Modeling plant–water interactions: an ecohydrological overview from the cell to the global scale

Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water

Volumn 3, Issue 3, 2016, Pages 327-368

  Fatichi, Simone ^a   Pappas, Christoforos ^a,b   Ivanov, Valeriy Y ^c  

^a ETH ZURICH   (Switzerland)

^b UNIVERSITÉ DE MONTRÉAL   (Canada)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84988005290     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20491948     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/wat2.1125     Document Type: Review

References (479)

1. Oki T, Kanae S. Global hydrological cycles and world water resources. Science 2006, 313:1068–1072. doi:10.1126/science.1128845.
2. Katul GG, Oren R, Manzoni S, Higgins C, Parlange MB. Evapotranspiration: a process driving mass transport and energy exchange in the soil-plant-atmosphere-climate system. Rev Geophys 2012, 50:RG3002.
3. Schlesinger WH, Jasechko S. Transpiration in the global water cycle. Agr Forest Meteorol 2014, 189-190:115–117. doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2014.01.011.
4. Wild M, Folini D, Hakuba MZ, Schär C, Seneviratne SI, Kato S, Rutan D, Ammann C, Wood EF, König-Langlo G. The energy balance over land and oceans: an assessment based on direct observations and CMIP5 climate models. Climate Dynam 2015, 44:3393–3429.
5. Eagleson PS. Climate, soil, and vegetation 1. Introduction to water balance dynamics. Water Resour Res 1978, 14:705–712.
6. Bonan GB. Ecological Climatology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2008.
7. Berry JA, Beerling DJ, Franks PJ. Stomata: key players in the Earth system past and present. Curr Opin Plant Biol 2010, 13:232–239.
8. Nobel PS. Physicochemical and Environmental Plant Physiology. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Academic Press; 2009.
9. Brown AD. Microbial Water Stress Physiology, Principles and Perspectives. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons; 1990.
10. Anderson SP, von Blanckenburg F, White AF. Physical and chemical controls on the critical zone. Elements 2007, 3:315–319.
11. McMahon TA, Peel MC, Lowe L, Srikanthan R, McVicar TR. Estimating actual, potential, reference crop and pan evaporation using standard meteorological data: a pragmatic synthesis. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 2013, 17:1331–1363. doi:10.5194/hess-17-1331-2013.
12. Gerten D, Schaphoff S, Haberlandt U, Lucht W, Sitch S. Terrestrial vegetation and water balance-hydrological evaluation of a dynamic global vegetation model. J Hydrol 2004, 286:249–270.
13. Fisher JB, Huntzinger DN, Schwalm CR, Sitch S. Modeling the Terrestrial Biosphere. Annu Rev Environ Resour 2014, 39:91–123. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-012913-093456.
14. Sellers PJ, Mintz Y, Sud YC, Dalcher A. A simple biosphere model (SiB) for use within general circulation models. J Atmos Sci 1986, 43:505–531.
15. Sellers PJ, Randall DA, Collatz GJ, Berry JA, Field CB, Dazlich CA, Zhang C, Collelo D, Bounoua L. A revised land surface parameterization (SiB2) for atmospheric GCMs. 1. Model formulation. J Climate 1996, 9:674–705.
16. Sellers PJ, Dickinson RE, Randall DA, Betts AK, Hall FG, Berry JA, Collatz GJ, Denning AS, Mooney HA, Nobre CA, et al. Modeling the exchanges of energy, water and carbon between continents and the atmosphere. Science 1997, 275:502–509.
17. Fatichi S, Zeeman MJ, Fuhrer J, Burlando P. Ecohydrological effects of management on subalpine grasslands: from local to catchment scale. Water Resour Res 2014, 50:148–164. doi:10.1002/2013WR014535.
18. Mu Q, Zhao M, Running SW. Improvements to a MODIS global terrestrial evapotranspiration algorithm. Remote Sens Environ 2011, 115:1781–1800.
19. Bornmann L, Mutz R. Growth rates of modern science: a bibliometric analysis based on the number of publications and cited references. J Assoc Inform Sci Technol 2015, 66:2215–2222. doi:10.1002/asi.23329.
20. Sack L, Scoffoni C. Leaf venation: structure, function, development, evolution, ecology and applications in the past, present and future. New Phytol 2013, 198:983–1000. doi:10.1111/nph.12253.
21. Rodriguez-Iturbe I. Ecohydrology: a hydrological perspective of climate-soil-vegetation dynamics. Water Resour Res 2000, 36:3–9.
22. Porporato A, Laio F, Ridolfi L, Rodriguez-Iturbe I. Plants in water-controlled ecosystems: active role in hydrologic processes and response to water stress III. Vegetation water stress. Adv Water Resour 2001, 24:725–744.
23. Eagleson PS. Ecohydrology: Darwinian Expression of Vegetation Form and Function. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2002.
24. Rodriguez-Iturbe I, Porporato A. Ecohydrology of Water-Controlled Ecosystems. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2004.
25. Bond B. Hydrology and ecology meet-and the meeting is good. Hydrol Process 2003, 2087:2089. doi:10.1002/hyp.5133.
26. Friedlingstein P, Cox PM, Betts RA, Bopp L, VonBloh W, Brovkin V, Cadule P, Doney S, Eby M, Fung I, et al. Climate-carbon cycle feedback analysis: results from the C4MIP model intercomparison. J Climate 2006, 19:3337–3353.
27. Arora VK, Boer GJ, Friedlingstein P, Eby M, Jones CD, Christian JR, Bonan LBG, Brovkin V, Cadule P, Hajima T, et al. Carbon-concentration and carbon-climate feedbacks in CMIP5 Earth System models. J Climate 2013, 26:5289–5314. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00494.1.
28. Friedlingstein P, Meinshausen M, Arora VK, Jones CD, Anav A, Liddicoat SK, Knutti R. Uncertainties in CMIP5 climate projections due to carbon cycle feedbacks. J Climate 2014, 27:511–526.
29. Mooney H, Larigauderie A, Cesario M, Elmquist T, Hoegh-Guldberg O, Lavorel S, Mace GM, Palmer M, Scholes R, Yahara T. Biodiversity, climate change, and ecosystem services. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 2009, 1:46–54. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2009.07.006.
30. Istanbulluoglu E, Bras RL. Vegetation-modulated landscape evolution: effects of vegetation on landscape processes, drainage density, and topography. J Geophys Res 2005, 110:F02012. doi:10.1029/2004JF000249.
31. Lobell DB, Schlenker W, Costa-Roberts J. Climate trends and global crop production since 1980. Science 2011, 333:616–620. doi:10.1126/science.1204531.
32. Dai A, Trenberth KE, Qian T. A global dataset of Palmer drought severity index for 1870-2002: relationship with soil moisture and effects of surface warming. J Hydrometeorol 2004, 5:1117–1130.
33. Sheffield J, Wood EF, Roderick ML. Little change in global drought over the past 60 years. Nature 2012, 491:435–438. doi:10.1038/nature11575.
34. Fu Q, Feng S. Responses of terrestrial aridity to global warming. J Geophys Res Atmos 2014, 119:7863–7875. doi:10.1002/2014JD021608.
35. 2. Water Resour Res 2015, 2:5450–5463. doi:10.1002/2015WR017031.
36. Pappas C, Fatichi S, Burlando P. Modeling terrestrial carbon and water dynamics across climatic gradients: does plant diversity matter? New Phytol 2015. doi:10.1111/nph.13590.
37. 2 in alpine grassland. J Ecol 2013, 101:86–96. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.12029.
38. Gough CM, Hardiman BS, Nave LE, Bohrer G, Maurer KD, Vogel CS, Nadelhoffer KJ, Curtis PS. Sustained carbon uptake and storage following moderate disturbance in a great lakes forest. Ecol Appl 2013, 23:1202–1215.
39. Biederman JA, Harpold AA, Gochis DJ, Ewers BE, Reed DE, Papuga SA, Brooks PD. Increased evaporation following widespread tree mortality limits streamflow response. Water Resour Res 2014, 50:5395–5409. doi:10.1002/2013WR014994.
40. Abdelnour A, Stieglitz M, Pan F, McKane R. Catchment hydrological responses to forest harvest amount and spatial pattern. Water Resour Res 2011, 47:W09521. doi:10.1029/2010WR010165.
41. Brown AE, Zhang L, McMahon TA, Western AW, Vertessy RA. A review of paired catchment studies for determining changes in water yield resulting from alterations in vegetation. J Hydrol 2005, 310:28–61. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2004.12.010.
42. Guardiola-Claramonte M, Troch PA, Breshears DD, Huxman TE, Switanek MB, Durcik M, Cobb NS. Decreased streamflow in semi-arid basins following drought-induced tree die-off: a counter-intuitive and indirect climate impact on hydrology. J Hydrol 2011, 406:225–233.
43. Pearson RG, Phillips SJ, Loranty MM, Beck PSA, Damoulas T, Knight SJ, Goetz SJ. Shifts in Arctic vegetation and associated feedbacks under climate change. Nat Clim Change 2013, 3:673–677.
44. Matheny A, Bohrer G, Vogel CS, Morin TH, He L, Frasson RPM, Mirfenderesgi G, Schäfer KVR, Gough CM, Ivanov VY, et al. Species-specific transpiration responses to intermediate disturbance in a northern hardwood forest. J Geophys Res 2014, 119:2292–2311.
45. Pomeroy JW, Marks DM, Link T, Ellis C, Hardy J, Rowlands A, Granger R. The impact of coniferous forest temperature on incoming longwave radiation to melting snow. Hydrol Process 2009, 23:2513–2525.
46. Ellis CR, Pomeroy JW, Brown T, MacDonald J. Simulation of snow accumulation and melt in needleleaf forest environments. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 2010, 14:925–940. doi:10.5194/hess-14-925-2010.
47. Broxton PD, Harpold AA, Biederman JA, Troch PA, Molotch NP, Brooks PD. Quantifying the effects of vegetation structure on snow accumulation and ablation in mixed-conifer forests. Ecohydrology 2015, 8:1073–1094. doi:10.1002/eco.1565.
48. Bohrer G, Katul GG, Walko RL, Avissar R. Exploring the effects of microscale structural heterogeneity of forest canopies using large-eddy simulations. Bound-Lay Meteorol 2009, 132:351–382. doi:10.1007/s10546-009-9404-4.
49. Mahat V, Tarboton DG, Molotch NP. Testing above- and below-canopy representations of turbulent fluxes in an energy balance snowmelt model. Water Resour Res 2013, 49:1107–1122. doi:10.1002/wrcr.20073.
50. Lundquist JD, Dickerson-Lange SE, Lutz JA, Cristea NC. Lower forest density enhances snow retention in regions with warmer winters: a global framework developed from plot-scale observations and modelling. Water Resour Res 2013, 49:6356–6370. doi:10.1002/wrcr.20504.
51. Duarte CM, Middelburg JJ, Caraco N. Major role of marine vegetation on the oceanic carbon cycle. Biogeosciences 2005, 2:1–8.
52. Katul GG, Poggi D, Ridolfi L. A low resistance model for assessing the impact of vegetation on flood routing mechanics. Water Resour Res 2011, 47:W08533. doi:10.1029/2010WR010278.
53. Kim J, Ivanov VY, Katopodes ND. Hydraulic resistance to overland flow on surfaces with partially submerged vegetation. Water Resour Res 2012, 48:W10540. doi:10.1029/2012WR012047.
54. Marjoribanks TI, Hardy RJ, Lane SN. The hydraulic description of vegetated river channels: the weaknesses of existing formulations and emerging alternatives. WIREs Water 2014, 1:549–560. doi:10.1002/wat2.1044.
55. Rodriquez-Iturbe I, D'Odorico P, Porporato A, Ridolfi L. On the spatial and temporal links between vegetation, climate, and soil moisture. Water Resour Res 1999, 35:3709–3722.
56. Ridolfi L, D'Odorico P, Porporato A, Rodriguez-Iturbe I. Duration and frequency of water stress in vegetation: an analytical model. Water Resour Res 2000, 36:2297–2307.
57. Guswa AJ. The influence of climate on root depth: a carbon cost-benefit analysis. Water Resour Res 2008, 44:W02427. doi:10.1029/2007WR006384.
58. Thompson SE, Harman CJ, Troch PA, Brooks PD, Sivapalan M. Spatial scale dependence of ecohydrologically mediated water balance partitioning: a synthesis framework for catchment ecohydrology. Water Resour Res 2011, 47:W00J03. doi:10.1029/2010WR009998.
59. Manzoni S, Vico G, Katul GG, Palmroth S, Jackson RB, Porporato A. Hydraulic limits on maximum plant transpiration and the emergence of the safety-efficiency trade-off. New Phytol 2013, 198:169–178. doi:10.1111/nph.12126.
60. Manzoni S, Vico G, Katul GG, Palmroth S, Porporato A. Optimal plant water use strategies under stochastic rainfall. Water Resour Res 2014, 2014:5379–5394. doi:10.1002/2014WR015375.
61. Bugmann H. A review of forest gap models. Clim Change 2001, 51:259–305.
62. Weiskittel AR, Hann DW, Kershaw JA, Vanclay JK. Forest Growth and Yield Modeling. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 2011.
63. Tyree MT. The ascent of water. Nature 2003, 423:923.
64. Campbell GS, Norman JM. An Introduction to Environmental Biophysics. New York: Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.; 1998.
65. Zimmermann MH. Transport in the phloem. Annu Rev Plant Physiol 1960, 11:167–190.
66. Pickard WF. The ascent of sap in plants. Prog Biophys Mol Biol 1981, 37:181–229.
67. Holbrook NM, Zwieniecki MA. Vascular Transport in Plants. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2005.
68. Jensen KH, Berg-Sørensen K, Friis SMM, Bohr T. Analytic solutions and universal properties of sugar loading models in Münch phloem flow. J Theor Biol 2012, 304:286–296.
69. Stroock AD, Pagay VV, Zwieniecki MA, Holbrook NM. The physicochemical hydrodynamics of vascular plants. Annu Rev Fluid Mech 2014, 46:615–642.
70. Taiz L, Zeiger E. Plant Physiology. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates Inc; 2006.
71. von Caemmerer S, Farquhar GD. Some relationships between the biochemistry of photosynthesis and the gas exchange of leaves. Planta 1981, 153:376–387.
72. 2 diffusion pathway inside leaves. J Exp Bot 2009, 60:2235–2248. doi:10.1093/jxb/erp117.
73. Bernacchi CJ, Bagley JE, Serbin SP, Ruiz-Vera UM, Rosenthal DM, Van-Loocke A. Modelling C3 photosynthesis from the chloroplast to the ecosystem. Plant Cell Environ 2013, 36:1641–1657. doi:10.1111/pce.12118.
74. 2 effects on stomatal size and density over geologic time. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009, 106:10343–10347.
75. Assouline S, Or D. Plant water use efficiency over geological time –evolution of leaf stomata configurations affecting plant gas exchange. PLoS One 2013, 8:e67757. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0067757.
76. Cochard H, Nardini A, Coll L. Hydraulic architecture of leaf blades: where is the main resistance? Plant. Cell Environ 2004, 27:1257–1267. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3040.2004.01233.x.
77. Sack L, Holbrook NM. Leaf hydraulics. Annu Rev Plant Biol 2006, 57:361–381.
78. Brodribb TJ, Field TS, Jordan GJ. Leaf maximum photosynthetic rate and venation are linked by hydraulics. Plant Physiol 2007, 144:1890–1898.
79. Hetherington AM, Woodward FI. The role of stomata in sensing and driving environmental change. Nature 2003, 424:901–908.
80. Jarvis PG. The interpretation of the variances in leaf water potential and stomatal conductance found in canopies in the field. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B 1976, 273:593–610.
81. Monteith JL. A reinterpretation of stomatal responses to humidity. Plant Cell Environ 1995, 18:357–364.
82. 2. Plant Cell Environ 1999, 22:629–637.
83. Merilo E, Joesaar I, Brosché M, Kollist H. To open or to close: species-specific stomatal responses to simultaneously applied opposing environmental factors. New Phytol 2014, 202:499–508. doi:10.1111/nph.12667.
84. 2. New Phytol 2014, 201:372–377. doi:10.1111/nph.12552.
85. Fischer RA. The relationship of stomatal aperture and guard-cell turgor pressure in Vicia faba. J Exp Bot 1973, 24:387–399.
86. Buckley TN, Mott KA, Farquhar GD. A hydromechanical and biochemical model of stomatal conductance. Plant Cell Environ 2003, 26:1767–1785.
87. Buckley TN. The control of stomata by water balance. New Phytol 2005, 169:275–292. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01543.x.
88. Comstock JP. Hydraulic and chemical signalling in the control of stomatal conductance and transpiration. J Exp Bot 2002, 53:195–200.
89. Brodribb TJ, Holbrook NM. Stomatal closure during leaf dehydration, correlation with other leaf physiological traits. Plant Physiol 2003, 132:2166–2173.
90. Brodribb TJ, Holbrook NM. Stomatal protection against hydraulic failure: a comparison of coexisting ferns and angiosperms. New Phytol 2004, 162:663–670. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01060.x.
91. Guyot G, Scoffoni C, Sack L. Combined impacts of irradiance and dehydration on leaf hydraulic conductance: insights into vulnerability and stomatal control. Plant Cell Environ 2012, 35:857–871. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3040.2011.02458.x.
92. Pantin F, Monnet F, Jannaud D, Costa JM, Renaud J, Muller B, Simonneau T, Genty B. The dual effect of abscisic acid on stomata. New Phytol 2013, 197:65–72. doi:10.1111/nph.12013.
93. Zeiger E. The biology of stomatal guard cells. Annu Rev Plant Physiol 1983, 34:441–475.
94. Talbott LD, Zeiger E. The role of sucrose in guard cell osmoregulation. J Exp Bot 1998, 49:329–337.
95. Roelfsema MRG, Hedrich R. In the light of stomatal opening: new insights into the watergate. New Phytol 2005, 167:665–691. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01460.x.
96. Wilkinson S, Davies WJ. ABA-based chemical signalling: the co-ordination of responses to stress in plants. Plant Cell Environ 2002, 25:195–210.
97. Brodribb TJ, McAdam SAM. Abscisic acid mediates a divergence in the drought response of two conifers. Plant Physiol 2013, 162:1370–1377.
98. Dodd IC. Abscisic acid and stomatal closure: a hydraulic conductance conundrum? New Phytol 2013, 197:6–8. doi:10.1111/nph.12052.
99. Franks PJ, Farquhar GD. The effect of exogenous abscisic acid on stomatal development, stomatal mechanics, and leaf gas exchange in Tradescantia Virginiana. Plant Physiol 2001, 125:935–942.
100. Brodribb TJ, McAdam SAM. Passive origins of stomatal control in vascular plants. Science 2011, 331:582–585. doi:10.1126/science.1197985.
101. Dewar RC. Interpretation of an empirical model for stomatal conductance in terms of guard cell function. Plant Cell Environ 1995, 18:365–372.
102. Dewar RC. The Ball-Berry-Leuning and Tardieu-Davies stomatal models: synthesis and extension within a spatially aggregated picture of guard cell function. Plant Cell Environ 2002, 25:1383–1398.
103. Gao Q, Xhao P, Zeng X, Cai X, Shen W. A model of stomatal conductance to quantify the relationship between leaf transpiration, microclimate, and soil water stress. Plant Cell Environ 2002, 25:1373–1381.
104. Franks PJ. Stomatal control and hydraulic conductance, with special reference to tall trees. Tree Physiol 2004, 24:865–878.
105. Franks PJ, Drake PL, Froend RH. Anisohydric but isohydrodynamic: seasonally constant plant water potential gradient explained by a stomatal control mechanism incorporating variable plant hydraulic conductance. Plant Cell Environ 2007, 30:19–30. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3040.2006.01600.x.
106. Peak D, Mott KA. A new, vapour-phase mechanism for stomatal responses to humidity and temperature. Plant Cell Environ 2011, 34:162–178. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3040.2010.02234.x.
107. de Boer HJ, Eppinga MB, Wassen MJ, Dekker SC. A critical transition in leaf evolution facilitated the Cretaceous angiosperm revolution. Nat Commun 2012, 3. doi:10.1038/ncomms2217.
108. Mott KA, Peak D. Testing a vapour-phase model of stomatal responses to humidity. Plant Cell Environ 2013, 36:936–944.
109. Tuzet A, Perrier A, Leuning R. A coupled model of stomatal conductance, photosynthesis and transpiration. Plant Cell Environ 2003, 26:1097–1116.
110. Damour G, Simonneau T, Cochard H, Urban L. An overview of models of stomatal conductance at the leaf level. Plant Cell Environ 2010, 33:1419–1438. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3040.2010.02181.x.
111. Tardieu F, Davies WJ. Integration of hydraulic and chemical signalling in the control of stomatal conductance and water status of droughted plants. Plant Cell Environ 1993, 16:341–349.
112. Tardieu F, Simonneau T. Variability among species of stomatal control under fluctuating soil water status and evaporative demand: modelling isohydric and anisohydric behaviours. J Exp Bot 1998, 49:419–432.
113. Buckley TN, Mott KA. Modelling stomatal conductance in response to environmental factors. Plant Cell Environ 2013, 36:1691–1699. doi:10.1111/pce.12140.
114. Ball JT, Woodrow IE, Berry JA. A model predicting stomatal conductance and its contribution to the control of photosynthesis under different environmental conditions. In: Biggins J, ed. Progress in Photosynthesis Research. Netherlands: Martinus Nijho; 1987, 221–224.
115. Leuning R. Modelling stomatal behaviour and photosynthesis of Eucalyptus Grandis. Aust J Plant Physiol 1990, 17:159–175.
116. Leuning R. A critical appraisal of a combined stomatal- photosynthesis model for C3 plants. Plant Cell Environ 1995, 18:357–364.
117. 2 assimilation in leaves of C3 species. Planta 1980, 149:78–90.
118. Collatz GJ, Ball JT, Grivet C, Berry JA. Physiological and environmental regulation of stomatal conductance, photosynthesis and transpiration: a model that includes a laminar boundary-layer. Agr Forest Meteorol 1991, 54:107–136.
119. Collatz GJ, Ribas-Carbo M, Berry JA. Coupled photosynthesis-stomatal conductance model for leaves of C4 plants. Aust J Plant Physiol 1992, 19:519–538.
120. Wang YP, Leuning R. A two-leaf model for canopy conductance, photosynthesis and partitioning of available energy I: model description and comparison with a multi-layered model. Agr Forest Meteorol 1998, 91:89–111.
121. Bonan GB, Lawrence PJ, Oleson KW, Levis S, Jung M, Reichstein M, Lawrence DM, Swenson SC. Improving canopy processes in the Community Land Model version 4 (CLM4) using global flux fields empirically inferred from FLUXNET data. Journal of Geophysical Research 2011, 116:G02014. doi:10.1029/2010JG001593.
122. 2 concentration: alternative solutions, alternative interpretations. Agr Forest Meteorol 2013, 182-183:200–203.
123. Lin ZS, Medlyn BE, Duursma RA, Prentice IC, Wang H, Baig S, Eamus D, de Dios VR, Mitchell P, Ellsworth DS, et al. Optimal stomatal behaviour around the world. Nat Clim Change 2015, 5:459–464.
124. 2 on leaf photosynthesis and transpiration. Ann Bot 2010, 105:431–442.
125. Medlyn BE, Duursma RA, Eamus D, Ellsworth DS, Prentice IC, Barto CVM, Crous KY, De Angelis P, Freeman MC, Wingate L. Reconciling the optimal and empirical approaches to modelling stomatal conductance. Glob Change Biol 2011, 17:2134–2144.
126. Manzoni S, Vico G, Palmroth S, Porporato A, Katul G. Optimization of stomatal conductance for maximum carbon gain under dynamic soil moisture. Adv Water Resour 2013, 62:90–105.
127. Bonan GB, Williams M, Fisher RA, Oleson KW. Modeling stomatal conductance in the earth system: linking leaf water-use efficiency and water transport along the soil-plant–atmosphere continuum. Geosci Model Dev 2014, 7:2193–2222. doi:10.5194/gmd-7-2193-2014.
128. Egea G, Verhoef A, Vidale PL. Towards an improved and more flexible representation of water stress in coupled photosynthesis–stomatal conductance models. Agr Forest Meteorol 2011, 151:1370–1384.
129. Zhou S, Duursma RA, Medlyn BE, Kelly JWG, Prentice IC. How should we model plant responses to drought? An analysis of stomatal and non-stomatal responses to water stress. Agr Forest Meteorol 2013, 182-183:204–214.
130. Manzoni S, Vico G, Katul G, Fay PA, Polley W, Palmroth S, Porporato A. Optimizing stomatal conductance for maximum carbon gain under water stress: a meta-analysis across plant functional types and climates. Funct Ecol 2011, 25:456–467. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2010.01822.x.
131. Clode PL, Kilburn MR, Jones DL, Stockdale EA, Cliff JB III, Herrmann AM, Murphy DV. In situ mapping of nutrient uptake in the rhizosphere using nanoscale secondary ion mass spectrometry. Plant Physiol 2009, 151:1751–1757.
132. Jones DL, Nguyen C, Finlay RD. Carbon flow in the rhizosphere: carbon trading at the soil-root interface. Plant and Soil 2009, 321:5–33. doi:10.1007/s11104-009-9925-0.
133. Hinsinger P, Bengough AG, Vetterlein D, Young IM. Rhizosphere: biophysics, bio-geochemistry and ecological relevance. Plant and Soil 2009, 321:117–152. doi:10.1007/s11104-008-9885-9.
134. Carminati A, Moradi AB, Vetterlein D, Vontobel P, Lehmann E, Weller U, Vogel HJ, Oswald SE. Dynamics of soil water content in the rhizosphere. Plant and Soil 2010, 332:163–176. doi:10.1007/s11104-010-0283-8.
135. Jackson RB, Mooney HA, Schulze ED. A global budget for net root biomass, surface area, and nutrient contents. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997, 94:7362–7366.
136. McCormack ML, Dickie IA, Eissenstat DM, Fahey TJ, Fernandez CW, Guo D, Helmisaari HS, Hobbie EA, Iversen CM, Jackson RB, et al. Redefining fine roots improves understanding of below-ground contributions to terrestrial biosphere processes. New Phytol 2015, 207:505–518. doi:10.1111/nph.13363.
137. Boyer JS. Water transport. Annu Rev Plant Physiol 1985, 36:473–516.
138. Nadezhdina N, David TS, David JS, Ferreira MI, Dohnal M, Tesar M, Gartner K, Leitgeb E, Nadezhdin V, Cermak J, et al. Trees never rest: the multiple facets of hydraulic redistribution. Ecohydrology 2010, 3:431–444. doi:10.1002/eco.148.
139. Goldsmith GR. Changing directions: the atmosphere-plant-soil continuum. New Phytol 2013, 2013:4–6. doi:10.1111/nph.12332.
140. Neumann RB, Cardon ZG. The magnitude of hydraulic redistribution by plant roots: a review and synthesis of empirical and modeling studies. New Phytol 2012, 194:337–352. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04088.x.
141. Gardner WR. Relation of root distribution to water uptake and availability. Agron J 1964, 56:41–45.
142. Sperry JS, Adler FR, Campbell GS, Comstock JB. Limitation of plant water use by rhizosphere and xylem conductance: results from a model. Plant Cell Environ 1998, 21:347–359.
143. Steudle E. Water uptake by plant roots: an integration of views. Plant and Soil 2000, 226:45–56.
144. Doussan C, Vercambre G, Pages L. Modelling of the hydraulic architecture of root systems: an integrated approach to water absorption - distribution of axial and radial conductances in maize. Ann Bot 1998, 81:225–232.
145. Couvreur V, Vanderborght J, Javaux M. A simple three-dimensional macroscopic root water uptake model based on the hydraulic architecture approach. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 2012, 16:2957–2971. doi:10.5194/hess-16-2957-2012.
146. Javaux M, Vanderborght J, Couvreur V, Vereecken H. Root water uptake: from 3D biophysical processes to macroscopic modeling approaches. Vadose Zone J 2013, 12:1–16. doi:10.2136/vzj2013.02.0042.
147. Johnson DM, Sherrard ME, Domec JC, Jackson RB. Role of aquaporin activity in regulating deep and shallow root hydraulic conductance during extreme drought. Trees 2014, 28:1323–1331. doi:10.1007/s00468-014-1036-8.
148. Moshelion M, Halperin O, Wallach R, Oren R, Way DA. Role of aquaporins in determining transpiration and photosynthesis in water-stressed plants: crop water-use efficiency, growth and yield. Plant Cell Environ 2014, 38:1785–1793. doi:10.1111/pce.12410.
149. Jungk AO. Dynamics of nutrient movement at the soil-root interface. In: Plant Roots: The Hidden Half. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc.; 2002, 587–616.
150. Chapman N, Miller AJ, Lindsey K, Richard Whalley W. Roots, water, and nutrient acquisition: let's get physical. Trends Plant Sci 2012, 17:701–710.
151. Zelazny E, Vert G. Plant nutrition: root transporters on the move. Plant Physiol 2014, 166:500–508. doi:10.1104/pp.114.244475.
152. He L, Ivanov VY, Bohrer G, Thomsen JE, Vogel CS, Moghaddam M. Temporal dynamics of soil moisture in a northern temperate mixed successional forest after a prescribed intermediate disturbance. Agr Forest Meteorol 2013, 180:22–33.
153. Leitner D, Klepsch S, Bodner G, Schnepf A. A dynamic root system growth model based on L-systems. Plant and Soil 2010, 332:177–192.
154. Vrugt JA, vanWijk MT, Hopmans JW, Simunek J. One-, two-, and three-dimensional root water uptake functions for transient modeling. Water Resour Res 2001, 37:2457–2470. doi:10.1029/2000WR000027.
155. Doussan C, Pierret A, Garrigues E, Pages L. Water uptake by plant roots: II—modelling of water transfer in the soil root system with explicit account of flow within the root system—comparison with experiments. Plant and Soil 2006, 283:99–117.
156. Javaux M, Schroder T, Vanderborght J, Vereecken H. Use of a three-dimensional detailed modeling approach for predicting root water uptake. Vadose Zone J 2008, 7:1079–1088.
157. Schneider CL, Attinger S, Delfs JO, Hildebrandt A. Implementing small scale processes at the soil-plant interface - the role of root architectures for calculating root water uptake profiles. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 2010, 14:279–289. doi:10.5194/hess-14-279-2010.
158. Dunbabin VM, Postma JA, Schnepf A, Pagès L, Javaux M, Wu L, Leitner D, Chen YL, Rengel Z, Diggle AJ. Modelling root-soil interactions using three-dimensional models of root growth, architecture and function. Plant and Soil 2013, 372:93–124. doi:10.1007/s11104-013-1769-y.
159. Manoli G, Bonetti S, Domec JC, Putti M, Katul G, Marani M. Tree root systems competing for soil moisture in a 3D soil–plant model. Adv Water Resour 2014, 66:32–42.
160. Postma JA, Schurr U, Fiorani F. Dynamic root growth and architecture responses to limiting nutrient availability: linking physiological models and experimentation. Biotechnol Adv 2014, 32:53–65.
161. Warren JM, Hanson PJ, Iversen CM, Kumar J, Walker AP, Wullschleger SD. Root structural and functional dynamics in terrestrial biosphere models – evaluation and recommendations. New Phytol 2015, 205:59–78. doi:10.1111/nph.1303.
162. Feddes RA, Kowalik P, Kolinska-Malinka K, Zaradny H. Simulation of field water uptake by plants using a soil water dependent root extraction function. J Hydrol 1976, 31:13–26.
163. Feddes RA, Ho H, Bruen M, Dawson T, de Rosnay P, Dirmeyer P, Jackson RB, Kabat P, Kleidon A, Lilly A, et al. Modeling root water uptake in hydrological and climate models. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 2001, 82:2797–2809.
164. Ivanov VY, Bras RL, Vivoni ER. Vegetation-hydrology dynamics in complex terrain of semiarid areas: 1. A mechanistic approach to modeling dynamic feedbacks. Water Resour Res 2008, 44:W03429. doi:10.1029/2006WR005588.
165. Fatichi S, Ivanov VY, Caporali E. A mechanistic ecohydrological model to investigate complex interactions in cold and warm water-controlled environments. 1. Theoretical framework and plot-scale analysis. J Adv Model Earth Syst 2012, 4:M05002.
166. Daly E, Porporato A, Rodriguez-Iturbe I. Coupled dynamics of photosynthesis, transpiration, and soil water balance. Part I: upscaling from hourly to daily level. J Hydrometeorol 2004, 5:546–558.
167. Deckmyn G, Verbeeck H, de Beeck MO, Vansteenkiste D, Steppe K, Ceulemans R. ANAFORE: a stand-scale process-based forest model that includes wood tissue development and labile carbon storage in trees. Ecol Model 2008, 215:345–368.
168. Newman EI. Resistance to water flow in soil and plant. I. Soil resistance in relation to amounts of root: theoretical estimate. J Appl Ecol 1969, 6:1–12.
169. Dixon HH, Joly J. On the ascent of sap. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B 1894, 186:563–576.
170. Tyree MT. The cohesion-tension theory of sap ascent: current controversies. J Exp Bot 1997, 48:1753–1765.
171. Münch E. Die Stoffbewegungen in der Pflanze. Jena, Germany: Gustav Fischer; 1930.
172. De Schepper V, De Swaef T, Bauweraerts I, Steppe K. Phloem transport: a review of mechanisms and controls. J Exp Bot 2013, 64:4839–4850. doi:10.1093/jxb/ert302.
173. Ryan MG, Asao S. Phloem transport in trees. Tree Physiol 2014, 34:1–4. doi:10.1093/treephys/tpt123.
174. Pockman WT, Sperry JS. Vulnerability to xylem cavitation and the distribution of Sonoran vegetation. Am J Bot 2000, 87:1287–1299.
175. Martínez-Vilalta J, Prat E, Oliveras I, Piñol J. Xylem hydraulic properties of roots and stems of nine mediterranean woody species. Oecologia 2002, 133:19–29.
176. Lopez OR, Kursar TA, Cochard H, Tyree MT. Interspecific variation in xylem vulnerability to cavitation among tropical tree and shrub species. Tree Physiol 2005, 25:1553–1562.
177. Maherali H, Pockman WT, Jackson RB. Adaptive variation in the vulnerability of woody plants to xylem cavitation. Ecology 2004, 85:2184–2199.
178. Meinzer FC, Johnson DM, Lachenbruch B, McCulloh KM, Woodruff DR. Xylem hydraulic safety margins in woody plants: coordination of stomatal control of xylem tension with hydraulic capacitance. Funct Ecol 2009, 23:922–930. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2009.01577.x.
179. Domec JC, Gartner BL. Cavitation and water storage capacity in bole xylem segments of mature and young Douglas-fir trees. Trees 2001, 15:204–214.
180. Steppe K, De Pauw DJW, Doody TM, Teskey RO. Comparison of sap flux density using thermal dissipation, heat pulse velocity and heat field deformation methods. Agr Forest Meteorol 2010, 150:1046–1056.
181. Hölttä T, Vesala T, Sevanto S, Perämäki M, Nikinmaa E. Modeling xylem and phloem water flows in trees according to cohesion theory and Münch hypothesis. Trees Struct Funct 2006, 20:67–78.
182. Thompson MV, Holbrook NM. Application of a single-solute non-steady-state phloem model to the study of long-distance assimilate transport. J Theor Biol 2003, 220:419–455.
183. Cochrane TT, Cochrane TA. Differences in the way potassium chloride and sucrose solutions effect osmotic potential of significance to stomata aperture modulation. Plant Physiol Biochem 2009, 47:205–209.
184. Woodruff DR, Bond BJ, Meinzer FC. Does turgor limit growth in tall trees? Plant Cell Environ 2004, 27:229–236.
185. Woodruff DR, Meinzer FC. Size-dependent changes in biophysical control of tree growth: the role of turgor. In: Size- and Age-Related Changes in Tree Structure and Function. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer; 2011, 363–384.
186. Turgeon R. The puzzle of phloem pressure. Plant Physiol 2010, 154:578–581.
187. Mencuccini M, Hölttä T, Sevanto S, Nikinmaa E. Concurrent measurements of change in the bark and xylem diameters of trees reveal a phloem-generated turgor signal. New Phytol 2013, 198:1143–1154.
188. Hölttä T, Mencuccini M, Nikinmaa E. Linking phloem function to structure: analysis with a coupled xylem-phloem transport model. J Theor Biol 2009, 259:325–337.
189. Sevanto S, Hölttä T, Holbrook NM. Effects of the hydraulic coupling between xylem and phloem on diurnal phloem diameter variation. Plant Cell Environ 2011, 34:690–703. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3040.2011.02275.x.
190. Meinzer FC, James SA, Goldstein G, Woodruff D. Whole-tree water transport scales with sapwood capacitance in tropical forest canopy trees. Plant Cell Environ 2003, 2003:1147–1155.
191. Scholz FG, Bucci SJ, Goldstein G, Meinzer FC, Franco AC, Miralles-Wilhelm F. Biophysical properties and functional significance of stem water storage tissues in neotropical savanna trees. Plant Cell Environ 2007, 30:236–248.
192. Barnard DM, Meinzer FC, Lachenbruch B, McCulloh KA, Johnson DM, Woodruff DR. Climate-related trends in sapwood biophysical properties in two conifers: avoidance of hydraulic dysfunction through coordinated adjustments in xylem efficiency, safety and capacitance. Plant Cell Environ 2011, 34:643–654.
193. Verbeeck H, Steppe K, Nadezhdina N, De Beeck MO, Deckmyn GO, Meiresonne L, Lemeur R, Cermák J, Ceulemans R, Janssens IA. Stored water use and transpiration in Scots pine: a modeling analysis with ANAFORE. Tree Physiol 2007, 27:1671–1685.
194. Cermák J, Kucera J, Bauerle WL, Phillips N, Hinckely TM. Tree water storage and its diurnal dynamics related to sap flow and changes in stem volume in old-growth douglas-fir trees. Tree Physiol 2007, 27:181–198.
195. Scholz FG, Phillips NG, Bucci SJ, Meinzer FC, Goldstein G. Hydraulic capacitance: biophysics and functional significance of internal water sources in relation to tree size. In: Size- and Age-Related Changes in Tree Structure and Function. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer; 2011, 341–361.
196. Domec JC, Gartner BL. How do water transport and storage differ in coniferous earlywood and latewood? J Exp Bot 2002, 53:2369–2379.
197. Domec JC, Gartner BL. Relationship between growth rates and xylem hydraulic characteristics in young, mature and old-growth ponderosa pine trees. Plant Cell Environ 2003, 26:471–483.
198. Génard M, Fishman S, Vercambre G, Huguet JG, Bussi C, Besset J, Habib R. A biophysical analysis of stem and root diameter variations in woody plants. Plant Physiol 2001, 126:188–202.
199. Zweifel R, Item H, Häsler R. Link between diurnal stem radius changes and tree water relations. Tree Physiol 2001, 21:869–887.
200. Zweifel R, Zimmermann L, Zeugin F, Newbery DM. Intra-annual radial growth and water relations of trees: implications towards a growth mechanism. J Exp Bot 2006, 57:1445–1459. doi:10.1093/jxb/erj125.
201. Fernández JE, Cuevas MV. Irrigation scheduling from stem diameter variations: a review. Agr Forest Meteorol 2010, 150:135–151.
202. King G, Fonti P, Nievergelt D, Buntgen U, Frank D. Climatic drivers of hourly to yearly tree radius variations along a 6 °C natural warming gradient. Agr Forest Meteorol 2013, 2013:36–46.
203. Köcher P. V. Horna, and C. Leuschner. Stem water storage in five coexisting temperate broad-leaved tree species: significance, temporal dynamics and dependence on tree functional traits. Tree Physiol 2013, 33:817–832. doi:10.1093/treephys/tpt055.
204. Katul GG, Leuning R, Oren R. Relationship between plant hydraulic and biochemical properties derived from a steady-state coupled water and carbon transport model. Plant Cell Environ 2003, 26:339–350.
205. Loranty MM, Mackay DS, Ewers BE, Traver E, Kruger EL. Competition for light between individual trees lowers reference canopy stomatal conductance: results from a model. J Geophys Res Biogeosci 2010, 115:G04019. doi:10.1029/2010JG001377.
206. Mackay DS, Roberts DE, Ewers BE, Sperry JS, McDowell NG, Pockman WT. Interdependence of chronic hydraulic dysfunction and canopy processes can improve integrated models of tree response to drought. Water Resour Res 2015, 51:6156–6176. doi:10.1002/2015WR017244.
207. Bohrer G, Mourad H, Laursen TA, Drewry D, Avissar R, Poggi D, Oren R, Katul GG. Finite element tree crown hydrodynamics model (FETCH) using porous media flow within branching elements: a new representation of tree hydrodynamics. Water Resour Res 2005, 41:W11404. doi:10.1029/2005WR004181.
208. Janott M, Gayler S, Gessler A, Javaux M, Klier C, Priesack E. A one-dimensional model of water flow in soil-plant systems based on plant architecture. Plant and Soil 2011, 341:233–256. doi:10.1007/s11104-010-0639-0.
209. Bittner S, Legner N, Beese F, Priesack E. Individual tree branch-level simulation of light attenuation and water flow of three F. sylvatica L. trees. J Geophys Res 2012, 117:G01037. doi:10.1029/2011JG001780.
210. Hentschel R, Bittner S, Janott M, Biernath C, Holst J, Ferrio JP, Gessler A, Priesack E. Simulation of stand transpiration based on a xylem water flow model for individual trees. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 2013, 182–183:31–42.
211. Chuang YL, Oren R, Bertozzi AL, Phillips N, Katul GG. The porous media model for the hydraulic system of a conifer tree: linking sap flux data to transpiration rate. Ecol Model 2006, 191:447–468.
212. Hölttä T, Cochard H, Nikinmaa E, Mencuccini M. Capacitive effect of cavitation in xylem conduits: results from a dynamic model. Plant Cell Environ 2009, 32:10–21.
213. Nikinmaa E, Sievänen R, Hölttä T. Dynamics of leaf gas exchange, xylem and phloem transport, water potential and carbohydrate concentration in a realistic 3-D model tree crown. Ann Bot 2014, 114:653–666.
214. Schiestl-Aalto P, Kulmala L, Mäkinen H, Nikinmaa E, Mäkelä A. CASSIA - a dynamic model for predicting intra-annual sink demand and interannual growth variation in scots pine. New Phytol 2015, 206:647–659. doi:10.1111/nph.13275.
215. Steppe K, De Pauw DJW, Lemeur R, Vanrolleghem PA. A mathematical model linking tree sap flow dynamics to daily stem diameter fluctuations and radial stem growth. Tree Physiol 2005, 26:257–273.
216. De Pauw DJW, Steppe K, De Baets B. Identifiability analysis and improvement of a tree water flow and storage model. Math Biosci 2008, 211:314–332.
217. De Schepper V, Steppe K. Development and verification of a water and sugar transport model using measured stem diameter variations. J Exp Bot 2010, 61:2083–2099. doi:10.1093/jxb/erq018.
218. De Schepper V, Steppe K. Tree girdling responses simulated by a water and carbon transport model. Ann Bot 2011, 108:1147–1154. doi:10.1093/aob/mcr068.
219. Daudet FA, Lacointe A, Gaudillere JP, Cruiziat P. Generalized Münch coupling between sugar and water fluxes for modelling carbon allocation as affected by water status. J Theor Biol 2002, 214:481–498. doi:10.1006/jtbi.2001.2473.
220. Hsiao TC, Acevedo E, Fereres E, Henderson DW. Stress metabolism: water stress, growth and osmotic adjustment. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 1976, 273:479–500.
221. Wang Z, Quebedeaux B, Stutte GW. Osmotic adjustment: effect of water stress on carbohydrates in leaves, stems and roots of apple. Aust J Plant Physiol 1995, 22:747–754.
222. Bartlett MK, Scoffoni C, Sack L. The determinants of leaf turgor loss point and prediction of drought tolerance of species and biomes: a global meta-analysis. Ecol Lett 2012, 15:393–405.
223. Cosgrove DJ. Growth of the plant cell wall. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2005, 6:850–861. doi:10.1038/nrm1746.
224. Hölttä T, Mäkinen H, Nöjd P, Mäkelä A, Nikinmaa E. A physiological model of softwood cambial growth. Tree Physiol 2010, 30:1235–1252. doi:10.1093/treephys/tpq068.
225. Lockhart JA. An analysis of irreversible plant cell elongation. J Theor Biol 1965, 8:264–275.
226. Cosgrove D. Biophysical control of plant cell growth. Annu Rev Plant Physiol 1986, 37:377–405.
227. Boyer JS, Silk WK. Hydraulics of plant growth. Funct Plant Biol 2004, 2004:761–773.
228. Hsiao TC. Plant responses to water stress. Annu Rev Plant Physiol 1973, 24:519–570.
229. Muller B, Pantin F, Génard M, Turc O, Freixes S, Piques M, Gibon Y. Water deficits uncouple growth from photosynthesis, increase C content, and modify the relationships between C and growth in sink organs. J Exp Bot 2011, 62:1715–1729. doi:10.1093/jxb/erq438.
230. Tardieu F, Granier C, Muller B. Water deficit and growth. Co-ordinating processes without an orchestrator? Curr Opin Plant Biol 2011, 14:283–289.
231. Cannell MGR, Thornley JHM. Modelling plant respiration: some guiding principles. Ann Bot 2000, 85:45–54.
232. McDowell NG. Mechanisms linking drought, hydraulics, carbon metabolism, and mortality. Plant Physiol 2011, 155:1051–1059.
233. Brando PM, Nepstad DC, Davidson EA, Trumbore SE, Ray D, Camargo P. Drought effects on litterfall, wood production and belowground carbon cycling in an Amazon forest: results of a throughfall reduction experiment. Philos Trans R Soc B 2008, 363:1839–1848. doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.0031.
234. Brzostek ER, Dragoni D, Schmid HP, Rahman AF, Sims D, Wayson CA, Johnson DJ, Phillips RP. Chronic water stress reduces tree growth and the carbon sink of deciduous hardwood forests. Glob Chang Biol 2014, 20:2531–2539. doi:10.1111/gcb.12528.
235. Fischer EM, Seneviratne SI, Vidale PL, Lüthi D, Schär C. Soil moisture–atmosphere interactions during the 2003 European summer heat wave. J Climate 2007, 20:5081–5099.
236. Lawlor DW, Tezara W. Causes of decreased photosynthetic rate and metabolic capacity in water-deficient leaf cells: a critical evaluation of mechanisms and integration of processes. Ann Bot 2009, 103:561–579. doi:10.1093/aob/mcn244.
237. Bartlett MK, Zhang Y, Kreidler N, Sun S, Ardy R, Cao K, Sack L. Global analysis of plasticity in turgor loss point, a key drought tolerance trait. Ecol Lett 2014, 17:1580–1590. doi:10.1111/ele.12374.
238. Hartmann H, Ziegler W, Kolle O, Trumbore S. Thirst beats hunger - declining hydration during drought prevents carbon starvation in Norway spruce saplings. New Phytol 2013, 200:340–349. doi:10.1111/nph.12331.
239. Gaylord ML, Kolb TE, Pockman WT, Plaut JA, Yepez EA, Macalady AK, Pangle RE, McDowell NG. Drought predisposes pinon–juniper woodlands to insect attacks and mortality. New Phytol 2013, 198:567–578.
240. Poyatos R, Aguadé D, Galiano L, Mencuccini M, Martínez-Vilalta J. Drought-induced defoliation and long periods of near-zero gas exchange play a key role in accentuating metabolic decline of Scots pine. New Phytol 2013, 220:388–401. doi:10.1111/nph.12278.
241. Penuelas J, Filella I, Zhang XY, Llorens L, Ogaya R, Lloret L, Comas P, Estiarte M, Terradas J. Complex spatiotemporal phenological shifts as a response to rainfall changes. New Phytol 2004, 161:837–846. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01003.x.
242. Vico G, Thompson SE, Manzoni S, Molini A, Albertson JD, Almeida-Cortez JS, Fay PA, Feng X, Guswa AJ, Liu H, et al. Climatic ecophysiological and phenological controls on plant ecohydrological strategies in seasonally dry ecosystems. Ecohydrology 2015:660–681. doi:10.1002/eco.1533.
243. Manzoni S, Vico G, Thompson S, Beyer F, Weih M. Contrasting leaf phonological strategies optimize carbon gain under droughts of different duration. Adv Water Resour 2015, 84:37–51. doi:10.1016/j.advwatres.2015.08.001.
244. McDowell N, Pockman W, Allen C, Breshears DD, Cobb N, Kolb T, Sperry J, West A, Williams D, Yepez E. Mechanisms of plant survival and mortality during drought: why do some plants survive while others succumb to drought? New Phytol 2008, 178:719–739. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137D2008D02436.x.
245. McDowell NG, Beerling DJ, Breshears DD, Fisher RA, Raffa KF, Stitt M. The interdependent mechanisms underlying climate-driven vegetation mortality. Trends Ecol Evol 2011, 26:523–532.
246. Sevanto S, McDowell NG, Dickman LT, Pangle R, Pockman WT. How do trees die? A test of the hydraulic failure and carbon starvation hypotheses. Plant Cell Environ 2014, 37:153–161. doi:10.1111/pce.1214.
247. Allen CD, Macalady AK, Chenchouni H, Bachelet D, McDowell NG, Vennetier M, Kitzberger T, Rigling A, Breshears DD, Hogg EH(T), et al. A global overview of drought and heat-induced tree mortality reveals emerging climate change risks for forests. For Ecol Manage 2010, 259:660–684.
248. Phillips OL, van der Heijden G, Lewis SL, López-González G, Aragao LEOC, Lloyd J, Malhi Y, Monteagudo A, Almeida S, et al. Drought-mortality relationships for tropical forests. New Phytol 2010, 187:631–646.
249. Choat B, Jansen S, Brodribb TJ, Cochard H, Delzon S, Bhaskar R, Bucci SJ, Feild TS, Gleason SM, Hacke UG, et al. Global convergence in the vulnerability of forests to drought. Nature 2012, 491:752–755.
250. Adams HD, Guardiola-Claramonte M, Barron-Gafford GA, Breshears DD, Villegas JC, Zou CB, Troch PA, Huxman TE. Temperature sensitivity of drought-induced tree mortality portends increased regional die-off under global change-type drought. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009, 106:7063–7066.
251. Breshears DD, Myers OB, Meyer CW, Barnes FJ, Zou CB, Allen CD, McDowell NG, Pockman WT. Tree die-off in response to global change-type drought: mortality insights from a decade of plant water potential measurements. Front Ecol Environ 2009, 7:185–189.
252. Breshears DD, Adams HD, Eamus D, McDowell NG, Law DJ, Will RE, Williams AP, Zou CB. The critical amplifying role of increasing atmospheric moisture demand on tree mortality and associated regional die-off. Front Plant Sci 2013, 4:266. doi:10.3389/fpls.2013.00266.
253. McDowell NG, Fisher RA, Xu C, Domec JC, Hölttä T, Mackay DS, Sperry JS, Boutz A, Dickman L, Gehres N, et al. Evaluating theories of drought-induced vegetation mortality using a multimodel-experiment framework. New Phytol 2013, 200:304–321.
254. Meir P, Mencuccini M, Dewar RC. Drought-related tree mortality: addressing the gaps in understanding and prediction. New Phytol 2015, 207:28–33.
255. Reed DE, Ewers BE, Pendall E. Impact of mountain pine beetle induced mortality on forest carbon and water fluxes. Environ Res Lett 2014, 9:105004. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/9/10/105004.
256. Monteith JL. Evaporation and environment. In: Fogg GE, ed. Symposium Society Experimental Biology, The State and Movement of Water in Living Organisms, vol. 19. London: Cambridge University Press; 1965, 205–224.
257. Bonan GB. Forests and climate change: forcings, feedbacks, and the climate benefits of forests. Science 2008, 320:1444–1449.
258. Allen RG, Pereira LS, Raes D, and Smith M. Crop evapotranspiration-Guidelines for computing crop water requirements, volume 300 of FAO Irrigation and drainage paper. FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1998.
259. Drewry DT, Kumar P, Long S, Bernacchi C, Liang XZ, Sivapalan M. Ecohydrological responses of dense canopies to environmental variability: 1. Interplay between vertical structure and photosynthetic pathway. J Geophys Res 2010, 115(G04022):2010. doi:10.1029/2010JG001340.
260. Tague CL, Band LE. RHESSys: Regional Hydro-Ecologic Simulation System-an object-oriented approach to spatially distributed modeling of carbon, water, and nutrient cycling. Earth Interact 2004, 8:1–42.
261. Tague CL, McDowell NG, Allen CD. An integrated model of environmental effects on growth, carbohydrate balance, and mortality of Pinus ponderosa forests in the southern rocky mountains. PLoS One 2013, 8:e80286.
262. Niu GY, Paniconi C, Troch PA, Scott RL, Durcik M, Zeng X, Huxman T, Goodrich DC. An integrated modelling framework of catchment-scale ecohydrological processes: 1. Model description and tests over an energy-limited watershed. Ecohydrology 2014, 7:427–439. doi:10.1002/eco.1362.
263. Shen C, Niu J, Phanikumar MS. Evaluating controls on coupled hydrologic and vegetation dynamics in a humid continental climate watershed using a subsurface-land surface processes model. Water Resour Res 2013, 49:2552–2572. doi:10.1002/wrcr.20189.
264. Della Chiesa S, Bertoldi G, Niedrist G, Obojes N, Endrizzi S, Albertson JD, Wohlfahrt G, Hörtnagl L, Tappeiner U. Modelling changes in grassland hydrological cycling along an elevational gradient in the Alps. Ecohydrology 2014, 7:1453–1473. doi:10.1002/eco.1471.
265. Zhou X, Istanbulluoglu E, Vivoni ER. Modeling the ecohydrological role of aspect-controlled radiation on tree–grass–shrub coexistence in a semiarid climate. Water Resour Res 2013, 49:2872–2895.
266. van Wijk MT, Rodriguez-Iturbe I. Tree-grass competition in space and time: insights from a simple cellular automata model based on ecohydrological dynamics. Water Resour Res 2002, 38:18.1–18.15.
267. 2 and water vapor exchange of a temperate broadleaved forest across hourly to decadal time scales. Ecol Model 2001, 142:155–184.
268. Nouvellon Y, Rambal S, Seen DL, Moran MS, Lhomme JP, Begue A, Chehbouni AG, Kerr Y. Modelling of daily fluxes of water and carbon from shortgrass steppes. Agr Forest Meteorol 2000, 100:137–153.
269. Montaldo N, Rondena R, Albertson JD, Mancini M. Parsimonious modeling of vegetation dynamics for ecohydrologic studies of water-limited ecosystems. Water Resour Res 2005, 41(W10416):2005. doi:10.1029/2005WR004094.
270. Vertessy RA, Hatton TJ, Benyon RG, Dawes WR. Long-term growth and water balance predictions for a mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) forest catchment subject to clear-felling and regeneration. Tree Physiol 1996, 16:221–232.
271. 2 fluxes. Ecohydrology 2010, 3:205–225. doi:10.1002/eco.111.
272. Battaglia M, Sands P, White D, Mummery D. CABALA: a linked carbon, water and nitrogen model of forest growth for silvicultural decision support. For Ecol Manage 2004, 193:251–282.
273. Kirschbaum MUF, Keith H, Leuning R, Cleugh HA, Jacobsen KL, van Gorsel E, Raison J. Modelling net ecosystem carbon and water exchange of a temperate Eucalyptus delegatensis forest using multiple constraints. Agr Forest Meteorol 2007, 145:48–68.
274. Dufrêne E, Davi H, François C, le Maire G, Le Dantec V, Granier A. Modelling carbon and water cycles in a beech forest Part I: model description and uncertainty analysis on modelled NEE. Ecol Model 2005, 185:407–436.
275. 2, water and energy multilayer, multileaf pine forest model: evaluation from hourly to yearly time scales and sensitivity analysis. Glob Chang Biol 2003, 9:697–717. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2486.2003.00628.
276. Wang L, Koike T, Yang K, Jackson TJ, Bindlish R, Yang D. Development of a distributed biosphere hydrological model and its evaluation with the southern great plains experiments (SGP97 and SGP99). J Geophys Res 2009, 114(D08107):2014. doi:10.1029/2008JD010800.
277. Govind A, Chen JM, Margolis H, Ju W, Sonnentag O, Giasson MA. A spatially explicit hydro-ecological modeling framework (BEPS-TerrainLab V2.0): model description and test in a boreal ecosystem in Eastern North America. J Hydrol 2009, 367:200–216.
278. Richards LA. Capillary conduction of liquids through porous mediums. Physics 1931, 1:318–333.
279. Celia MA, Bouloutas ET, Zarba RL. A general mass-conservative numerical solution for the unsaturated flow equation. Water Resour Res 1990, 26:1483–1496.
280. Simunek J, van Genuchten MT. Modeling nonequilibrium flow and transport processes using HYDRUS. Vadose Zone J 2008, 7:782–797.
281. Paniconi C, Putti M. A comparison of Picard and Newton iteration in the numerical solution of multidimensional variably saturated flow problems. Water Resour Res 1994, 30:3357–3374.
282. Schwinning S. The ecohydrology of roots in rocks. Ecohydrology 2010, 3:238–245. doi:10.1002/eco.134.
283. Oleson KW, Lawrence DM, Bonan GB, Flanner MG, Kluzek E, Lawrence PJ, Levis S, Swenson SC, Thornton PE. Technical description of version 4.0 of the Community Land Model (CLM). Technical Report NCAR/TN-478+STR, Natl. Cent. for Atmos. Res., Boulder, Colorado, 2010.
284. Huang M, Piao S, Sun Y, Ciais P, Cheng L, Mao J, Poulter B, Shi X, Zeng Z, Wang Y. Change in terrestrial ecosystem water-use efficiency over the last three decades. Glob Chang Biol 2015, 21:2366–2378. doi:10.1111/gcb.12873.
285. Gitelson AA, Gamon JA. The need for a common basis for defining light-use efficiency: implications for productivity estimation. Remote Sens Environ 2015, 156:196–201. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2014.09.017.
286. Anderson MC, Norman JM, Meyers TP, Diak GR. An analytical model for estimating canopy transpiration and carbon assimilation fluxes based on canopy light-use efficiency. Agr Forest Meteorol 2000, 101:265–289.
287. Istanbulluoglu E, Wang T, Wedin DA. Evaluation of ecohydrologic model parsimony at local and regional scales in a semiarid grassland ecosystem. Ecohydrology 2011, 5:121–142. doi:10.1002/eco.211.
288. Arora VK. Modelling vegetation as a dynamic component in soil-vegetation-atmosphere- transfer schemes and hydrological models. Rev Geophys 2002, 40:3-1–3-26. doi:10.1029/2001RG000103.
289. Friend AD, Stevens AK, Knox RG, Cannell MGR. A process-based, terrestrial biosphere model of ecosystem dynamics (Hybrid v3.0). Ecol Model 1997, 95:249–287.
290. Davi H, Barbaroux C, François C, Dufrêne E. The fundamental role of reserves and hydraulic constraints in predicting LAI and carbon allocation in forests. Agr Forest Meteorol 2009, 149:349–361.
291. Sala A, Woodruff DR, Meinzer FC. Carbon dynamics in trees: feast or famine? Tree Physiol 2012, 32:764–775. doi:10.1093/treephys/tpr143.
292. Fatichi S, Leuzinger S, Körner C. Moving beyond photosynthesis: from carbon source to sink-driven vegetation modeling. New Phytol 2014, 201:1086–1095. doi:10.1111/nph.12614.
293. Manzoni S, Porporato A. Soil carbon and nitrogen mineralization: theory and models across scales. Soil Biol Biochem 2009, 41:1355–1379. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2009.02.031.
294. Parton WJ, Stewart JWB, Cole CV. Dynamics of C, N, P and S in grassland soils - a model. Biogeochemistry 1988, 5:109–131.
295. Dickinson RE, Berry JA, Bonan GB, Collatz GJ, Field CB, Fung IY, Goulden M, Hoffmann WA, Jackson RB, Myneni R, et al. Nitrogen controls on climate model evapotranspiration. J Climate 2002, 15:278–294.
296. Kirschbaum MUF, Paul KI. Modelling C and N dynamics in forest soils with a modified version of the CENTURY model. Soil Biol Biochem 2002, 34:341–354.
297. Xu-Ri, Prentice IC. Terrestrial nitrogen cycle simulation with a dynamic global vegetation model. Glob Change Biol 2008, 14:1745–1764. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01625.x.
298. Zaehle S, Friend A. Carbon and nitrogen cycle dynamics in the O-CN land surface model: 1. Model description, site-scale evaluation, and sensitivity to parameter estimates. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2010, 24:GB1005. doi:10.1029/2009GB003521.
299. Orwin KH, Kirschbaum MUF, St John MG, Dickie IA. Organic nutrient uptake by mycorrhizal fungi enhances ecosystem carbon storage: a model-based assessment. Ecol Lett 2011, 14:493–502. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01611.x.
300. Wang G, Post WM, Mayes MA. Development of microbial-enzyme-mediated decomposition model parameters through steady-state and dynamic analyses. Ecol Appl 2013, 23:255–272.
301. Allison SD, Wallenstein MD, Bradford MA. Soil-carbon response to warming dependent on microbial physiology. Nat Geosci 2010, 3:336–340.
302. Wieder WR, Bonan GB, Allison SD. Global soil carbon projections are improved by modelling microbial processes. Nat Clim Change 2013, 3:909–912.
303. Manzoni S, Schimel JP, Porporato A. Responses of soil microbial communities to water stress: results from a meta-analysis. Ecology 2012, 93:930–938.
304. Li J, Wang G, Allison SD, Mayes MA, Luo Y. Soil carbon sensitivity to temperature and carbon use efficiency compared across microbial-ecosystem models of varying complexity. Biogeochemistry 2014, 119:67–84. doi:10.1007/s10533-013-9948-8.
305. Manzoni S, Trofymow JA, Jackson RB, Porporato A. Stoichiometric controls on carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus dynamics in decomposing litter. Ecol Monogr 2010, 80:89–106.
306. Sinsabaugh RL, Manzoni S, Moorhead DL, Richter A. Carbon use efficiency of microbial communities: stoichiometry, methodology and modelling. Ecol Lett 2013, 16:930–939. doi:10.1111/ele.12113.
307. Wu L, McGechan MB, McRoberts N, Baddeley JA, Watson CA. SPACSYS: integration of a 3D root architecture component to carbon, nitrogen and water cycling—model description. Ecol Model 2007, 200:343–359.
308. Hinsinger P, Brauman A, Devau N, Gérard F, Jourdan C, Laclau JP, Le Cadre E, Jaillard B, Plassard C. Acquisition of phosphorus and other poorly mobile nutrients by roots. Where do plant nutrition models fail? Plant Soil 2011, 348:29–61. doi:10.1007/s11104-011-0903-y.
309. Sterner RW, Elser JJ, Vitousek P. Ecological Stoichiometry: The Biology of Elements from Molecules to the Biosphere. Princeton, NJ, USA: Princeton University Press; 2002.
310. Field HA, Mooney C. The photosynthesis-nitrogen relationship in wild plants. In: Givnish TJ, ed. On the Economy of Plant Form and Function. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press; 1986, 25–55.
311. Evans JR. Photosynthesis and nitrogen relationship in leaves of C3 plants. Oecologia 1989, 78:9–19.
312. Kattge J, Knorr W, Raddatz T. and C. Wirth. Quantifying photosynthetic capacity and its relationship to leaf nitrogen content for global-scale terrestrial biosphere models. Glob Chang Biol 2009, 15:976–991. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01744.x.
313. Niinemets U, Keenan TF, Hallik L. A worldwide analysis of within-canopy variations in leaf structural, chemical and physiological traits across plant functional types. New Phytol 2015, 205:973–993. doi:10.1111/nph.13096.
314. Welsh AH, Peterson AT, Altmann SA. The fallacy of averages. Am Nat 1988, 132:277–288.
315. Pappas C, Fatichi S, Rimkus S, Burlando P, Huber MO. The role of local scale heterogeneities in terrestrial ecosystem modeling. J Geophys Res Biogeosci 2015, 120:341–360. doi:10.1002/2014JG002735.
316. Dozier J, Frew J. Rapid calculation of terrain parameters for radiation modelling from digital elevation data. IEEE Trans Geosci Remote Sens 1990, 28:963–969.
317. Chen Y, Hall A, Liou KN. Application of three-dimensional solar radiative transfer to mountains. J Geophys Res 2006, 111:D21111. doi:10.1029/2006JD007163.
318. Bertoldi G, Rigon R, Over TM. Impact of watershed geomorphic characteristics on the energy and water budgets. J Hydrometeorol 2006, 7:389–403.
319. Yetemen O, Istanbulluoglu EI, Flores-Cervantes JH, Vivoni ER, Bras RL. Ecohydrologic role of solar radiation on landscape evolution. Water Resour Res 2015, 51:1127–1157.
320. Ivanov VY, Bras RL, Vivoni ER. Vegetation-hydrology dynamics in complex terrain of semiarid areas: 2. Energy-water controls of vegetation spatiotemporal dynamics and topographic niches of favorability. Water Resour Res 2008, 44:W03430. doi:10.1029/2006WR005595.
321. Fatichi S, Ivanov VY, Caporali E. A mechanistic ecohydrological model to investigate complex interactions in cold and warm water-controlled environments. 2. Spatiotemporal analyses. J Adv Model Earth Syst 2012, 4:M05003.
322. Band LE, Tague CL, Groffman P, Belt K. Forest ecosystem processes at the watershed scale: hydrological and ecological controls of nitrogen export. Hydrol Process 2001, 15:2013–2028. doi:10.1002/hyp.253.
323. Lin L, Webster JR, Hwang T, Band LE. Effects of lateral nitrate flux and instream processes on dissolved inorganic nitrogen export in a forested catchment: a model sensitivity analysis. Water Resour Res 2015, 51:2680–2695. doi:10.1002/2014WR015962.
324. Caracciolo D, Noto LV, Istanbulluoglu E, Fatichi S, Zhou X. Climate change and ecotone boundaries: insights from a cellular automata ecohydrology model in a mediterranean catchment with topography controlled vegetation pattern. Adv Water Resour 2014, 73:159–175.
325. Borgogno F, D'Odorico P, Laio F, Ridolfi L. Mathematical models of vegetation pattern formation in ecohydrology. Rev Geophys 2009, 47:RG1005. doi:10.1029/2007RG000256.
326. Rietkerk M, Boerlijst MC, van Langevelde F, HilleRisLambers R, van de Koppel J, Kumar L, Prins HHT, de Roos AM. Self-organization of vegetation in arid ecosystems. Am Nat 2002, 160:524–530.
327. Ursino M. Modeling banded vegetation patterns in semiarid regions: interdependence between biomass growth rate and relevant hydrological processes. Water Resour Res 2007, 43:W04412. doi:10.1029/2006WR005292.
328. Saco PM, Willgoose GR, Hancock GR. Eco-geomorphology of banded vegetation patterns in arid and semi-arid regions. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 2007, 11:1717–1730.
329. Baudena M, D'Andrea F, Provenzale A. A model for soil-vegetation-atmosphere interactions in water-limited ecosystems. Water Resour Res 2008, 44:W12429. doi:10.1029/2008WR007172.
330. Thompson S, Katul G, McMahon SM. Role of biomass spread in vegetation pattern formation within arid ecosystems. Water Resour Res 2008, 44:W10421. doi:10.1029/2008WR006916.
331. Accatino F, De Michele C, Vezzoli R, Donzelli D, Scholes RJ. Tree–grass co-existence in savanna: interactions of rain and fire. J Theor Biol 2010, 267:235–242.
332. Foti R, Ramírez JA. A mechanistic description of the formation and evolution of vegetation patterns. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 2013, 17:63–84. doi:10.5194/hess-17-63-2013.
333. Running SW, Coughlan JC. A general model of forest ecosystem processes for regional applications, I: hydrologic balance, canopy gas exchange, and primary production processes. Ecol Model 1988, 42:125–154.
334. Prentice IC, Cramer W, Harrison SP, Leemans R, Monsereud RA, Solomon AM. A global biome model based on plant physiology and dominance, soil properties and climate. J Biogeogr 1992, 19:117–134.
335. Prentice IC, Sykes MT, Cramer W. A simulation model for the transient effects of climate change on forest landscapes. Ecol Modell 1993, 65:51–70.
336. 2 exchange between terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere. I. Model description and illustrative results for cold deciduous and boreal forests. Climate Res 1994, 4:143–166.
337. Ruimy A, Dedieu G, Saugier B. TURC: a diagnostic model of continental gross primary productivity and net primary productivity. Global Biogeochem Cycles 1996, 10:269–285.
338. Bonan GB. Land-atmosphere interactions for climate system models-coupling biophysical, biogeochemical, and ecosystem dynamical processes. Remote Sens Environ 1995, 51:57–73.
339. Bonan GB, Levis S, Sitch S, Vertenstein M, Oleson KW. A dynamic global vegetation model for use with climate models: concepts and description of simulated vegetation dynamics. Glob Chang Biol 2003, 9:1543–1566. doi:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2003.00681.x.
340. Sitch S, Huntingford C, Gedney N, Levy PE, Lomas M, Piao L, Betts R, Cias P, Cox P, Friedlingstein P. Evaluation of the terrestrial carbon cycle, future plant geography and climate-carbon cycle feedbacks using five dynamic global vegetation models (DGVMs). Glob Chang Biol 2008, 14:2015–2039. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01626.x.
341. Prinn RG. Development and application of Earth System Models. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2012, 110:3673–3680. doi:10.1073/pnas.1107470109.
342. Wenzel S, Cox PM, Eyring V, Friedlingstein P. Emergent constraints on climate carbon cycle feedbacks in the CMIP5 Earth system models. J Geophys Res Biogeosci 2014, 119:794–807. doi:10.1002/2013JG00259.
343. Dickinson RE, Henderson-Sellers A, Kennedy PJ. Biosphere-atmosphere transfer scheme (BATS) version 1E as coupled to the NCAR Community Climate Model. Technical Report NCAR/TN-387+STR, Natl. Cent. for Atmos. Res., Boulder, Colorado, 1993.
344. 2 fertilization and climate variability. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2007, 21:GB4018. doi:10.1029/2006GB002868.
345. Prentice IC, Bondeau A, Cramer W, Harrison SP, Hickler T, Lucht W, Stich S, Smith B, Sykes MT. Dynamic global vegetation modeling: quantifying terrestrial ecosystem responses to large-scale environmental change. In: Canadell JP, Pataki DE, Pitelka LF, eds. Terrestrial Ecosystems in a Changing World. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 2007.
346. Levis S. Modeling vegetation and land use in models of the Earth System. WIREs Clim Change 2010, 1:840–856. doi:10.1002/wcc.83.
347. Quillet A, Peng C, Garneau M. Toward dynamic global vegetation models for simulating vegetation-climate interactions and feedbacks: recent developments, limitations, and future challenges. Environ Rev 2010, 18:333–353. doi:10.1139/A10-016.
348. Medlyn BE, Duursma RA, Zeppel MJB. Forest productivity under climate change: a checklist for evaluating model studies. WIREs Clim Change 2011, 2:332–355. doi:10.1002/wcc.108.
349. Arain MA, Yuan F, Black TA. Soil-plant nitrogen cycling modulated carbon exchanges in a western temperate conifer forest in Canada. Agr Forest Meteorol 2006, 140:171–192.
350. Clark DB, Mercado LM, Sitch S, Jones CD, Gedney N, Best MJ, Pryor M, Rooney GG, Essery RLH, Blyth E, et al. The Joint UK Land Environment Simulator (JULES), model description – Part 2: carbon fluxes and vegetation dynamics. Geosci Model Dev 2011, 4:701–722.
351. Niu GY, Yang ZL, Mitchell KE, Chen F, Ek MB, Barlage M, Kumar A, Manning K, Niyogi D, Rosero E, et al. The community Noah land surface model with multiparameterization options (Noah-MP): 1. Model description and evaluation with local-scale measurements. J Geophys Res 2011, 116:D12109. doi:10.1029/2010JD015139.
352. Sitch S, Smith B, Prentice IC, Arneth A, Bondeau A, Cramer W, Kaplan JO, Levis S, Lucht W, Sykes MT, et al. Evaluation of ecosystem dynamics, plant geography and terrestrial carbon cycling in the LPJ dynamic global vegetation model. Glob Chang Biol 2003, 9:161–185.
353. Krinner G, Viovy N, de Noblet-Ducoudre N, Ogée J, Polcher J, Friedlingstein P, Ciais P, Sitch S, Prentice IC. A dynamic global vegetation model for studies of the coupled atmosphere-biosphere system. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2005, 19:GB1015. doi:10.1029/2003GB002199.
354. Levis S, Bonan GB, Vertenstein M, Oleson KW. The Community Land Model's Dynamic Global Vegetation Model (CLMDGVM): Technical description and user's guide. Tech. note, NCAR/TN-459+IA, Natl. Cent. for Atmos. Res., Boulder, CO, 2004.
355. Lawrence DM, Oleson KW, Flanner MG, Thornton PE, Swenson SC, Lawrence PJ, Zeng X, Yang ZL, Levis S, Sakaguchi K, et al. Parameterization improvements and functional and structural advances in version 4 of the Community Land Model. J Adv Model Earth Syst 2011, 3:M03001. doi:10.1029/2011MS000045.
356. Kucharik C, Foley J, Delire C, Fisher V, Coe M, Lenters J, Young-Molling C, Ramankutty N, Norman J, Gower S. Testing the performance of a dynamic global ecosystem model: water balance, carbon balance, and vegetation structure. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2000, 14:795–825.
357. Yang X, Wittig V, Jain AK, Post W. Integration of nitrogen cycle dynamics into the Integrated Science Assessment Model for the study of terrestrial ecosystem responses to global change. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2009, 23:GB4029. doi:10.1029/2009GB003474.
358. Tian H, Chen G, Liu M, Zhang C, Sun G, Lu C, Xu X, Ren W, Pan S, Chappelka A. Model estimates of net primary productivity, evapotranspiration, and water use efficiency in the terrestrial ecosystems of the southern United States during 1895-2007. For Ecol Manage 2010, 259:1311–1327.
359. Thornton PE, Law BE, Gholz HL, Clark KL, Falge E, Ellsworth DS, Goldstein AH, Monson RK, Hollinger D, Falk M, et al. Modeling and measuring the effects of disturbance history and climate on carbon and water budgets in evergreen needleleaf forests. Agr Forest Meteorol 2002, 113:185–222.
360. Medvigy D, Wofsy SD, Munger JW, Hollinger DY, Moorcroft PR. Mechanistic scaling of ecosystem function and dynamics in space and time: ecosystem demography model version 2. J Geophys Res 2009, 114:G01002. doi:10.1029/2008JG000812.
361. Grant RF, Barr AG, Black TA, Margolis HA, Dunn AL, Metsaranta J, Wang S, McCaughey JH, Bourque CA. Interannual variation in net ecosystem productivity of Canadian forests as affected by regional weather patterns – a Fluxnet-Canada synthesis. Agr Forest Meteorol 2009, 149:2022–2039.
362. Cox PM. Description of the TRIFFID Dynamic Global Vegetation Model. Technical Note 24, Hadley Centre, 2001.
363. Goll DS, Brovkin V, Parida BR, Reick CH, Kattge J, Reich PB, van Bodegom PM, Niinemets U. Nutrient limitation reduces land carbon uptake in simulations with a model of combined carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus cycling. Biogeosciences 2012, 9:3547–3569. doi:10.5194/bg-9-3547-2012.
364. Sato H, Itoh A, Kohyama T. SEIB-DGVM: a new dynamic global vegetation model using a spatially explicit individual-based approach. Ecol Model 2007, 200:279–307.
365. Woodward FI, Lomas MR. Vegetation dynamics - simulating responses to climatic change. Biol Rev 2004, 2004:643–670.
366. Smith B, Prentice IC, Sykes MT. Representation of vegetation dynamics in modelling of terrestrial ecosystems: comparing two contrasting approaches within European climate space. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 2001, 10:621–637.
367. Scheiter S, Langan L, Higgins SI. Next-generation dynamic global vegetation models: learning from community ecology. New Phytol 2013, 198:957–969.
368. Keenan TF, Davidson E, Moffat A, Munger W, Richardson AD. Using model-data fusion to interpret past trends, and quantify uncertainties in future projections, of terrestrial ecosystem carbon cycling. Glob Chang Biol 2012, 18:2555–2569. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02684.x.
369. Carvalhais N, Reichstein M, Seixas J, Collatz GJ, Pereira JS, Berbigier P, Carrara A, Granier A, Montagnani L, Papale D, et al. Implications of the carbon cycle steady state assumption for biogeochemical modeling performance and inverse parameter retrieval. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2008, 22:GB2007. doi:10.1029/2007GB003033.
370. Pavlick R, Drewry DT, Bohn K, Reu B, Kleidon A. The Jena Diversity-Dynamic Global Vegetation Model (JeDi-DGVM): a diverse approach to representing terrestrial bio-geography and biogeochemistry based on plant functional trade-offs. Biogeosciences 2013, 10:4137–4177. doi:10.5194/bg-10-4137-2013 1058.
371. Pappas C, Fatichi S, Leuzinger S, Wolf A, Burlando P. Sensitivity analysis of a process-based ecosystem model: pinpointing parameterization and structural issues. J Geophys Res Biogeosci 2013, 118:505–528. doi:10.1002/jgrg.20035.
372. Wang YP, Houlton BZ, Field CB. A model of biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus including symbiotic nitrogen fixation and phosphatase production. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2007, 21:GB1018. doi:10.1029/2006GB002797.
373. Yang X, Thornton PE, Ricciuto DM, Post WM. The role of phosphorus dynamics in tropical forests – a modeling study using CLM-CNP. Biogeosciences 2014, 11:1667–1681. doi:10.5194/bg-11-1667-2014.
374. Zaehle S, Dalmonech D. Carbon-nitrogen interactions on land at global scales: current understanding in modelling climate biosphere feedbacks. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 2011, 3:311–320. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2011.08.008.
375. Bugmann HKM, Yan X, Sykes MT, Martin P, Lindner M, Desanker PV, Cumming SG. A comparison of forest gap models: model structure and behaviour. Clim Change 1996, 34:289–313.
376. Snell RS, Huth A, Nabel JEMS, Bocedi G, Travis JMJ, Gravel D, Bugmann H, Gutiérrez AG, Hickler T, Higgins SI, et al. Using dynamic vegetation models to simulate plant range shifts. Ecography 2014, 37:1184–1197.
377. West GB, Enquist BJ, Brown JH. A general quantitative theory of forest structure and dynamics. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009, 106:7040–7045. doi:10.1073/pnas.0812294106.
378. Moorcroft PR, Hurtt GC, Pacala SW. A method for scaling vegetation dynamics: the ecosystem demography model (ED). Ecol Monogr 2001, 71:557–585.
379. Purves DW, Lichstein JW, Strigul N, Pacala SW. Predicting and understanding forest dynamics using a simple tractable model. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2008, 105:17018–17022.
380. Strigul N, Pristinski D, Purves D, Dushoff J, Pacala S. Scaling from trees to forests: tractable macroscopic equations for forest dynamics. Ecol Monogr 2008, 78:523–545.
381. Kim Y, Knox RG, Longo M, Medvigy D, Hutyra LR, Pyle EH, Wofsy SC, Bras RL, Moorcroft PR. Seasonal carbon dynamics and water fluxes in an Amazon rainforest. Glob Chang Biol 2012, 18:1322–1334. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02629.x.
382. Medvigy D, Moorcroft PR. Predicting ecosystem dynamics at regional scales: an evaluation of a terrestrial biosphere model for the forests of northeastern North America. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B 2012, 367:222–235. doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0253.
383. Dietze MC, Matthes JH. A general ecophysiological framework for modelling the impact of pests and pathogens on forest ecosystems. Ecol Lett 2014, 2014:1418–1426. doi:10.1111/ele.12345.
384. Zeppel MJB, Adams HD, Anderegg WRL. Mechanistic causes of tree drought mortality: recent results, unresolved questions and future research needs. New Phytol 2011, 192:800–803. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03960.x.
385. Franklin O, Aoki K, Seidl R. A generic model of thinning and stand density effects on forest growth, mortality and net increment. Ann For Sci 2009, 66:815–815. doi:10.1051/forest/2009073.
386. Manusch C, Bugmann H, Heiri C, Wolf A. Tree mortality in dynamic vegetation models -a key feature for accurately simulating forest properties. Ecol Model 2012, 243:101–111.
387. Cox PM, Betts RA, Collins M, Harris PP, Huntingford C, Jones CD. Amazonian forest dieback under climate-carbon cycle projections for the 21st century. Theor Appl Climatol 2004, 78:137–156.
388. Malhi Y, Roberts JT, Betts RA, Killeen TJ, Li W, Nobre CA. Climate change, deforestation, and the fate of the Amazon. Science 2008, 319:169–172.
389. Malhi Y, Arag ao LEOC, Galbraith D, Huntingford C, Fisher R, Zelazowski P, Sitch S, McSweeney C, Meir P. Exploring the likelihood and mechanism of a climate-change-induced dieback of the Amazon rainforest. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2008, 106:20610–20615. doi:10.1073/pnas.0804619106.
390. Nepstad DC, Stickler CM, Soares-Filho B, Merry F. Interactions among Amazon land use, forests and climate: prospects for a near-term forest tipping point. Philos Trans R Soc B 2008, 363:1737–1746.
391. Davidson EA, de Araújo AC, Artaxo P, Balch JK, Brown IF, Bustamante MMC, Coe MT, DeFries RS, Munger W, Keller M, et al. The Amazon basin in transition. Nature 2012, 481:321–328. doi:10.1038/nature10717.
392. Markewitz D, Devine S, Davidson EA, Brando P, Nepstad DC. Soil moisture depletion under simulated drought in the Amazon: impacts on deep root uptake. New Phytol 2010, 187:592–607. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03391.x.
393. Ivanov VY, Hutyra LR, Wofsy SC, Munger JW, Saleska SR, de Oliveira RC Jr, de Camargo PB. Root niche separation can explain avoidance of seasonal drought stress and vulnerability of overstory trees to extended drought in a mature Amazonian forest. Water Resour Res 2012, 48:W12507. doi:10.1029/2012WR011972.
394. Powell TL, Galbraith DR, Christoffersen BO, Harper A, Hewlley M, Imbuzeiro A, Rowland L, Almeida S, Brando PM, Lola da Costa AC, et al. Confronting model predictions of carbon fluxes with measurements of Amazon forests subjected to experimental drought. New Phytol 2013, 200:350–365. doi:10.1111/nph.12390.
395. Gatti LV, Gloor M, Miller JB, Doughty CE, Malhi Y, Domingues LG, Basso LS, Martinewski A, Correia CSC, Borges VF, et al. Drought sensitivity of Amazonian carbon balance revealed by atmospheric measurements. Nature 2014, 506:76. doi:10.1038/nature12957.
396. Brando PM, Goetz SJ, Baccini A, Nepstad DC, Beck PSA, Christman MC. Seasonal and interannual variability of climate and vegetation indices across the Amazon. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010, 107:14685–14690. doi:10.1073/pnas.0908741107.
397. Fu R, Yin L, Li W, Arias PA, Dickinson RE, Huang L, Chakraborty S, Fernandes K, Liebmann B, Fisher R, et al. Increased dry-season length over southern Amazonia in recent decades and its implication for future climate projection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2013, 110:18110–18115. doi:10.1073/pnas.1302584110.
398. Knox R, Bisht G, Wang J, Bras RL. Precipitation variability over the forest to non-forest transition in southwestern Amazonia. J Climate 2011, 24:2368–2377.
399. Butt N, de Oliveira PA, Costa MH. Evidence that deforestation affects the onset of the rainy season in Rondonia, Brazil. J Geophys Res 2011, 116:D11120. doi:10.1029/2010JD015174.
400. Khanna J, Medvigy D. Strong control of surface roughness variations on the simulated dry season regional atmospheric response to contemporary deforestation in Rondônia, Brazil. J Geophys Res Atmos 2014, 119:13067–13078. doi:10.1002/2014JD022278.
401. Myers-Smith IH, Forbes BC, Wilmking M, Hallinger M, Lantz T, Blok D, Tape KD, Macias-Fauria M, Sass-Klaassen U, Lévesque E, et al. Shrub expansion in tundra ecosystems: dynamics, impacts and research priorities. Environ Res Lett 2011, 6:045509. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/6/4/045509.
402. Loranty MM, Goetz SJ. Shrub expansion and climate feedbacks in Arctic tundra. Environ Res Lett 2012, 7:011005. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/7/1/011005.
403. Pomeroy JW, Bewley DS, Essery RLH, Hedstrom NR, Link T, Granger RJ, Sicart JE, Ellis CR, Janowicz JR. Shrub tundra snowmelt. Hydrol Process 2006, 20:923–941. doi:10.1002/hyp.6124.
404. 2? Annu. Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 1997, 48:609–639.
405. 2]: mechanisms and environmental interactions. Plant Cell Environ 2007, 30:258–270. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3040.2007.01641.x.
406. 2 fertilization in temperate FACE experiments not representative of boreal and tropical forests. Glob Chang Biol 2008, 14:1531–1542. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01598.x.
407. 2 responses: an issue of definition, time and resource supply. New Phytol 2006, 172:393–411. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01886.x.
408. Leuzinger S, Luo Y, Beier C, Dieleman W, Vicca S, Körner C. Do global change experiments overestimate impacts on terrestrial ecosystems? Trends Ecol Evol 2011, 26:236–241. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2011.02.011.
409. Gedney N, Cox PM, Bletts RA, Boucher O, Huntingford C, Stott PA. Detection of a direct carbon dioxide effect in continental river runoff records. Nature 2006, 439:835–838.
410. Betts RA, Boucher O, Collins M, Cox PM, Falloon PD, Gedney N, Hemming DL, Huntingford C, Jones CD, Sexton DMH, et al. Projected increase in continental runoff due to plant responses to increasing carbon dioxide. Nature 2007, 448:1037–1041. doi:10.1038/nature06045.
411. 2-induced climate change. Nat Geosci 2013, 6:268–273. doi:10.1038/ngeo1741.
412. 2 on the terrestrial carbon cycle. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2015, 112:436–441.
413. 2 fertilization: when, where, how much?. In: Terrestrial Ecosystems in a Changing World. Berlin, Germany: Springer; 2007.
414. 2 enrichment (FACE) experiments. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 2011, 42:181–203. doi:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102209-144647.
415. 2 fertilization but water-use efficiency increased. Nat Geosci 2015, 8:24–28. doi:10.1038/NGEO2313.
416. Medvigy D, Wofsy SC, Munger JW, Moorcroft PR. Responses of terrestrial ecosystems and carbon budgets to current and future environmental variability. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010, 107:8275–8280. doi:10.1073/pnas.0912032107.
417. Paschalis A, Fatichi S, Katul GG, Ivanov VY. Cross-scale impact of climate temporal variability on ecosystem water and carbon fluxes. J Geophys Res Biogeosci 2015, 120. doi:10.1002/2015JG003002.
418. Mutke J, Barthlott W. Patterns of vascular plant diversity at continental to global scales. Biol Skrifter 2005, 55:521–531.
419. Bonan GB, Levis S, Kergoat L, Oleson KW. Landscapes as patches of plant functional types: an integrating concept for climate and ecosystem models. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2002, 16:Pages 5-1–5-23. doi:10.1029/2000GB001360.
420. Fyllas NM, Gloor E, Mercado LM, Sitch S, Quesada CA, Domingues TF, Galbraith DR, Torre-Lezama A, Vilanova E, Ramírez-Angulo E, et al. Analysing Amazonian forest productivity using a new individual and trait-based model (TFS v.1). Geosci Model Dev 2014, 7:1251–1269. doi:10.5194/gmd-7-1251-2014.
421. Sakschewski B, von Bloh W, Boit A, Rammig A, Kattge J, Poorter L, Peñuelas J, Thonicke K. Leaf and stem economics spectra drive diversity of functional plant traits in a dynamic global vegetation model. Glob Chang Biol 2015, 21:2711–2725. doi:10.1111/gcb.12870.
422. Verheijen LM, Aerts R, Brovkin V, Cavender-Bares J, Cornelissen JHC, Kattge J, van Bodegom PM. Inclusion of ecologically based trait variation in plant functional types reduces the projected land carbon sink in an Earth System Model. Glob Chang Biol 2015, 21:3074–3086. doi:10.1111/gcb.12871.
423. Wright IJ, Reich PB, Westoby M, Ackerly DD, Baruch Z, Bongers F, Cavender-Bares J, Chapin T, Cornelissen JHC, Diemer M, et al. The worldwide leaf economics spectrum. Nature 2004, 428:821–827.
424. Chave J, Coomes D, Jansen S, Lewis SL, Swenson NG, Zanne AE. Towards a worldwide wood economics spectrum. Ecology Letters 2009, 12:351–366. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01285.x.
425. Manzoni S, Vico G, Porporato A, Katul G. Biological constraints on water transport in the soil–plant–atmosphere system. Adv Water Resour 2013, 51:292–304.
426. Reich PB, Walters MB, Ellsworth DS. From tropics to tundra: global convergence in plant functioning. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997, 94:13730–13734.
427. Reich PB. The world-wide 'fast–slow' plant economics spectrum: a traits manifesto. J Ecol 2014, 102:275–301. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.12211.
428. ter Steege H, Pitman NCA, Sabatier D, Baraloto C, Salom ao RP, Guevara JE, Phillips OL, Castilho CV, Magnusson WE, Molino JF, et al. Hyperdominance in the Amazonian tree flora. Science 2013, 342:1243092. doi:10.1126/science.1243092.
429. Saxton KE, Rawls WJ. Soil water characteristic estimates by texture and organic matter for hydrologic solutions. Soil Sci Soc Am J 2006, 70:1569–1578. doi:10.2136/sssaj2005.0117.
430. Romano N, Nasta P, Severino G, Hopmans JW. Using bimodal lognormal functions to describe soil hydraulic properties. Soil Sci Soc Am J 2011, 75:468–480. doi:10.2136/sssaj2010.0084.
431. Yang X, Post WM, Thornton PE, Jain A. The distribution of soil phosphorus for global biogeochemical modeling. Biogeosciences 2013, 10:2525–2537. doi:10.5194/bg-10-2525-2013.
432. de Brogniez D, Ballabio C, Stevens A, Jones RJ, Montanarella L, van Wesemael B. A map of the topsoil organic carbon content of Europe generated by a generalized additive model. Eur J Soil Sci 2015, 66:121–134. doi:10.1111/ejss.12193.
433. Dietze MC, Sala A, Carbone MS, Czimczik CI, Mantooth JA, Richardson AD, Vargas R. Nonstructural carbon in woody plants. Annu Rev Plant Biol 2014, 65:667–687. doi:10.1146/annurev-arplant-050213-040054.
434. Aubinet M, Grelle A, Ibrom A, Rannik Ü, Moncrie J, Foken T, Kowalski AS, Martin PH, Berbigier P, Bernhofer C, et al. Estimates of the annual net carbon and water exchange of forests: the EUROFLUX methodology. Adv Ecol Res 2000, 30:113–175.
435. Baldocchi D, Falge E, Gu L, Olson R, Hollinger D, Running S, Anthoni P, Bernhofer C, Davis K, Evans R, et al. FLUXNET: a new tool to study the temporal and spatial variability of ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy flux densities. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 2001, 82:2415–2434.
436. Baldocchi DD. Assessing the eddy covariance technique for evaluating carbon dioxide exchange rates of ecosystems: past, present and future. Glob Chang Biol 2003, 9:479–492.
437. Baldocchi DD. Breathing of the terrestrial biosphere: lessons learned from a global network of carbon dioxide flux measurement systems. Austral J Bot 2008, 56:1–26.
438. Aubinet M, Vesala T, Papale D. Eddy Covariance: A Practical Guide to Measurement and Data Analysis. Springer Atmospheric Sciences. Dordrechet, The Netherlands: Springer Netherlands; 2012.
439. Robinson DA, Campbell CS, Hopmans JW, Hornbuckle BK, Jones SB, Knight R, Ogden F, Selker J, Wendroth O. Soil moisture measurements for ecological and hydrological watershed scale observatories: a review. Vadose Zone J 2008, 7:358–389. doi:10.2136/vzj2007.0143.
440. Vereecken H, Huisman JA, Bogena HR, Vanderborght J, Vrugt JA, Hopmans JW. On the value of soil moisture measurements in vadose zone hydrology: a review. Water Resour Res 2008, 44:W00D06. doi:10.1029/2008WR006829.
441. Fatichi S, Katul GG, Ivanov VY, Pappas C, Paschalis A, Consolo A, Kim J, Burlando P. Abiotic and biotic controls of soil moisture spatio-temporal variability and the occurrence of hysteresis. Water Resour Res 2015, 51:3505–3524. doi:10.1002/2014WR016102.
442. Falge E, Baldocchi D, Olson R, Anthoni P, Aubinet M, Bernhofer C, Burba G, Ceulemans R, Clement R. Gap filling strategies for defensible annual sums of net ecosystem exchange. Agr Forest Meteorol 2001, 107:43–69.
443. Moffat AM, Papale D, Reichstein M, Hollinger DY, Richardson AD, Barr AG, Beckstein C, Braswell BH, Churkina G, Desai AR, et al. Comprehensive comparison of gap-filling techniques for eddy covariance net carbon fluxes. Agr Forest Meteorol 2007, 147:209–232.
444. Wilson K, Goldstein A, Falge E, Aubinet M, Baldocchi D, Berbigier P, Bernhofer C, Ceulemans R, Dolman H, Field C, et al. Energy balance closure at FLUXNET sites. Agr Forest Meteorol 2002, 113:223–243.
445. Leuning R, van Gorsel E, Massman WJ, Isaac PR. Reflections on the surface energy imbalance problem. Agr Forest Meteorol 2012, 156:65–74. doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2011.12.002.
446. Liu C, Zhang X, Zhang Y. Determination of daily evaporation and evapotranspiration of winter wheat and maize by large-scale weighing lysimeter and micro-lysimeter. Agr Forest Meteorol 2002, 111:109–120.
447. Seneviratne SI, Lehner I, Gurtz J, Teuling AJ, Lang H, Moser U, Grebner D, Menzel L, Schro K, Vitvar T, et al. Swiss prealpine Rietholzbach research catchment and lysimeter: 32 year time series and 2003 drought event. Water Resour Res 2012, 48:W06526.
448. Lischke H, Löffler TJ. Intraspecific density dependence is required to maintain species diversity in spatio-temporal forest simulations with reproduction. Ecol Model 2006, 198:341–361. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2006.05.005.
449. Nepstad DC, Tohver IM, Ray D, Moutinho P, Cardinot G. Mortality of large trees and lianas following experimental drought in an Amazon forest. Ecology 2007, 88:2259–2269.
450. Brienen RJW, Phillips OL, Feldpausch TR, Gloor E, Baker TR, Lloyd J, Lopez-Gonzalez G, Monteagudo-Mendoza A, Malhi Y, Lewis SL, et al. Long-term decline of the Amazon carbon sink. Nature 2015, 519:344–348. doi:10.1038/nature14283.
451. Malhi Y, Wood D, Baker TR, Wright J, Phillips OL, Cochrane T, Meir P, Chave J, Almeida S, Arroyo L, et al. The regional variation of aboveground live biomass in old-growth Amazonian forests. Global Change Biol 2006, 12:1107–1138. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01120.x.
452. Babst F, Alexander MR, Szejner P, Bouriaud O, Klesse S, Roden J, Ciais P, Poulter B, Frank D, Moore DJP, et al. A tree-ring perspective on the terrestrial carbon cycle. Oecologia 2014, 176:307–322. doi:10.1007/s00442-014-3031-6.
453. 2. Agr Forest Meteorol 2013, 174-175:144–157. doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2013.02.005.
454. 2: a model-data intercomparison at two contrasting temperate forest FACE sites. Glob Chang Biol 2013, 19:1759–1779. doi:10.1111/gcb.12164.
455. 2 enrichment studies. New Phytol 2014, 202:803–822. doi:10.1111/nph.12697.
456. Medlyn BE, Zaehle S, De Kauwe MG, Walker AP, Dietze MC, Hanson PJ, Hickler T, Jain AK, Luo Y, Parton W, et al. Using ecosystem experiments to improve vegetation models. Nat Clim Change 2015, 5:528–534. doi:10.1038/nclimate2621.
457. Smith NG, Rodgers VL, Brzostek ER, Kulmatiski A, Avolio ML, Hoover DL, Koerner SE, Grant K, Jentsch A, Fatichi S, et al. Towards a better integration of biological data from precipitation manipulation experiments into Earth system models. Rev Geophys 2014, 52:412–434. doi:10.1002/2014RG000458.
458. Kayler ZE, De Boeck HJ, Fatichi S, Grünzweig JM, Merbold L, Beier C, McDowell N, Dukes JS. Experiments to confront the environmental extremes of climate change. Front Ecol Environ 2015, 13:219–225. doi:10.1890/140174.
459. Schimel D, Pavlick R, Fisher JB, Asner GP, Saatchi S, Townsend P, Miller C, Frankenberg C, Hibbard K, Cox P. Observing terrestrial ecosystems and the carbon cycle from space. Glob Chang Biol 2015, 2015:1762–1776. doi:10.1111/gcb.12822.
460. Vivoni ER, Rango A, Anderson CA, Pierini NA, Schreiner-McGraw AP, Saripalli S, Laliberte AS. Ecohydrology with unmanned aerial vehicles. Ecosphere 2014:5(130). doi:10.1890/ES14-00217.1.
461. Asner GP, Powell GVN, Mascaro J, Knapp DE, Clark JK, Jacobson J, Kennedy-Bowdoin T, Balaji A, Paez-Acosta G, Victoria E, et al. High-resolution forest carbon stocks and emissions in the Amazon. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010, 107:16738–16742.
462. Asner GP, Clark JK, Mascaro J, Galindo García GA, Chadwick KD, Encinales DNA, Paez-Acosta G, Montenegro EC, Kennedy-Bowdoin T, Duque A, et al. High-resolution mapping of forest carbon stocks in the Colombian Amazon. Biogeosciences 2012, 2012:2683–2696.
463. Justice CO, Vermote E, Townshend JRG, Defries R, Roy DP, Hall DK, Salomonson VV, Privette JL, Riggs G, Strahler A, et al. The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS): land remote sensing for global change research. IEEEns on Geosciences and Remote Sensing 1998, 36:1228–1249.
464. Guanter L, Zhang Y, Jung M, Joiner J, Voig M, Berry JA, Frankenberg C, Huete AR, Zarco-Tejada P, Lee JE, et al. Global and time-resolved monitoring of crop photosynthesis with chlorophyll fluorescence. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2014, 111:E1327–E1333. doi:10.1073/pnas.1320008111.
465. Myneni RB, Hoffman S, Knyazikhin Y, Privette JL, Glassy J, Tian Y, Wang Y, Song X, Zhang Y, Smith GR, et al. Global products of vegetation leaf area and fraction absorbed PAR from year one of MODIS data. Remote Sens Environ 2002, 83:214–231.
466. Yang Y, Shang S, Guan H, Jiang L. A novel algorithm to assess gross primary production for terrestrial ecosystems from MODIS imagery. J Geophys Res 2013, 118:590–605. doi:10.1002/jgrg.20056.
467. Serbin SP, Singh A, McNeil BE, Kingdon CC, Townsend PA. Spectroscopic determination of leaf morphological and biochemical traits for northern temperate and boreal tree species. Ecol Appl 2014, 24:1651–1669.
468. Knyazikhin Y, Schull MA, Stenberg P, Mottus M, Rautiainen M, Yang Y, Marshak A, Carmona PL, Kaufmann RK, Lewis P, et al. Hyperspectral remote sensing of foliar nitrogen content. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2012, 3:E185–E192. doi:10.1073/pnas.1210196109.
469. Homolová L, Malenovsky Z, Clevers JGPW, García-Santos G, Schaepman ME. Review of optical-based remote sensing for plant trait mapping. Ecol Complex 2013, 15:1–16.
470. Brocca L, Hasenauer S, Lacava T, Melone F, Moramarco T, Wagner W, Dorigo W, Matgen P, Martínez-Fernández J, Llorens P, et al. Soil moisture estimation through ASCAT and AMSR-E sensors: an intercomparison and validation study across Europe. Remote Sens Environ 2011, 115:3390–3408.
471. Entekhabi D, Njoku EG, O'Neill PE, Kellogg KH, Crow WT, Edelstein WN, Entin JK, Goodman SD, Jackson TJ, Johnson J, et al. The soil moisture active passive (SMAP) mission. Proc IEEE 2010, 98:704–716. doi:10.1109/JPROC.2010.2043918.
472. Cox PM, Pearson D, Booth BB, Friedlingstein P, Huntingford C, Jones CD, Luke CM. Sensitivity of tropical carbon to climate change constrained by carbon dioxide variability. Nature 2013, 494:341–344. doi:10.1038/nature11882.
473. 2 by northern ecosystems since 1960. Science 2013, 341:1085–1089.
474. Frankenberg C, Pollock R, Lee RAM, Rosenberg R, Blavier JF, Crisp D, O'Dell CW, Osterman GB, Roehl C, Wennberg PO, et al. The Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO-2): spectrometer performance evaluation using pre-launch direct sun measurements. Atmos Meas Tech 2015, 8:301–313. doi:10.5194/amt-8-301-2015.
475. McDowell NG, Ryan MG, Zeppel MJB, Tissue DT. Improving our knowledge of drought-induced forest mortality through experiments, observations, and modeling. New Phytol 2013, 200:289–293.
476. Xu C, McDowell NG, Sevanto S, Fisher RA. Our limited ability to predict vegetation dynamics under water stress. New Phytol 2013, 200:298–300.
477. Fatichi S, Ivanov VY. Interannual variability of evapotranspiration and vegetation productivity. Water Resour Res 2014, 50:3275–3294. doi:10.1002/2013WR015044.
478. Hartig F, Dyke J, Hickler T, Higgins SI, O'Hara RB, Scheiter S, Huth A. Connecting dynamic vegetation models to data - an inverse perspective. J Biogeogr 2012, 39:2240–2252.
479. Dietze MC, LeBauer D, Kooper R. On improving the communication between models and data. Plant Cell Environ 2013, 36:1575–1585.