Modeling vegetation and land use in models of the Earth System

Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change

Volumn 1, Issue 6, 2010, Pages 840-856

  Levis, Samuel ^a  

^a Earth System Research Laboratory   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH; BIOGEOCHEMISTRY; CARBON DIOXIDE; CLIMATE CHANGE; CROPS; DEFORESTATION; LAND USE; NITROGEN; REFORESTATION; VEGETATION;

ALBEDO FEEDBACKS; CONTINENTAL AREA; LAND-COVER CHANGE; NATURAL DISTURBANCE; NATURAL VEGETATION; SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES; TERRESTRIAL BIOSPHERE; VEGETATION DENSITY;

CLIMATE MODELS;

EID: 79956285562     PISSN: 17577780     EISSN: 17577799     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/wcc.83     Document Type: Review

References (156)

1. Manabe S, Smagorinsky J, Strickler RF. Simulated climatology of a general circulation model with a hydrologic cycle. Mon Wea Rev 1965, 93:769-798.
2. 2 on climate. Science 1996, 271:1402-1406.
3. Bonan GB. Effects of land use on the climate of the United States. Clim Change 1995, 37:449-486.
4. Oleson KW, Niu G-Y, Yang Z-L, Lawrence DM, Thornton PE, Lawrence PJ, Stöckli R, Dickinson RE, Bonan GB, Levis S, et al. Improvements to the Community Land Model and their impact on the hydrological cycle. J Geophys Res 2008, 113:G01021. doi:10.1029/2007JG000563.
5. Foley JA. Numerical models of the terrestrial biosphere. J Biogeogr 1995, 22:837-842.
6. Ellis EC. Earth science in the Anthropocene: New epoch, new paradigm, new responsibilities. Eos Trans AGU 2009, 90:473-473.
7. Schurgers G, Mikolajewicz U, Gröger M, Maier-Reimer E, Vizcaíno M, Winguth A. Long-term effects of biogeophysical and biogeochemical interactions between terrestrial biosphere and climate under anthropogenic climate change. Glob Planet Change 2008, 64:26-37.
8. Sagan C, Toon OB, Pollack JB. Anthropogenic albedo changes and the earth's climate. Science 1979, 206:1363-1368.
9. Sud YC, Shukla J, Mintz Y. Influence of land surface roughness on atmospheric circulation and precipitation: a sensitivity study with a general circulation model. J Appl Meteorol 1988, 27:1036-1054.
10. Shukla J, Mintz Y. Influence of land-surface evapotranspiration on the earth's climate. Science 1982, 215:1498-1501.
11. Doney SC, Lindsay K, Fung I, John J. Natural variability in a stable, 1000-yr global coupled climate-carbon cycle simulation. J Climate 2006, 19:3033-3054.
12. Schlesinger WH. Biogeochemistry, an Analysis of Global Change. 2nd ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1997, 359 of 588.
13. Mahowald NM, Muhs DR, Levis S, Rasch PJ, Yoshioka M, Zender CS, Luo C. Change in atmospheric mineral aerosols in response to climate: last glacial period, preindustrial, modern, and doubled carbon dioxide climates. J Geophys Res 2006, 111: D10202. doi:10.1029/2005JD006653.
14. Levis S, Wiedinmyer C, Bonan GB, Gunther A. Simulating biogenic volatile organic compound emissions in the Community Climate System Model. J Geophys Res 2003, 108:4659. doi:10.1029/2002JD003203.
15. YoshiokaM,MahowaldNM, Conley AJ, CollinsWD, Fillmore DW, Zender CS, Coleman DB. Impact of desert dust radiative forcing on Sahel precipitation: relative importance of dust compared to sea surface temperature variations, vegetation changes, and greenhouse gas warming. J Climate 2007, 20:1445-1467.
16. Mercado LM, Bellouin N, Sitch S, Boucher O, Huntingford C, Wild M, Cox PM. Impact of changes in diffuse radiation on the global land carbon sink. Nature 2009, 458:1014-1017. doi:10.1038/nature07949.
17. Crutzen PJ. The effects of industrial and agricultural practices on atmospheric chemistry and climate during the anthropocene. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng 2002, 37:423-424.
18. Feddema JJ, Oleson KW, Bonan GB, Mearns LO, Buja LE, Meehl GA, Washington WM. The importance of land-cover change in simulating future climates. Science 2005, 310:1674-1678. doi:10.1126/science.1118160.
19. Hurtt GC, Frolking S, Fearon MG, Moore B, Shevliakova E, Malyshev S, Pacala SW, Houghton RA. The underpinnings of land-use history: three centuries of global gridded land-use transitions, wood-harvest activity, and resulting secondary lands. Glob Chang Biol 2006, 12:1208-1229.
20. Masson V. Urban surface modeling and the meso-scale impact of cities. Theor Appl Climatol 2006, 84:35-45. doi:10.1007/s00704-005-0142-3.
21. Bonan GB. Forests and climate change: forcings, feedbacks, and the climate benefits of forests. Science 2008, 320:1444-1449. doi:10.1126/science.1155121.
22. Dorman JL, Sellers PJ. A global climatology of albedo, roughness length and stomatal resistance for atmospheric general circulation models as represented by the simple biosphere model (SiB). J Appl Meteorol 1989, 28:833-855.
23. Henderson-Sellers A, Gornitz V. Possible climatic impacts of land cover transformations, with particular emphasis on tropical deforestation. Clim Change 1984, 6:231-257. doi:10.1007/BF00142475.
24. Ball JT, Woodrow IE, Berry JA. A model predicting stomatal conductance and its contribution to the control of photosynthesis under different environmental conditions. In: Biggins J, ed. Progress in Photosynthesis Research, vol. 4. Zoetermeer, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff; 1987, 221-224
25. Olson JS, Watts JA, Allison LJ. 1983. Carbon in live vegetation of major world ecosystems, ORNL-5862. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN.
26. Prentice IC, Cramer W, Harrison SP, Leemans R, Monserud RA, Solomon AM. A global biome model based on plant physiology and dominance, soil properties and climate. J Biogeogr 1992, 19:117-134.
27. Holdridge LR. Determination of world plant formations from simple climatic data. Science 1947, 105:367-368.
28. Bonan GB, Levis S, Kergoat L, Oleson KW. Landscapes as patches of plant functional types: an integrating concept for climate and ecosystem models. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2002, 16:1021 doi:10.1029/2000GB001360.
29. Bugmann H. A review of forest gap models. Clim Change 2001, 51:259-305. doi:10.1023/A:10125256 26267.
30. Parton WJ, Schimel DS, Cole CV, Ojima DS. Analysis of factors controlling soil organic matter levels in Great Plains grasslands. Soil Sci Soc Am J 1987, 51:1173-1179.
31. Foley JA, Prentice IC, Ramankutty N, Levis S, Pollard D, Sitch S, Haxeltine A. An integrated biosphere model of land surface processes, terrestrial carbon balance and vegetation dynamics. Global Biogeochem Cycles 1996, 10:603-628.
32. 2, climate, and vegetation feedbacks at the Last Glacial Maximum. J Geophys Res 1999, 104:31191-31198.
33. Doherty R, Kutzbach J, Foley J, Pollard D. Fully coupled climate/dynamical vegetation model simulations over North Africa during the mid-Holocene. ClimDyn 2000, 16:561-573. doi:10.1007/s003820000065.
34. 2 and climate change: results from six dynamic global vegetation models. Glob Chang Biol 2001, 7:357-373.
35. Shellito CJ, Sloan LC. Reconstructing a lost Eocene paradise: Part I. Simulating the change in global floral distribution at the initial Eocene thermal maximum. Glob Planet Change 2006, 50:1-17. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2005.08.001.
36. Weber S. The utility of Earth system Models of Intermediate Complexity (EMICs). WIREs Clim Change 2010, 1:243-252. doi: 10.1002/wcc.24.
37. Ganopolski A, Rahmstorf S, Petoukhov V, Claussen M. Simulation of modern and glacial climates with a coupled global model of intermediate complexity. Nature 1998, 391:351-356.
38. Liu Z, Wang Y, Gallimore R, Gasse F, Johnson T, de Menocal P, Adkins J, Notaro M, Prentice IC, Kutzbach J, et al. Simulating the transient evolution and abrupt change of Northern Africa atmosphereocean-terrestrial ecosystem in the Holocene. Quat Sci Rev 2007, 26:1818-1837.
39. Claussen M, Kubatzki C, Brovkin V, Ganopolski A, Hoelzmann P, Pachur H-J. Simulation of an abrupt change in Saharan vegetation in the mid-Holocene. Geophys Res Lett 1999, 26:2037-2040.
40. Pitman AJ, de Noblet-Ducoudré N, Cruz FT, Davin EL, Bonan GB, Brovkin V, Claussen M, Delire C, Ganzeveld L, Gayler V, et al. Uncertainties in climate responses to past land cover change: first results from the LUCID intercomparison study. Geophys Res Lett 2009, 36: L14814. doi:10.1029/2009GL039076.
41. Friedlingstein P, Joel G, Field CB, Fung IY. Toward an allocation scheme for global terrestrial carbon models. Glob Chang Biol 1999, 5:755-770. doi:10.1046/j.1999.00269.x.
42. Potter CS, Randerson JT, Field CB, Matson PA, Vitousek PM, Mooney HA, Klooster SA. Terrestrial ecosystem production: a processmodel based on global satellite and surface data. Global Biogeochem Cycles 1993, 7:811-841.
43. Thonicke K, Venevsky S, Sitch S, Cramer W. The role of fire disturbance for global vegetation dynamics: coupling fire into a dynamic global vegetation model. Global Ecol Biogeogr 2001, 10:661-677.
44. Gerber S, Hedin LO, Oppenheimer M, Pacala SW, Shevliakova E. Nitrogen cycling and feedbacks in a global dynamic land model. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2010, 24: GB1001. doi:10.1029/ 2008GB003336.
45. Oleson KW, Lawrence DM, Bonan GB, Flanner MG, Kluzek E, Lawrence PJ, Levis S, Swenson SC, Thornton PE, Dai A, et al. 2010a. Technical description of version 4.0 of the Community Land Model (CLM). NCAR Technical Note NCAR/TN-478+STR, Boulder, Colorado, 257pp.
46. Bonan GB, Levis S, Sitch S, Vertenstein M, Oleson KW. A dynamic global vegetation model for use with climate models: concepts and description of simulated vegetation dynamics. Glob Chang Biol 2003, 9:1543-1566. doi:10.1046/j.2003.00681.x.
47. Koster RD, Suarez MJ. A comparative analysis of two land surface heterogeneity representations. J Climate 1992, 5:1379-1390.
48. Moorcroft PR, Hurtt GC, Pacala SW. A method for scaling vegetation dynamics: the ecosystem demography model (ED). Ecol Monogr 2001, 71:557-585.
49. Fisher R, McDowell N, PurvesD,Moorcroft P, Sitch S, Cox P, Huntingford C, Meir P, Woodward FI. Assessing uncertainties in a second-generation dynamic vegetation model due to ecological scale limitations. New Phytologist 2010, 187:666-681.
50. Peng CH. From static biogeographical model to dynamic global vegetation model: a global perspective on modelling vegetation dynamics. Ecol Modell 2000, 135:33-54.
51. Wright IJ, Reich PB, Westoby M, Ackerly DD, Baruch Z. The worldwide leaf economics spectrum. Nature 2004, 428:821-827.
52. Scheiter S, Higgins SI. Impacts of climate change on the vegetation of Africa: an adaptive dynamic vegetation modelling approach. Glob Chang Biol 2009, 15:2224-2246.
53. Higgins PAT, Harte J. Biophysical and biogeochemical responses to climate change depend on dispersal and migration. Bioscience 2006, 56:407-417. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2006)056[04 07:BABRTC]2.0.CO;2.
54. Adams HD, Macalady AK, Breshears DD, Allen CD, Stephenson NL, Saleska SR, Huxman TE, McDowell NG. Climate-induced tree mortality: Earth system consequences. Eos Trans AGU 2010, 91:153-154.
55. Hicke JA, Logan JA, Powell J, Ojima DS. Changing temperatures influence suitability for modeled mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) outbreaks in the western United States. J Geophys Res 2006, 111:G02019. doi: 10.1029/2005JG000101.
56. Gutschick VP, BassiriRad H. Biological extreme events: a research framework. Eos Trans AGU 2010, 91:85-86.
57. Ramankutty N, Foley JA. Characterizing patterns of global land use: an analysis of global croplands data. Global Biogeochem Cycles 1998, 12:667-685.
58. Matthews HD, Weaver AJ, Meissner KJ, Gillett NP, Eby M. Natural and anthropogenic climate change: incorporating historical land cover change, vegetation dynamics and the global carbon cycle. ClimDyn 2004, 22:461-479. doi:10.1007/s00382-004-0392-2.
59. Chini LP, Hurtt G, Frolking S, Klein Goldewijk K, Stehfest E, Shevliakova E, van Vuuren DP, Betts R, Feddema J, Jones C, et al. Harmonization of global land-use scenarios for the period 1500-2100 for IPCC 5th assessment. Eos TransAGU 2008, 89:Fall Meeting Supplement, Abstract B41B-0378.
60. Füssel H-M. Modeling impacts and adaptation in global IAMs. WIREs Clim Change 2010, 1:288-303.
61. Shevliakova E, Pacala SW, Malyshev S, Hurtt GW, Milly PCD, Caspersen JP, Sentman LT, Fisk JP, Wirth C, Crevoisier C. Carbon cycling under 300 years of land use change: importance of the secondary vegetation sink. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2009, 23:GB2022. doi:10.1029/2007GB003176.
62. Bondeau A, Smith PC, Zaehle S, Schaphoff S, Lucht W, Cramer W, Gerten D, Lotze-Campen H, Müller C, Reichstein M, et al. Modelling the role of agriculture for the 20th century global terrestrial carbon balance. Glob Chang Biol 2007, 13:679-706. doi:10.1111/j.2006.01305.x.
63. Osborne TM, Lawrence DM, Challinor AJ, Slingo JM, Wheeler TR. Development and assessment of a coupled crop-climate model. Glob Chang Biol 2007, 13:169-183. doi:10.1111/j.2006.01274.x.
64. Levis S, Thornton PE, Bonan GB, Kucharik CJ. Modeling land use and land management with the Community Land Model. iLeaps Newsletter, issue 2009, 7:10-12.
65. Sacks WJ, Cook BI, Buenning N, Levis S, Helkowski JH. Effects of global irrigation on the near-surface climate. Clim Dyn 2009, 33:159-175. doi:10.1007/ s00382-008-0445-z.
66. Kucharik CJ, Ramankutty N. Trends and variability in U.S. corn yields over the twentieth century. Earth Interact 2005, 9:1-29.
67. Lobell DB, Bala G, Duffy PB. Biogeophysical impacts of cropland management changes on climate. Geophys Res Lett 2006, 33:L06708. doi:10.1029/2005GL025492.
68. Kucharik CJ, Twine TE. Residue, respiration, and residuals: evaluation of a dynamic agroecosystem model using eddy flux measurements and biometric data. Agric Forest Meteorol 2007, 146:134-158.
69. Potter P, Ramankutty N, Bennett E, Donner S. Characterizing the spatial patterns of global fertilizer application and manure production. Earth Interact, 14:1-22. doi:10.1175/2010EI288.1.
70. Levis S. Bi-directional interactions simulated by a synchronously coupled atmosphere-vegetation model: towards building an Earth Systems Model, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1999, 140.
71. Claussen M, Brovkin V, Ganopolski A. Biogeophysical versus biogeochemical feedbacks of large-scale land cover change. Geophys Res Lett 2001, 28:1011-1014.
72. Bony S, Colman R, Kattsov VM, Allan RP, Bretherton CS, Dufresne J-L, Hall A, Hallegatte S, Holland MM, Ingram W, et al. How well do we understand and evaluate climate change feedback processes? J Clim 2006, 19:3445-3482.
73. 2-induced climate change. Geophys Res Lett 1999, 26:747-750.
74. Lloyd A. Ecological histories from Alaskan tree lines provide insight into future change. Ecology 2005, 86:1687-1695.
75. Laine V, Heikinheimo M. Estimation of surface albedo from NOAA AVHRR data in high latitudes. Tellus(A) 1996, 48:424-441.
76. 2 climate. J Clim 2000, 13:1313-1325.
77. Kubatzki C, Claussen M. Simulation of the global bio-geophysical interactions during the Last Glacial Maximum. Clim Dyn 1998, 14:461-471.
78. Foley JA, Kutzbach JE, Coe MT, Levis S. Feedbacks between climate and boreal forests during the Holocene epoch. Nature 1994, 371:52-54.
79. Chalita S, Le Treut H. The albedo of temperate and boreal forest and the Northern Hemisphere climate: a sensitivity experiment using the LMD GCM. Clim Dyn 1994, 10:231-240.
80. Chapin F, Mcguire AD, Randerson J, Pielke R, Baldocchi D, Hobbie SE, Roulet N, Eugster W, Kasischke E, Rastetter EB, et al. Arctic and boreal ecosystems of western North America as components of the climate system. Glob Chang Biol 2000, 6:211-223.
81. Peros MC, Gajewski K, Viau AE. Continental-scale tree population response to rapid climate change, competition, and disturbance. Global Ecol Biogeogr 2008, 17:658-669.
82. Swann AL, Fung IY, Levis S, Bonan GB, Doney SC. Changes in Arctic vegetation amplify high-latitude warming through the greenhouse effect. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010, 107:1295-1300. doi:10.1073/pnas.0913846107.
83. Cox PM, Betts RA, Jones CD, Spall SA, Totterdell IJ. Acceleration of global warming due to carbon-cycle feedbacks in a coupled climate model. Nature 2000, 408:184-187.
84. Pitman AJ. The evolution of, and revolution in, land surface schemes designed for climate models. Int J Climatol 2003, 23:479-510.
85. Levis S, Bonan GB. Simulating springtime temperature patterns in the Community Atmosphere Model coupled to the Community Land Model using prognostic leaf area. J Climate 2004, 17:4531-4540. doi:10.1175/3218.1.
86. Schwartz MD, Karl TR. Spring phenology: nature's experiment to detect the effect of "green-up" on surface maximum temperatures. Mon Wea Rev 1990, 118:883-890.
87. Jeong S-J, Ho C-H, Jeong J-H. Increase in vegetation greenness and decrease in springtime warming over East Asia. Geophys Res Lett 2009, 36: L02710. doi:10.1029/2008GL036583.
88. Jeong S-J, Ho C-H, Kim K-Y, Jeong J-H. Reduction of spring warming over East Asia associated with vegetation feedback. Geophys Res Lett 2009, 36: L18705. doi:10.1029/2009GL039114.
89. Jeong S-J, Ho C-H, Park T-W, Kim J, Levis S. Clim Dyn 2010. doi:10.1007/s00382-010-0827-x.
90. Liu Z, Wang Y, Gallimore R, Notaro M, Prentice IC. On the cause of abrupt vegetation collapse in North Africa during the Holocene: climate variability vs. vegetation feedback. Geophys Res Lett 2006, 33: L22709. doi:10.1029/2006GL028062.
91. Levis S, Bonan GB, Bonfils C. Soil feedback drives the mid-Holocene North African monsoon northward in fully coupled CCSM2 simulations with a dynamic vegetation model. Clim Dyn 2004, 23:791-802. doi:10.1007/s00382-004-0477-y.
92. Liu Z, Notaro M, Kutzbach J, Liu N. Assessing global vegetation-climate feedbacks from the observation. J Clim 2006, 19:787-814.
93. Wang G, Eltahir EAB, Foley JA, Pollard D, Levis S. Decadal variability of rainfall in the Sahel: results from the coupled GENESIS-IBIS atmospherebiosphere model. Clim Dyn 2004, 22:625-637. doi:10.1007/s00382-004-0411-3.
94. Notaro M, Liu Z, Williams JW. Observed vegetation- climate feedbacks in the United States. J Clim 2006, 19:763-786.
95. Snyder PK, Delire C, Foley JA. Evaluating the influence of different vegetation biomes on the global climate. Clim Dyn 2004, 23:279-302. doi:10.1007/ s00382-004-0430-0.
96. Meissner KJ, Weaver AJ, Matthews HD, Cox PM. The role of land surface dynamics in glacial inception: a study with the UVic Earth System Model. Clim Dyn 2003, 21:515-537.
97. de Noblet-Ducoudré N, ClaussenM, Prentice IC. Mid-Holocene greening of the Sahara: first results of the GAIM 6000 year BP experiment with two asynchronously coupled atmosphere/biome models. Clim Dyn 2000, 16:643-659.
98. Gallimore R, Jacob R, Kutzbach J. Coupled atmosphere-ocean-vegetation simulations for modern and mid-Holocene climates: role of extratropical vegetation cover feedbacks. Clim Dyn 2005, 25:755-776. doi:10.1007/s00382-005-0054-z.
99. Alo CA, Wang G. Potential future changes of the terrestrial ecosystem based on climate projections by eight general circulation models. J Geophys Res 2008, 113: G01004. doi:10.1029/2007JG000528.
100. Brovkin V, Claussen M, Driesschaert E, Fichefet T, Kicklighter D, Loutre MF, Matthews HD, Ramankutty N, Schaeffer M, Sokolov A. Biogeophysical effects of historical land cover changes simulated by six Earth system models of intermediate complexity. Clim Dyn 2006, 26:587-600.
101. Lawrence PJ, Chase TN. Investigating the climate impacts of global land cover change in the community climate system model. Int J Climatol 2010. doi:10.1002/joc.2061.
102. Chagnon FJF, Bras RL. Contemporary climate change in the Amazon. Geophys Res Lett 2005, 32: L13703. doi:10.1029/2005GL022722.
103. Baidya Roy S. Mesoscale vegetation-atmosphere feedbacks in Amazonia. J Geophys Res 2009, 114: D20111. doi:10.1029/2009JD012001.
104. Gerten D, Rost S, von Bloh W, Lucht W. Causes of change in 20th century global river discharge. Geophys Res Lett 2008, 35: L20405. doi:10.1029/2008GL035258.
105. Gedney N, Cox PM, Betts RA, Boucher O, Huntingford C, Stott PA. Detection of a direct carbon dioxide effect in continental river runoff records. Nature 2006, 439:835-838. doi:10.1038/ nature04504.
106. Broecker WS, Peng T-H, Jouzel J, Russell GL. The magnitude of global fresh-water transports of importance to ocean circulation. Clim Dyn 1990, 4:73-79.
107. Carrington DP, Gallimore RG, Kutzbach JE. Climate sensitivity to wetlands and wetland vegetation in mid-Holocene North Africa. Clim Dyn 2001, 17:151-157.
108. Betts RA. Offset of the potential carbon sink from boreal forestation by decreases in surface albedo. Nature 2000, 408:187-190.
109. Friedlingstein P, Cox P, Betts R, Bopp L,Von Bloh W, Brovkin V. Climate-carbon cycle feedback analysis: results from the C4MIP model intercomparison. J Clim 2006, 19:3337-3353. doi: 10.1175/JCLI 3800.1.
110. 2. New Phytol 2005, 165:351-371.
111. Jones CD, Collins M, Cox PM, Spall SA. The carbon cycle response to ENSO: a coupled climate-carbon cycle model study. J Clim 2001, 14:4113-4129.
112. Breshears DD, Myers OB, Meyer CW, Barnes FJ, Zou CB, Allen CD, McDowell NG, Pockman WT. Tree die-off in response to global change-type drought: mortality insights from a decade of plant water potential measurements. Front Ecol Environ 2009, 7:185-189.
113. Sitch S, Cox PM, Collins WJ, Huntingford C. Indirect radiative forcing of climate change through ozone effects on the land-carbon sink. Nature 2007, 448:791-794.
114. Kloster S, Mahowald NM, Randerson JT, Thornton PE, Hoffman FM, Levis S, Lawrence PJ, Feddema JJ, Oleson KW, Lawrence DM. Fire dynamics during the 20th century simulated by the Community Land Model. Biogeosciences 2010, 7:1877-1902. doi:10.5194/bg-7-1877-2010.
115. 2 growth from economic activity, carbon intensity, and efficiency of natural sinks. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007, 104:18866-18870. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702737104.
116. 2 emissions increasing? Geophys Res Lett 2009, 36: L21710. doi:10.1029/2009GL040613.
117. 2 growth rate anomalies in 2002-2003. Geophys Res Lett 2005, 32: L14816. doi:10.1029/ 2005GL023027.
118. Wania R, Ross I, Prentice IC. Integrating peatlands and permafrost into a dynamic global vegetation model: 1. Evaluation and sensitivity of physical land surface processes. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2009, 23: GB3014. doi:10.1029/2008GB003412.
119. Lawrence DM, Slater AG, Tomas RA, Holland MM, Deser C. Accelerated Arctic land warming and permafrost degradation during rapid sea ice loss. Geophys Res Lett 2008, 35: L11506. doi:10.1029/2008GL033985.
120. Walter KM, Smith LC, Chapin FS. Methane bubbling from northern lakes: present and future contributions to the global methane budget. Philos Trans R Soc A Math Phys Eng Sci 2007, 365:1657-1676.
121. Jain A, Yang X, Kheshgi H, McGuire AD, Post W, Kicklighter D. Nitrogen attenuation of terrestrial carbon cycle response to global environmental factors. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2009, 23: GB4028. doi:10.1029/2009GB003519.
122. Wang YP, Houlton B, Field CB. A model of biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus including symbiotic nitrogen fixation and phosphatase production. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2007, 21: GB1018. doi:10.1029/2006GB002797.
123. Sokolov AP, Kicklighter DW, Melillo JM, Felzer BS. Consequences of considering cargon-nitrogen interactions on the feedbacks between climate and the terrestrial carbon cycle. J Clim 2008, 21: 3776-3796.
124. Frank DC, Esper J, Raible CC, Büntgen U, Trouet V, Stocker B, Joos F. Enseble reconstruction constraints on the global carbon cycle sensitivity to climate. Nature 2010, 463:527-530. doi:10.1038/nature08769.
125. Zaehle S, Friedlingstein P, Friend AD. Terrestrial nitrogen feedbacks may accelerate future climate change. Geophys Res Lett 2010, 37: L01401. doi:10.1029/2009GL041345.
126. Thornton PE, Doney SC, Lindsay K, Moore JK, Mahowald N, Randerson JT, Fung I, Lamarque J-F, Feddema JJ, Lee Y-H. Carbon-nitrogen interactions regulate climate-carbon cycle feedbacks: results from an atmosphere-ocean general circulation model. Biogeosciences 2009, 6:2099-2120.
127. Levis S. 2002. A review of non-linearities and thresholds simulated by synchronously coupled climatevegetation models. XXVII General Assembly of the European Geophysical Society, Nice, France.
128. Delire C, Foley JA, Thompson SL. Long-term internal variability in a coupled atmosphere-biosphere model. J Clim 2004, 17:3947-3959.
129. Bonan GB, Levis S. Quantifying carbon-nitrogen feedbacks in the Community Land Model (CLM4). Geophys Res Lett 2010, 37: L07401. doi:10.1029/ 2010GL042430.
130. 2 fertilization and climate variability. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2007, 21: GB4018. doi:10.1029/2006GB002868.
131. Ruddiman WF. The anthropogenic greenhouse era began thousands of years ago. Clim Change 2003, 61:261-293.
132. Ruddiman WF. Falsification of natural explanations for late Holocene greenhouse-gas increases. Eos Trans AGU 2008, 89: Fall Meeting Supplement, Abstract U33B-08.
133. Pongratz J, Reick CH, Raddatz T, Claussen M. Effects of anthropogenic land cover change on the carbon cycle of the last millennium. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2009, 23: GB4001. doi:10.1029/2009GB003488.
134. 2 emissions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007, 104:10288-10293. doi:10.1073/pnas.0700609104.
135. Melillo JM, Reilly JM, Kicklighter DW, Gurgel AC, Cronin TW, Paltsev S, Felzer BS, Wang X, Sokolov AP, Schlosser CA. Indirect emissions from biofuels: how important? Science 2009, 326:1397-1399.
136. 2 transport based on observed winds: 1. Analysis of observational data. AGU Geophys Monogr 1989, 55:165-236.
137. 2 increase and climate change during the last 150 years. Glob Chang Biol 2004, 10:1253-1266.
138. Donner SD, Kucharik CJ. Evaluating the impacts of land management and climate variability on crop production and nitrate export across the Upper Mississippi Basin. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2003, 17: 1085, doi:10.1029/2001GB001808.
139. Bouwman AF, Boumans LJM, Batjes NH. Modeling global annual N2O and NO emissions from fertilized fields. Global Biogeochem Cycles 2002, 16: Article Number 1080, doi:10.1029/2001GB001812.
140. Bala G, Caldeira K, WickettM, Phillips TJ, Lobell DB, Delire C,Mirin A. Combined climate and carbon-cycle effects of large-scale deforestation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007, 104:6550-6555.
141. 2 and climate. Glob Biogeochem Cycles 2005, 19: GB2013. doi:10.1029/2004GB002311.
142. Burkett VR, Wilcox DA, Stottlemyer R, Barrow W, Fagre D, Baron J, Price J, Nielsen JL, Allen CD, Peterson DL, et al. Nonlinear dynamics in ecosystem response to climatic change: case studies and policy implications. Ecol Complex 2005, 2:357-394.
143. Brovkin V, Claussen M, Petoukhov V, Ganopolski A. On the stability of the atmosphere-vegetation system in the Sahara/Sahel region. J Geophys Res 1998, 103, 31613-31624.
144. Claussen M. On multiple solutions of the atmospherevegetation system in present-day climate. Glob Chang Biol 1998, 4:549-559.
145. Wang G, Eltahir EAB. Biosphere-atmosphere interactions over West Africa. II: Multiple climate equilibria. Q J R Meteorol Soc 2000, 126:1261-1280.
146. Brovkin V, Levis S, Loutre MF, Crucifix M, Claussen M, Ganopolski A, Kubatzki C, Petoukhov V. Stability analysis of the climate-vegetation system in the northern high latitudes. Clim Change 2003, 57:119-138.
147. Thornton PE, Rosenbloom N. Ecosystem model spinup: estimating steady state conditions in a coupled terrestrial carbon and nitrogen cycle model. Ecol Modell 2005, 189:25-48.
148. Le Quéré C, Raupach M, Canadell JG, Marland G, Bopp L, Ciais P, Conway TJ, Doney SC, Feely RA, Foster P, et al. Trends in the sources and sinks of carbon dioxide. Nat Geosci 2009, 2:831-836. doi:10.1038/NGEO689.
149. Henderson-Sellers A, McGuffie K, Pitman AJ. The project for intercomparison of land-surface parametrization schemes (PILPS): 1992 to 1995. Clim Dyn 1996, 12:849-859. doi:10.1007/s0038200 50147.
150. Delire C, de Noblet-Ducoudré N, Sima A, Gouirand I. Effect of vegetation dynamics on climate variability: contrasting results from two modeling studies. J Clim. In revision.
151. Bonan GB, Levis S. Evaluating aspects of the Community Land and Atmosphere Models (CLM3 and CAM3) using a dynamic global vegetation model. J Clim 2006, 19:2290-2301.
152. Sitch S, Huntingford C, Gedney N, Levy PE, Lomas M, Piao S, Betts R, Ciais P, Cox PM, Friedlingstein P, et al. Evaluation of the terrestrial carbon cycle, future plant geography and climate-carbon cycle feedbacks using 5 dynamic global vegetation models (DGVMs). Glob Chang Biol 2008, 14:2015-2039. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01626.x.
153. Bonan GB, Pollard D, Thompson SL. Effects of boreal forest vegetation on global climate. Nature 1992, 359:716-718.
154. Galloway JN, Dentener FJ, Capone DG, Boyer EW, Howarth RW, Seitzinger SP, Asner GP, Cleveland CC, Green PA, Holland EA, et al. Nitrogen cycles: past, present, and future. Biogeochemistry 2004, 70:153-226. doi:10.1007/s10533-004-0370-0.
155. Voldoire A, Eickhout B, Schaeffer M, Royer J-F, Chauvin F. Climate simulation of the twenty-first century with interactive land-use changes. Clim Dyn 2007, 29:177-193.
156. Oleson KW, Bonan GB, Feddema J. Effects of white roofs on urban temperature in a global climate model. Geophys Res Lett 2010, 37:3. doi:10.1029/2009GL042194.