticoids induce transcription and expression of the a1B adrenergic receptor gene in DTT1 MF-2 smooth muscle cells. J Clin Invest 1991, 88:385-389.
146. Kennedy B., Ziegler M.G. Cardiac epinephrine synthesis. Regulation by a glucocorticoid. Circulation 1991, 84:891-895.
147. Hayashi T., Nakai T., Miyabo S. Glucocorticoids increase Ca2+ uptake and [3H]dihydropyridine binding in A7r5 vascular smooth muscle cells. Am J Physiol 1991, 261:C106-C114.
148. Darlington D.N., Chew G., Ha T., et al. Corticosterone, but not glucose, treatment enables fasted adrenalectomized rats to survive moderate hemorrhage. Endocrinology 1990, 127:766-772.
149. Kvetnansky R., Fukuhara K., Pacák K., et al. Endogenous glucocorticoids restrain catecholamine synthesis and release at rest and during immobilization stress in rats. Endocrinology 1993, 133:1411-1419.
150. Stewart P.M., Corrie J.E.T., Shackleton C.H.L., et al. Syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess: A defect in the cortisol-cortisone shuttle. J Clin Invest 1988, 82:340-349.
151. Stewart P.M., Wallace A.M., Valentino R., et al. Mineralocorticoid activity of licorice: 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency comes of age. The Lancet 1987, ii:821-824.
152. Munck A., Náray-Fejes-Tóth A. The ups and downs of glucocorticoid physiology: Permissive and suppressive effects revisited. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1992, 90:C1-C4.
153. Mantero F., Armanini D., Boscaro M., et al. Steroids and hypertension. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1991, 40:35-44.
154. O'Banion M.K., Winn V.D., Young D.A. cDNA cloning and functional activity of a glucocorticoid-regulated inflammatory cyclooxygenase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1992, 89:4888-4892.
155. Walker G., Pfeilschifter J., Kunz D. Mechanisms of suppression of inducible nitric-oxide synthase (iNOS) expression in interferon (IFN)-gamma-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells by dexamethasone: Evidence for glucocorticoid-induced degradation of iNOS protein by calpain as a key step in post-transcriptional regulation. J Biol Chem 1997, 272:16679-16687.
156. Grünfeld J.-P. Glucocorticoids and blood pressure regulation. Horm Res 1990, 34:111-113.
157. Whitworth J.A., Mangos G.J., Kelly J.J. Cushing, cortisol, and cardiovascular disease. Hypertension 2000, 36:912-916.
158. Qin W., Rudolph A.E., Bond B.R., et al. Transgenic model of aldosterone-driven cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. Circ Res 2003, 93:69-76.
159. Young M.J., Moussa L., Dilley R., et al. Early inflammatory responses in experimental cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis: Effects of 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase inactivation. Endocrinology 2003, 144:1121-1125.
160. Náray-Fejes-Tóth A., Fejes-Tóth G. Glucocorticoid receptors mediate mineralocorticoid-like effects in cultured collecting duct cells. Am J Physiol 1990, 259:F672-F678.
161. Bastl C.P., Binder H.J., Hayslett J.P. Role of glucocorticoids and aldosterone in maintenance of colonic cation transport. Am J Physiol 1980, 238:F181-F186.
162. Bastl C.P. Effect of spironolactone on glucocorticoid-induced colonic cation transport. Am J Physiol 1988, 25:F1235-F1242.
163. Alvarez de la Rosa D., Zhang P., Náray-Fejes-Tóth A., et al. The serum and glucocorticoid kinase sgk increases the abundance of epithelial sodium channels in the plasma membrane of Xenopus oocytes. J Biol Chem 1999, 274:37834-37839.
164. Chen S.Y., Bhargava A., Mastroberardino L., et al. Epithelial sodium channel regulated by aldosterone-induced protein sgk. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1999, 96:2514-2519.
165. Náray-Fejes-Tóth A., Canessa C., Cleaveland E.S., et al. SGK is an aldosterone-induced kinase in the renal collecting duct: Effects on epithelial Na+ channels. J Biol Chem 1999, 274:16973-16978.
166. Henke G., Setiawan I., Bohmer C., et al. Activation of Na+/K+-ATPase by the serum and glucocorticoid-dependent kinase isoforms. Kidney Blood Press Res 2002, 25:370-374.
167. Pearce D. SGK1 regulation of epithelial sodium transport. Cell Physiol Biochem 2003, 13:13-20.
168. Palmada M., Embark H.M., Yun C., et al. Molecular requirements for the regulation of the renal outer medullary K(+) channel ROMK1 by the serum- and glucocorticoid-inducible kinase SGK1. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2003, 311:629-634.
169. Boehmer C., Wilhelm V., Palmada M., et al. Serum and glucocorticoid inducible kinases in the regulation of the cardiac sodium channel SCN5A. Cardiovasc Res 2003, 57:1079-1084.
170. Wulff P., Vallon V., Huang D.Y., et al. Impaired renal Na(+) retention in the sgk1-knockout mouse. J Clin Invest 2002, 110:1263-1268.
171. Edwards C.R.W., Stewart P.M., Burt D., et al. Localization of 11 β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase-tissue specific protector of the mineralocorticoid receptor. The Lancet 1988, ii:986-989.
172. Lindsay R.M., Edwards C.R., Seckl J.R. Inhibition of 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in pregnant rats and the programming of blood pressure in the offspring. Hypertension 1996, 27:1200-1204.
173. + gradient-dependent phosphate-uptake systems in renal brush border membrane vesicles. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1982, 79:4932-4936.
174. Yun C.C., Chen Y., Lang F. Glucocorticoid activation of Na(+)/H(+) exchanger isoform 3 revisited, the roles of SGK1 and NHERF2. J Biol Chem 2002, 277:7676-7683.
175. Kurokawa K., Fukagawa M., Hayashi M., et al. Renal receptors and cellular mechanisms of hormone action in the kidney. The kidney 1992, 1339-1372. Raven Press, New York. ed 2. D.W. Seldin, G. Giebisch (Eds.).
176. Bia M.J., Tyler K., DeFronzo R.A. The effect of dexamethasone on renal electrolyte excretion in the adrenalectomized rat. Endocrinology 1982, 111:882-888.
177. Campen T.J., Vaughn D.A., Fanestil D.D. Mineralo- and glucocorticoid effects on renal excretion of electrolytes. Pfluegers Arch 1983, 399:93-101.
178. Clore J.N., Estep H., Ross-Clunis H., et al. Adrenocorticotropin and cortisol-induced changes in urinary sodium and potassium excretion in man: Effects of spironolactone and RU 486. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988, 67:824-831.
179. Gardner D.G., Gertz B.J., Deschepper C.F., et al. Gene for the atrial natriuretic peptide is regulated by glucocorticoids in vitro. J Clin Invest 1988, 82:1275-1281.
180. Argentin S., Sun Y.L., Lihrmann I., et al. Distal cis-acting promotor sequences mediate glucocorticoid stimulation of cardiac atrial natriuretic factor gene transcription. J Biol Chem 1991, 266:23315-23322.
181. Shields P.P., Dixon J.E., Glembotski C.C. The secretion of atrial natriuretic factor-(99-126) by cultured cardiac myocytes is regulated by glucocorticoids. J Biol Chem 1988, 263:12619-12628.
182. Fullerton M.J., Krozowski Z.S., Funder J.W. Adrenalectomy and dexamethasone administration: Effect on atrial natriuretic peptide synthesis and circulating forms. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1991, 82:33-40.
183. Weidmann P., Matter D.R., Matter E.E., et al. Glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid stimulation of atrial natriuretic peptide release in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988, 66:1233-1239.
184. Lanier-Smith K.L., Currie M.G. Glucocorticoid regulation of atrial natriuretic peptide receptors on cultured endothelial cells. Endocrinology 1991, 129:2311-2317.
185. Yamaji T., Ishibashi M., Yamada A., et al. Plasma levels of atrial natriuretic hormone in Cushing's syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988, 67:348-352.
186. Damjancic P., Vierhapper H. Permissive action of glucocorticoid substitution therapy on the effects of atrial natriuretic peptide (hANP) in patients with adrenocortical insuffiency. Exp Clin Endocrinol 1990, 95:315-321.
187. Raff H. Glucocorticoid inhibition of neurohypophysial vasopressin secretion. Am J Physiol 1987, 252:R635-R644.
188. Davies L.G., Arentzen R., Reid J.M., et al. Glucocorticoid sensitivity of vasopressin mRNA levels in the paraventricular nucleus of the rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1986, 83:1145-1149.
189. Roozendaal B., Phillips R.G., Power A.E., et al. Memory retrieval impairment induced by hippocampal CA3 lesions is blocked by adrenocortical suppression. Nat Neurosci 2001, 4:1169-1171.
190. Korz V., Frey J.U. Stress-related modulation of hippocampal long-term potentiation in rats: Involvement of adrenal steroid receptors. J Neurosci 2003, 23:7281-7287.
191. Hsu S.Y., Hsueh A.J. Human stresscopin and stresscopin-related peptide are selective ligands for the type 2 corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor. Nat Med 2001, 7:605-611.
192. Karst H., Karten Y.J., Reichardt H.M., et al. Corticosteroid actions in hippocampus require DNA binding of glucocorticoid receptor homodimers. Nat Neurosci 2000, 3:977-978.
193. Udelsman R., Gallucci W.T., Ramp J., et al. Adaptation during surgical stress: A reevaluation of the role of glucocorticoids. J Clin Invest 1986, 77:1377-1381.
194. Muglia L., Jacobson L., Dikkes P., et al. Corticotropin-releasing hormone deficiency reveals major fetal but not adult glucocorticoid need. Nature 1995, 373:427-432.
195. Cole T.J., Blendy J.A., Monaghan A.P., et al. Targeted disruption of the glucocorticoid receptor gene blocks adrenergic chromaffin development and severely retards lung maturation. Genes Dev 1995, 9:1608-1625.
196. Kodama T., Shimizu N., Yoshikawa N., et al. Role of the glucocorticoid receptor for regulation of hypoxia-dependent gene expression. J Biol Chem 2003, 278:33384-33391.
197. Galon J., Franchimont D., Hiroi N., et al. Gene profiling reveals unknown enhancing and suppressive actions of glucocorticoids on immune cells. FASEB J 2002, 16:61-71.
198. Lim H.-Y., Muller N., Herold M.J., et al. Glucocorticoids exert opposing effects on macrophage function dependent on their concentration. Immunology 2007, 122:47-53.
199. Gore A., Attardi B., DeFranco D. Glucocorticoid repression of the reproductive axis: Effects on GnRH and gonadotropin subunit mRNA levels. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2006, 256:40-48.
200. Hu G., Lian Q., Lin H., et al. Rapid mechanisms of glucocorticoid signaling in the Leydig cell. Steroids 2007, 73:1018-1024.
201. Martin L., Tremblay J. Glucocorticoids antagonize cAMP-induced StAR transcription in Leydig cells through the orphan nuclear receptor NUR77. J Mol Endocrinol 2008, 41:165-175.