Tumour biomarkers: Homeostasis as a novel prognostic indicator

Open Biology

Volumn 6, Issue 12, 2016, Pages

  Falco, Michela ^a   Palma, Giuseppe ^a   Rea, Domenica ^a   De Biase, Davide ^c   Scala, Stefania ^a   DAiuto, Massimiliano ^a   Facchini, Gaetano ^b   Perdonà, Sisto ^a   Barbieri, Antonio ^a   Arra, Claudio ^a  

^a NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE   (Italy)

^b Division of Medical Oncology   (Italy)

^c UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES FEDERICO II   (Italy)

Author keywords

Biomarkers; Cancer; Homeostasis; Metabolomics

Indexed keywords

ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; TUMOR MARKER;

EPIGENETICS; FEMALE; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION; GENETIC EPIGENESIS; GENETICS; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMAN; MALE; MUTATION; NEOPLASM; PERSONALIZED MEDICINE; PROGNOSIS; TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH;

ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS; BIOMARKERS, TUMOR; EPIGENESIS, GENETIC; EPIGENOMICS; FEMALE; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION, NEOPLASTIC; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMANS; MALE; MUTATION; NEOPLASMS; PRECISION MEDICINE; PROGNOSIS; TRANSLATIONAL MEDICAL RESEARCH;

EID: 85008325147     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20462441     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1098/rsob.160254     Document Type: Review

References (150)

1. Kalia M. 2015 Biomarkers for personalized oncology: recent advances and future challenges. Metabolism 64(3 Suppl. 1), S16-S21. (doi:10.1016/j.metabol. 2014.10.027)
2. Coppe de F, Lopomo A, Spisni R, Migliore L. 2014 Genetic and epigenetic biomarkers for diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of colorectal cancer. World J. Gastroenterol. 20, 943-956. (doi:10.3748/wjg. v20.i4.943)
3. Economopoulou P, Dimitriadis G, Psyrri A. 2015 Beyond BRCA: new hereditary breast cancer susceptibility genes. Cancer Treat. Rev. 41, 1-8. (doi:10.1016/j.ctrv.2014.10.008)
4. Sharma P. 2016 Biology and management of patients with triple-negative breast cancer. Oncologist 21, 1050-1062. (doi:10.1634/theoncologist.2016-0067)
5. Schulz WA, Hatina J. 2006 Epigenetics of prostate cancer: beyond DNA methylation. J. Cell. Mol. Med. 10, 100-125. (doi:10.1111/j.1582-4934.2006. tb00293.x)
6. Hake SB, Xiao A, Allis CD. 2004 Linking the epigenetics language of covalent histone modifications to cancer. Br. J. Cancer 90, 761-769. (doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6601575)
7. Burstein HJ, Mangu PB, Somerfield MR, Schrag D, Samson D, Zelman D, Ajani JA. 2011 American society of clinical oncology clinical practice guideline update on the use of chemotherapy sensitivity and resistance assays. J. Clin. Oncol. 29, 3328-3330. (doi:10.1200/JCO.2011.36.0354)
8. Lin K, Lipsitz R, Miller T, Janakiraman S. 2008 Benefits and harms of prostate-specific antigen screening for prostate cancer: an evidence update for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann. Intern. Med. 149, 192-199. (doi:10.7326/0003-4819-149-3-200808050-00009)
9. Zou HZ et al. 2008 Detection of aberrant p16 methylation in the serum of colorectal cancer patients. Clin. Cancer Res. 2002, 188-191.
10. Barrow TM, Michels KB. 2014 Epigenetic epidemiology of cancer. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 455, 70-83. (doi:10.1016/j.bbrc. 2014.08.002)
11. Teschendorff AE, Jones A, Fiegl H, Sargent A, Zhuang JJ, Kitchener HC, Widschwendter M. 2012 Epigenetic variability in cells of normal cytology is associated with the risk of future morphological transformation. Genome Med. 4, 24. (doi:10.1186/gm323)
12. Easton DF, Ford D, Bishop DT. 1995 Breast and ovarian cancer incidence in BRCA1-mutation carriers. Breast Cancer Linkage Consortium. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 56, 265-271.
13. Domchek SM et al. 2010 Association of risk-reducing surgery in BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation carriers with cancer risk and mortality. JAMA 304, 967-975. (doi:10.1001/jama.2010.1237)
14. Grullich C, Von Kalle C. 2012 Recent developments and future perspectives of personalized oncology. Onkologie 35, 4-7. (doi:10.1159/000334825)
15. Fleming M, Ravula S, Tatishchev SF, Wang HL. 2012 Colorectal carcinoma: pathologic aspects. J. Gastrointest. Oncol. 3, 153-173.
16. Chee CE, Sinicrope FA. 2010 Targeted therapeutic agents for colorectal cancer. Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. 39, 601-613. (doi:10.1016/j.gtc.2010.08.017)
17. Ahlquist DA, Moertel CG, McGill DB. 1993 Screening for colorectal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 329, 1351. (doi:10.1056/NEJM199310283291813)
18. Sinicrope FA, Okamoto K, Kasi PM, Kawakami H. 2016 Molecular biomarkers in the personalized treatment of colorectal cancer. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 14, 651-658. (doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2016.02.008)
19. Grady WM, Pritchard CC. 2014 Molecular alterations and biomarkers in colorectal cancer. Toxicol. Pathol. 42, 124-139. (doi:10.1177/0192623313505155)
20. Iqbal N, Iqbal N. 2014 Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) in cancers: overexpression and therapeutic implications. Mol. Biol. Int. 2014, 852748. (doi:10.1155/2014/852748)
21. Braun MS et al. 2008 Predictive biomarkers of chemotherapy efficacy in colorectal cancer: results from the UK MRC FOCUS trial. J. Clin. Oncol. 26, 2690-2698. (doi:10.1200/JCO.2007.15.5580)
22. Downward J. 2003 Targeting RAS signalling pathways in cancer therapy. Nat. Rev. Cancer 3, 11-22. (doi:10.1038/nrc969)
23. Amado RG et al. 2008 Wild-type KRAS is required for panitumumab efficacy in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 26, 1626-1634. (doi:10.1200/JCO.2007.14.7116)
24. Douillard J, Siena S, Cassidy J. 2009 Randomized phase 3 study of panitumumab with FOLFOX4 compared to FOLFOX4 alone as 1st-line treatment (tx) for metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC): the PRIME trial. Eur. J. Cancer. 7, S6. (doi:10.1016/S1359-6349(09)72039-7)
25. Bokemeyer C et al. 2009 Fluorouracil, leucovorin, and oxaliplatin with and without cetuximab in the first-line treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 27, 663-671. (doi:10.1200/JCO.2008. 20.8397)
26. Tol J, Nagtegaal ID, Punt CJ. 2009 BRAF mutation in metastatic colorectal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 361, 98-99. (doi:10.1056/NEJMc0904160)
27. Di Nicolantonio F et al. 2008 Wild-type BRAF is required for response to panitumumab or cetuximab in metastatic colorectal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 26, 5705-5712. (doi:10.1200/JCO. 2008.18.0786)
28. French AJ et al. 2008 Prognostic significance of defective mismatch repair and BRAF V600E in patients with colon cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 14, 3408-3415. (doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-07-1489)
29. Lao VV, Grady WM. 2011 Epigenetics and colorectal cancer. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 8, 686-700. (doi:10.1038/nrgastro.2011.173)
30. Van Engeland M, Derks S, Smits KM, Meijer GA, Herman JG. 2011 Colorectal cancer epigenetics: complex simplicity. J. Clin. Oncol. 29, 1382-1391. (doi:10.1200/JCO.2010.28.2319)
31. Sjoblom T et al. 2006 The consensus coding sequences of human breast and colorectal cancers. Science 314, 268-274. (doi:10.1126/science. 1133427)
32. Matsubara N. 2012 Epigenetic regulation and colorectal cancer. Dis. Colon Rectum 55, 96-104. (doi:10.1097/DCR.0b013e318233a1ef )
33. Nan X, Ng HH, Johnson CA, Laherty CD, Turner BM, Eisenman RN. 1998 Transcriptional repression by the methyl-CpG-binding protein MeCP2 involves a histone deacetylase complex. Nature 393, 386-389. (doi:10.1038/30764)
34. Zou HZ et al. 2002 Detection of aberrant p16 methylation in the serum of colorectal cancer patients. Clin. Cancer Res. 8, 188-191.
35. Antelo M, Balaguer F, Shia J, Shen Y, Hur K, Moreira L. 2012 A high degree of LINE-1 hypomethylation is a unique feature of early-onset colorectal cancer. PLoS ONE 7, e45357. (doi:10.1371/journal.pone. 0045357)
36. Matsunoki A, Kawakami K, Kotake M, Kaneko M, Kitamura H, Ooi A. 2012 LINE-1 methylation shows little intra-patient heterogeneity in primary and synchronous metastatic colorectal cancer. BMC Cancer 12, 574. (doi:10.1186/1471-2407-12-574)
37. Schnekenburger M, Diederich M. 2012 Epigenetics offer new horizons for colorectal cancer prevention. Curr. Colorectal Cancer Rep. 8, 66-81. (doi:10.1007/s11888-011-0116-z)
38. Perou CM et al. 2000 Molecular portraits of human breast tumors. Nature 406, 747-752. (doi:10.1038/35021093)
39. Palma G et al. 2015 Triple negative breast cancer: looking for the missing link between biology and treatments. Oncotarget 6, 26 560-574. (doi:10. 18632/oncotarget.5306)
40. Zardavas D, Irrthum A, Swanton C, Piccart M. 2015 Clinical management of breast cancer heterogeneity. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 12, 381-394. (doi:10.1038/nrclinonc.2015.73)
41. Llorca P, Radosevic-Robin N. 2016 Biomarkers of residual disease after neoadjuvant therapy for breast cancer. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 13, 487-503. (doi:10.1038/nrclinonc.2016.1)
42. Harris L, Fritsche H, Mennel R, Norton L, Ravdin P, Taube S, Somerfield MR, Hayes DF, Bast RC. 2007 American Society of Clinical Oncology 2007 update of recommendations for the use of tumor marker in breast cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 24, 5287-5312. (doi:10.1200/JCO.2007.14.2364)
43. Zaha DC. 2014 Significance of immunohistochemistry in breast cancer. World J. Clin. Oncol. 5, 382-392. (doi:10.5306/wjco. v5.i3.382)
44. Burstein HJ. 2005 The distinctive nature of HER2-positive breast cancers. N. Engl. J. Med. 353, 1652-1654. (doi:10.1056/NEJMp058197)
45. Rastelli F, Crispino S. 2008 Factors predictive of response to hormone therapy in breast cancer. Tumori 94, 370-383.
46. Caruso A et al. 2012 Antiproliferative activity of some 1,4-dimethylcarbazoles on cells that express estrogen receptors: part I. J. Enzyme Inhib. Med. Chem. 27, 609-613. (doi:10.3109/14756366.2011. 603132)
47. Widschwendter M, Apostolidou S, Raum E, Rothenbacher D, Fiegl H, Menon U, Stegmaier C, Jacobs IJ, Brenner H. 2008 Epigenotyping in peripheral blood cell DNA and breast cancer risk: a proof of principle study. PLoS ONE 3, e2656. (doi:10. 1371/journal.pone.0002656)
48. Onitilo AA, Engel JM, Greenlee RT, Mukesh BN. 2009 Breast cancer subtypes based on ER/PR and Her2 expression: comparison of clinicopathologic features and survival. Clin. Med. Res. 7, 4-13. (doi:10.3121/cmr.2008.825)
49. Montemurro F et al. 2012 Hormone-receptor expression and activity of trastuzumab with chemotherapy in HER2-positive advanced breast cancer patients. Cancer 118, 17-26. (doi:10.1002/cncr.26162)
50. Krusche CA, Wulfing P, Kersting C, Vloet A, Becker W, Kiesel L, Beier HM, Alfer J. 2005 Histone deacetylase-1 and -3 protein expression in human breast cancer: a tissue microarray analysis.. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 90, 15-23. (doi:10.1007/s10549-004-1668-2)
51. Pu RT, Laitala LE, Alli PM, Fackler MJ, Sukumar S, Clark DP. 2003 Methylation profiling of benign and malignant breast lesions and its application to cytopathology. Mod. Pathol. 16, 1095-1101. (doi:10.1097/01.MP.0000095782.79895.E2)
52. Nimmrich I et al. 2008 DNA hypermethylation of PITX2 is a marker of poor prognosis in untreated lymph node-negative hormone receptor-positive breast cancer patients. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 111, 429-437. (doi:10.1007/s10549-007-9800-8)
53. Van Hoesel AQ, Sato Y, Elashoff DA, Turner RR, Giuliano AE, Shamonki JM, Kuppen PJK, van de Velde CJH, Hoon DSB. 2013 Assessment of DNA methylation status in early stages of breast cancer development. Br. J. Cancer. 108, 2033-2038. (doi:10.1038/bjc.2013.136)
54. Stearns V, Zhou Q, Davison NE. 2007 Epigenetic regulation as a new target for breast cancer therapy. Cancer Invest. 25, 659-665. (doi:10.1080/07357900701719234)
55. Giacinti L, Claudio PP, Lopez M, Giordano A. 2006 Epigenetic information and estrogen receptor alpha expression in breast cancer. Oncologist 11, 1-8. (doi:10.1634/theoncologist.11-1-1)
56. Negrini M, Calin GA. 2008 Breast cancer metastasis: a microRNA story. Breast Cancer Res. 10, 203. (doi:10.1186/bcr1867)
57. Krop IE et al. 2001 HIN-1, a putative cytokine highly expressed in normal but not cancerous mammary epithelial cells. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 98, 9796-9801. (doi:10.1073/pnas.171138398)
58. Elaine MN, Katja H. 2007 Human anatomy and physiology, 7th edn. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Benjamin Cummings.
59. Tao AS. Lung carcinoma: tumors of the lungs. Merck Manual Professional Edition, Online edition. See http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pulmonary-disorders/tumors-of-the-lungs/lungcarcinoma. Retrieved 15 August 2007.
60. Falk S, Williams C. 2010 Lung cancer the facts, 3rd edn, pp. 3-4. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
61. Travis WD et al. 2013 Diagnosis of lung adenocarcinoma in resected specimens: implications of the 2011 International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer/American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society classification. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 137, 685-705. (doi:10.5858/arpa.2012-0264-RA)
62. Sung HJ, Cho JY. 2008 Biomarkers for the lung cancer diagnosis and their advances in proteomics. BMB Rep. 41, 615-625. (doi:10.5483/BMBRep. 2008.41.9.615)
63. Berge EM, Doebele RC. 2014 Targeted therapies in non-small cell lung cancer: emerging oncogene targets following the success of epidermal growth factor receptor. Semin. Oncol. 41, 110-125. (doi:10. 1053/j.seminoncol.2013.12.006)
64. Hirsch O, Witz EA. 2009 Biomarkers for lung cancer screening: interpretation and implications of an early negative advanced validation study. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 179, 1-2. (doi:10. 1164/rccm.200809-1395ED)
65. Gomez-roca C et al. 2009 Differential expression of biomarkers in primary non-small cell lung cancer and meta-static sites. J. Thorac. Oncol. 4, 1212-1220. (doi:10.1097/JTO.0b013e3181b44321)
66. Horn L, Lovly CM, Johnson DH. 2015 Neoplasms of the lung. In Harrisons principles of internal medicine, 19th edn (eds DL Kasper, SL Hauser, JL Jameson, AS Fauci, DL Longo, J Loscalzo), ch. 107. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
67. Greenberg AK, Sung Lee M. 2007 Biomarkers for lung cancer: clinical uses. Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med. 13, 249-255. (doi:10.1097/MCP.0b013e32819f8f06)
68. Scott A, Salgia R. 2008 Biomarkers in lung cancer: from early detection to novel therapeutics and decision making. Biomark. Med. 2, 577-586. (doi:10.2217/17520363.2.6.577)
69. Montuenga LM, Pio R. 2009 Current challenges in lung cancer early detection biomarkers. Eur. J. Cancer. 45(Suppl. 1), 377-378. (doi:10. 1016/S0959-8049(09)70055-3)
70. Ciardiello F, Tortora G. 2008 EGFR antagonists in cancer treatment. N. Engl. J. Med. 358, 1160-1174. (doi:10.1056/NEJMra0707704)
71. Maemondo M et al. 2010 Gefitinib or chemotherapy for non-small-cell lung cancer with mutated EGFR. N. Engl. J. Med. 362, 2380-2388. (doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0909530)
72. Normanno N et al. 2006 Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling in cancer. Gene 366, 2-16. (doi:10.1016/j.gene.2005.10.018)
73. Cappuzzo F et al. 2010 Erlotinib as maintenance treatment in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer: a multicentre, randomised, placebo-controlled phase 3 study. Lancet Oncol. 11, 521-529. (doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(10)70112-1)
74. Toyooka S et al. 2011 Molecular oncology of lung cancer. Gen. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 59, 527-537. (doi:10.1007/s11748-010-0743-3)
75. Cheng L et al. 2012 Molecular pathology of lung cancer: key to personalized medicine. Mod. Pathol. 25, 347-369. (doi:10.1038/modpathol.2011.215)
76. Cardarella S et al. 2012 The introduction of systematic genomic testing for patients with non-small-cell lung cancer. J. Thorac. Oncol. 7, 1767-1774. (doi:10.1097/JTO.0b013e3182745bcb)
77. Graziano SL et al. 1999 Prognostic significance of K-ras codon 12 mutations in patients with resected stage I and II non-small-cell lung cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 17, 668-675.
78. Dumitrescu RG. 2012 Epigenetic markers of early tumor development. Methods Mol. Biol. 863, 3-14. (doi:10.1007/978-1-61779-612-8-1)
79. Brzezianska E, Dutkowska A, Antczak A. 2013 The significance of epigenetic alterations in lung carcinogenesis. Mol. Biol. Rep. 40, 309-325. (doi:10.1007/s11033-012-2063-4)
80. Fischer JR, Ohnmacht U, Rieger N, Zemaitis M, Stoffregen C, Manegold C, Lahm H. 2007 Prognostic significance of RASSF1A promoter methylation on survival of non-small cell lung cancer patients treated with gemcitabine. Lung Cancer 56, 115-123. (doi:10.1016/j.lungcan.2006.11.016)
81. Dammann R et al. 2005 CpG island methylation and expression of tumor-associated genes in lung carcinoma. Eur. J. Cancer 41, 1223-1236. (doi:10. 1016/j.ejca.2005.02.020)
82. Saulnier A et al. 2011 Inactivation of the putative suppressor gene DOK1 by promoter hypermethylation in primary human cancers. Int. J. Cancer 130, 2484-2494. (doi:10.1002/ijc.26299)
83. Xinarianos G, McRonald FE, Risk JM, Bowers NL, Nikolaidis G, Field JK, Liloglou T. 2006 Frequent genetic and epigenetic abnormalities contribute to the deregulation of cytoglobin in non-small cell lung cancer. Hum. Mol. Genet. 15, 2038-2044. (doi:10.1093/hmg/ddl128)
84. Kim DS et al. 2007 Aberrant DNA methylation profiles of non-small cell lung cancers in a Korean population. Lung Cancer 58, 1-6. (doi:10.1016/j. lungcan.2007.04.008)
85. Virmani AK et al. 2000 Promoter methylation and silencing of the retinoic acid receptor-beta gene in lung carcinomas. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 92, 1303-1307. (doi:10.1093/jnci/92.16.1303)
86. Tomizawa Y et al. 2004 Clinicopathological significance of aberrant methylation of RARbeta2 at 3p24, RASSF1A at 3p21.3, and FHIT at 3p14.2 in patients with non-small cell lung cancer. Lung Cancer 46, 305-312. (doi:10.1016/j.lungcan.2004.05.003)
87. van der Drift M, Prinsen C, Knuiman J, Janssen J, Dekhuijzen PN, Thunnissen E. 2011 Diagnosing peripheral lung cancer: the additional value of RASSF1A methylation and KRAS mutation analyses in washings in non-diagnostic bronchoscopy. Chest 141, 169-175. (doi:10.1378/chest.10-2579)
88. Rauch TA, Zhong X, Wu X, Wang M, Kernstine KH, Wang Z, Riggs AD, Pfeifer GP. 2008 High-resolution mapping of DNA hypermethylation and hypomethylation in lung cancer. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 105, 252-257. (doi:10.1073/pnas. 0710735105)
89. Wilt TJ, Ahmed HU. 2013 Prostate cancer screening and the management of clinically localized disease. BMJ 346, 325. (doi:10.1136/bmj.f325)
90. Cary KC, Cooperberg MR. 2013 Biomarkers in prostate cancer surveillance and screening: past, present, and future. Ther. Adv. Urol. 5, 318-329. (doi:10.1177/1756287213495915)
91. Howlader N et al. 2011 SEER cancer statistics review, 1975-2008. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute.
92. Scher HI, Buchanan G, Gerald W, Butler LM, Tilley WD. 2004 Targeting the androgen receptor: improving outcomes for castration-resistant prostate cancer. Endocr. Relat. Cancer 11, 459-476. (doi:10. 1677/erc.1.00525)
93. Ross KS, Carter HB, Pearson JD, Guess HA. 2000 Comparative efficiency of prostate-specific antigen screening strategies for prostate cancer detection. JAMA 284, 1399-1405. (doi:10.1001/jama.284. 11.1399)
94. Madu CO, Lu Y. 2010 Novel diagnostic biomarkers for prostate cancer. J. Cancer. 1, 150-177. (doi:10. 7150/jca.1.150)
95. Rittenhouse HG, Finlay JA, Mikolajczyk SD, Partin AW. 1998 Human Kallikrein 2 (hK2) and prostatespecific antigen (PSA): two closely related, but distinct, kallikreins in the prostate. Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci. 35, 275-368. (doi:10.1080/10408369891234219)
96. Ilyin SE, Belkowski SM, Plata-Salaman CR. 2004 Biomarker discovery and validation: technologies and integrative approaches. Trends Biotechnol. 22, 411-416. (doi:10.1016/j.tibtech. 2004.06.005)
97. Shariat SF, Scardino PT, Lilja H. 2008 Screening for prostate cancer: an update. Can. J. Urol. 15, 4363-4374.
98. Charrier JP, Tournel C, Michel S, Comby S, Jolivet-Reynaud C, Passagot J, Dalbon P, Chautard D, Jolivet M. 2001 Differential diagnosis of prostate cancer and benign prostate hyperplasia using twodimensional electrophoresis. Electrophoresis 22, 1861-1866.
99. Yuan JJ, Coplen DE, Petros JA, Figenshau RS, Ratliff TL, Smith DS, Catalona WJ. 1992 Effects of rectal examination, prostatic massage, ultrasonography and needle biopsy on serum prostate specific antigen levels. J. Urol. 147, 810-814.
100. Chang SL, Harshman LC, Presti JCJr. 2010 Impact of common medications on serum total prostatespecific antigen levels: analysis of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J. Clin. Oncol. 28, 3951-3957. (doi:10.1200/JCO. 2009.27.9406)
101. Stamey TA, Johnstone IM, McNeal JE, Lu AY, Yemoto CM. 2002 Preoperative serum prostate specific antigen levels between 2 and 22 ng/ml. correlate poorly with post-radical prostatectomy cancer morphology: prostate specific antigen cure rates appear constant between 2 and 9 ng/ml. J. Urol. 167, 103-111. (doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(05) 65392-X)
102. Shariat SF, Abdel-Aziz KF, Roehrborn CG, Lotan Y. 2006 Pre-operative percent free PSA predicts clinical outcomes in patients treated with radical prostatectomy with total PSA levels below 10 ng/ml. Eur. Urol. 49, 293-302. (doi:10.1016/j.eururo. 2005.10.027)
103. Thorek DLJ, Evans MJ, Carlsson SV, Ulmert D, Lilja H. 2013 Prostate specific kallikrein-related peptidases and their relation to prostate cancer biology and detection; established relevance and emerging roles. Thromb. Haemost. 110, 484-492. (doi:10. 1160/TH13-04-0275)
104. Finne P, Auvinen A, Maattanen L, Tammela TL, Ruutu M, Juusela H, Martikainen P, Hakama M, Stenman U-H. 2008 Diagnostic value of free prostate-specific antigen among men with a prostate-specific antigen level of ,3.0 microg per liter. Eur. Urol. 54, 362-370. (doi:10.1016/j.eururo. 2007.10.056)
105. Bickers B, Aukim-Hastie C. 2009 New molecular biomarkers for the prognosis and management of prostate cancer: the post PSA era. Anticancer Res. 29, 3289-3298.
106. Catalona WJ et al. 1998 Use of the percentage of free prostate-specific antigen to enhance differentiation of prostate cancer from benign prostatic disease: a prospective multicenter clinical trial. JAMA 279, 1542-1547. (doi:10.1001/jama. 279.19.1542)
107. Buhmeida A, Pyrhonen S, Laato M, Collan Y. 2006 Prognostic factors in prostate cancer. Diagn. Pathol. 1, 4. (doi:10.1186/1746-1596-1-4)
108. Southwick PC et al. 1999 Prediction of post-radical prostatectomy pathological outcome for stage T1c prostate cancer with percent free prostate specific antigen: a prospective multicenter clinical trial. J. Urol. 162, 1346-1351. (doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(05)68282-1)
109. Jung K et al. 2000 Molecular forms of prostatespecific antigen in malignant and benign prostatic tissue: biochemical and diagnostic implications. Clin. Chem. 46, 47-54.
110. Graefen M et al. 2002 Percent free prostate specific antigen is not an independent predictor of organ confinement or prostate specific antigen recurrence in unscreened patients with localized prostate cancer treated with radical prostatectomy. J. Urol. 167, 1306-1309. (doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(05) 65287-1)
111. Tomlins SA et al. 2005 Recurrent fusion of TMPRSS2 and ETS transcription factor genes in prostate cancer. Science 310, 644-648. (doi:10.1126/science.1117679)
112. Karpinets TV, Foy BD. 2005 Tumorigenesis: the adaptation of mammalian cells to sustained stress environment by epigenetic alterations and succeeding matched mutations. Carcinogenesis 26, 1323-1334. (doi:10.1093/carcin/bgi079)
113. Lund AH, van Lohuizen M. 2004 Epigenetics and cancer. Genes Dev. 18, 2315-2335. (doi:10.1101/gad.1232504)
114. Leader JE, Wang C, Fu M, Pestell RG. 2006 Epigenetic regulation of nuclear steroid receptors. Biochem. Pharmacol. 72, 1589-1596. (doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2006.05.024)
115. Nightingale KP, O'Neill LP, Turner BM. 2006 Histone modifications: signaling receptors and potential elements of a heritable epigenetic code. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 16, 125-136. (doi:10.1016/j.gde.2006. 02.015)
116. Lu Q, Qiu X, Hu N, Wen H, Su Y, Richardson BC. 2006 Epigenetics, disease, and therapeutic interventions. Ageing Res. Rev. 5, 449-467. (doi:10. 1016/j.arr.2006.07.001)
117. Garcia-Manero G, Gore SD. 2005 Future directions for the use of hypomethylating agents. Semin. Hematol. 42, S50-S59. (doi:10.1053/j. seminhematol.2005.05.004)
118. Dobosy JR, Roberts JL, Fu VX, Jarrard DF. 2007 The expanding role of epigenetics in the development, diagnosis and treatment of prostate cancer and benign prostatic hyperplasia. J. Urol. 177, 822-831. (doi:10.1016/j.juro.2006.10.063)
119. Jeronimo C et al. 2011 Epigenetics in prostate cancer: biologic and clinical relevance. Eur. Urol. 60, 753-766. (doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2011.06.035)
120. Chan TA et al. 2008 Convergence of mutation and epigenetic alterations identifies common genes in cancer that predict for poor prognosis. PLoS Med. 5, e114. (doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050114)
121. Baden J et al. 2009 Multicenter evaluation of an investigational prostate cancer methylation assay. J. Urol. 182, 1186-1193. (doi:10.1016/j.juro.2009.05.003)
122. Vanaja DK et al. 2009 Hypermethylation of genes for diagnosis and risk stratification of prostate cancer. Cancer Invest. 27, 549-560. (doi:10.1080/07357900802620794)
123. Hoque MO et al. 2005 Quantitative methylation specific polymerase chain reaction gene patterns in urine sediment distinguish prostate cancer patients from control subjects. J. Clin. Oncol. 23, 6569-6575. (doi:10.1200/JCO.2005.07.009)
124. Roupret M et al. 2007 Molecular detection of localized prostate cancer using quantitative methylation-specific PCR on urinary cells obtained following prostate massage. Clin. Cancer Res. 13, 1720-1725. (doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-06-2467)
125. Roupret M et al. 2008 Promoter hypermethylation in circulating blood cells identifies prostate cancer progression. Int. J. Cancer 122, 952-956. (doi:10. 1002/ijc.23196)
126. Cairns P et al. 2001 Molecular detection of prostate cancer in urine by GSTP1 hypermethylation. Clin. Cancer Res. 7, 2727-2730.
127. Tomlins SA et al. 2009 ETS gene fusions in prostate cancer: from discovery to daily clinical practice. Eur. Urol. 56, 275-286. (doi:10.1016/j. eururo.2009.04.036)
128. Esteller M. 2005 Aberrant DNA methylation as a cancer-inducing mechanism. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 45, 629-656. (doi:10.1146/annurev. pharmtox.45.120403.095832)
129. Jeronimo C, Usadel H, Henrique R, Silva C, Oliveira J, Lopes C, Sidransky D. 2002 Quantitative GSTP1 hypermethylation in bodily fluids of patients with prostate cancer. Urology 60, 1131-1135. (doi:10. 1016/S0090-4295(02)01949-0)
130. Gonzalgo ML, Pavlovich CP, Lee SM, Nelson WG. 2003 Prostate cancer detection by GSTP1 methylation analysis of post biopsy urine specimens. Clin. Cancer Res. 9, 2673-2677.
131. Zmorzynski S, Swiderska-Kolacz G, Koczkodaj D, Filip AA. 2015 Significance of polymorphisms and expression of enzyme-encoding genes related to glutathione in hematopoietic cancers and solid tumors. Biomed. Res. Int. 2015, 853573. (doi:10. 1155/2015/853573)
132. Tosoian JJ, Ross AE, Sokoll LJ, Partin AW, Pavlovich CP. 2016 Urinary biomarkers for prostate cancer. Urol. Clin. North Am. 43, 17-38. (doi:10.1016/j.ucl. 2015.08.003)
133. Barbieri A et al. 2012 Role of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) in chronic stress-promoted tumour growth. J. Cell. Mol. Med. 16, 920-926. (doi:10.1111/j.1582-4934.2011.01375.x)
134. Palma G et al. 2013 Interleukin 18: friend or foe in cancer. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1836, 296-303. (doi:10.1016/j.bbcan.2013.09.001)
135. Banfalvi G (ed.). Homeostasis, tumor, metastasis. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science.
136. Nogueira V, Hay N. 2013 Molecular pathways: reactive oxygen species homeostasis in cancer cells and implications for cancer therapy. Clin. Cancer Res. 19, 4309-4314. (doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-12-1424)
137. Paesano N, Marzocco S, Vicidomini C, Saturnino C, Autore G, De Martino G, Sbardella G. 2005 Synthesis and biological evaluation of 3-benzyl-1-methyland 1-methyl-3-phenyl-isotioureas as potential inhibitors of iNOS. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 15, 539-543. (doi:10.1016/j.bmcl.2004.11.047)
138. Liberti MV, Locasale JW. 2016 The Warburg effect: how does it benefit cancer cells? Trends Biochem. Sci. 41, 211-218. (doi:10.1016/j.tibs.2015.12.001)
139. Heiden MGV, Cantley LC, Thompson CB. 2009 Understanding the Warburg effect: the metabolic requirements of cell proliferation. Science 324, 1029-1033. (doi:10.1126/science.1160809)
140. Akhenblit PJ, Pagel MD. 2016 Recent advances in targeting tumor energy metabolism with tumor acidosis as a biomarker of drug efficacy. J. Cancer Sci. Ther. 8, 20-29. (doi:10.4172/1948-5956. 1000382)
141. Wang Z, Wang N, Chen J, Shen J. 2012 Emerging glycolysis targeting and drug discovery from Chinese medicine in cancer therapy. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med. 2012, 873175. (doi:10. 1155/2012/873175)
142. Glaser R, Kiecolt-Glaser JK. 2005 Stress induced immune dysfunction: implication for health. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 5, 243-251. (doi:10.1038/nri1571)
143. Di Stefano G, Manerba M, Di Ianni L, Fiume L. 2016 Lactate dehydrogenase inhibition: exploring possible applications beyond cancer treatment. Future Med. Chem. 8, 713-725. (doi:10.4155/fmc.16.10)
144. Hanahan D, Weinberg RA. 2011 Hallmarks of cancer: the next generation. Cell 144, 646-674. (doi:10.1016/j.cell.2011.02.013)
145. Vander Heiden MG. 2011 Targeting cancer metabolism: a therapeutic window opens. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 10, 671-684. (doi:10.1038/nrd3504)
146. Xie H, Hanai J, Ren JG, Kats L, Burgess K, Bhargava P. 2014 Targeting lactate dehydrogenase-a inhibits tumorigenesis and tumor progression in mouse models of lung cancer and impacts tumor-initiating cells. Cell Metab. 19, 795-809. (doi:10.1016/j.cmet. 2014.03.003)
147. Kuzu OF, Noory MA, Robertson GP. 2016 The role of cholesterol in cancer. Cancer Res. 76, 2063-2070. (doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-15-2613)
148. Barbieri A et al. 2015 The stress hormone norepinephrine increases migration of prostate cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Int. J. Oncol. 47, 527-534. (doi:10.3892/ijo.2015.3038)
149. Palma G, De Laurenzi V, De Marco M, Barbieri A, Petrillo A, Turco MC, Arra C. 2012 Plasmacytoids dendritic cells are a therapeutic target in anticancer immunity. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1826, 407-414. (doi:10.1016/j.bbcan.2012.04.007)
150. Guo H, Zhou X, Lu Y, Xie L, Chen Q, Keller ET, Liu Q, Zhou Q, Zhang J. 2015 Translational progress on tumor biomarkers. Thorac. Cancer 6, 665-671. (doi:10.1111/1759-7714.12294)