The challenge of being a young manager: The effects of contingent reward and participative leadership on team-level turnover depend on leader age

Journal of Organizational Behavior

Volumn 37, Issue 8, 2016, Pages 1224-1245

  Buengeler, Claudia ^a   Homan, Astrid C ^a   Voelpel, Sven C ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

^b JACOBS UNIVERSITY BREMEN   (Germany)

Author keywords

(younger) leader age; contingent reward; participative leadership; team level (in)voluntary turnover

Indexed keywords

EID: 84962729482     PISSN: 08943796     EISSN: 10991379     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/job.2101     Document Type: Article

References (108)

1. Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
2. Allen, D. G., Shore, L. M., & Griffeth, R. W. (2003). The role of perceived organizational support and supportive human resource practices in the turnover process. Journal of Management, 29(1), 99–118.
3. Antonakis, J., & House, R. J. (2002). The full-range leadership theory: The way forward. In B. J. Avolio, & F. J. Yammarino (Eds.), Transformational and charismatic leadership: The road ahead (pp. 3–33). Oxford, U.K.: Elsevier Science.
4. Avolio, B. J., & Bass, B. M. (2004). MLQ - multifactor leadership questionnaire. Menlo Park, CA: Mind Garden.
5. Avolio, B. J., Waldman, D. A., & McDaniel, M. A. (1990). Age and work performance in nonmanagerial jobs: The effects of experience and occupational type. The Academy of Management Journal, 33(2), 407–422.
6. Bartol, K. M., Martin, D. C., & Kromkowski, J. A. (2003). Leadership and the glass ceiling: Gender and ethnic group influences on leader behaviors at middle and executive managerial levels. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 9(3), 8–19.
7. Bass, B. M. (1960). Leadership, psychology, and organizational behavior. New York: Free Press.
8. Bass, B. M., & Bass, R. (2008). The Bass handbook of leadership. New York: Free Press.
9. Becker, T. E. (2005). Potential problems in the statistical control of variables in organizational research: A qualitative analysis with recommendations. Organizational Research Methods, 8(3), 274–289.
10. Berger, J., Cohen, B. P., & Zelditch, M. Jr. (1972). Status characteristics and social interaction. American Sociological Review, 37(3), 241–255.
11. Berger, J., Fisek, H., Norman, R., & Zelditch, M. (1977). Status characteristics and social interaction. New York: Elsevier.
12. Biemann, T., & Kearney, E. (2010). Size does matter: How varying group sizes in a sample affect the most common measures of group diversity. Organizational Research Methods, 13(3), 582–599.
13. Biemann, T., Cole, M. S., & Voelpel, S. (2012). Within-group agreement: On the use (and misuse) of rWG and rWG(J) in leadership research and some best practice guidelines. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(1), 66–80.
14. Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley.
15. Blau, P. M. (1977). Inequality and heterogeneity. New York: Free Press.
16. Bliese, P. D. (2000). Within-group agreement, non-independence, and reliability: Implications for data aggregation and analysis. In K. J. Klein, & S. W. J. Kozlowski (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations (pp. 349–382). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.
17. Brislin, R. W. (1980). Translation and content analysis of oral and written material. In H. C. Triandis, & J. W. Berry (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology (pp. 349–444). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
18. Bryman, A. (1987). The generalizability of implicit leadership theory. Journal of Social Psychology, 127(2), 129–141.
19. Burke, C. S., Stagl, K. C., Klein, C., Goodwin, G. F., Salas, E., & Halpin, S. M. (2006). What type of leadership behaviors are functional in teams? A meta-analysis. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(3), 288–307.
20. Cropanzano, R., & Mitchell, M. S. (2005). Social exchange theory: An interdisciplinary review. Journal of Management, 31(6), 874–900.
21. Dempster, A. P., Laird, N. M., & Rubin, D. B. (1977). Maximum likelihood from incomplete data via the EM algorithm. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 39, 1–38.
22. Den Hartog, D. N., Boselie, P., & Paauwe, J. (2004). Performance management: A model and research agenda. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 53(4), 556–569.
23. DeRue, D. S., & Ashford, S. J. (2010). Who will lead and who will follow? A social process of leadership identity construction in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 35(4), 627–647.
24. DeRue, D. S., Nahrgang, J. D., Wellman, N. E. D., & Humphrey, S. E. (2011). Trait and behavioral theories of leadership: An integration and meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Personnel Psychology, 64(1), 7–52.
25. Eagly, A. H., & Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C. (2001). The leadership styles of women and men. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 781–797.
26. Eagly, A. H., Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C., & van Engen, M. L. (2003). Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological Bulletin, 129(4), 569–591.
27. Eagly, A. H., Makhijani, M. G., & Klonsky, B. G. (1992). Gender and the evaluation of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 111(1), 3–22.
28. Eden, D., & Leviatan, U. (1975). Implicit leadership theory as a determinant of the factor structure underlying supervisory behavior scales. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(6), 736–741.
29. French, J. R. P., & Raven, B. H. (1959). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright (Ed.), Studies in social power (pp. 150–167). Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research.
30. George, J. M. (1990). Personality, affect, and behavior in groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 107–116.
31. Gevers, J. M., & Peeters, M. (2009). A pleasure working together? The effects of dissimilarity in team member conscientiousness on team temporal processes and individual satisfaction. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30(3), 379–400.
32. Glick, W. H. (1985). Conceptualizing and measuring organizational and psychological climate: Pitfalls in multilevel research. Academy of Management Journal, 10(3), 601–616.
33. Goodwin, V. L., Wofford, J. C., & Whittington, J. L. (2001). A theoretical and empirical extension to the transformational leadership construct. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22(7), 759–774.
34. Greenleaf, R. K. (1977). Servant leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press.
35. Gündemir, S., Homan, A. C., de Dreu, C. K., & van Vugt, M. (2014). Think leader, think white? Capturing and weakening an implicit pro-white leadership bias. PLoS One, 9(1), e83915.
36. Hais, S. C., Hogg, M. A., & Duck, J. M. (1997). Self-categorization and leadership: Effects of group prototypicality and leader stereotypicality. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(10), 1087–1099.
37. Harrison, D. A., & Klein, K. J. (2007). What's the difference? Diversity constructs as separation, variety, or disparity in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 32(4), 1199–1228.
38. Hausknecht, J. P., & Trevor, C. O. (2011). Collective turnover at the group, unit, and organizational levels: Evidence, issues, and implications. Journal of Management, 37(1), 352–388.
39. Heinitz, K., & Rowold, J. (2007). Gütekriterien einer deutschen adaptation des transformational leadership inventory (TLI) von Podsakoff. Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie, 51, 1–15. doi: 10.1026/0932-4089.51.1.1.
40. Hirschfeld, R. R., & Thomas, C. H. (2011). Age- and gender-based role incongruence: Implications for knowledge mastery and observed leadership potential among personnel in a leadership development program. Personnel Psychology, 64(3), 661–692.
41. Hogg, M. A., van Knippenberg, D., & Rast, D. E. (2012). The social identity theory of leadership: Theoretical origins, research findings, and conceptual developments. European Review of Social Psychology, 23(1), 258–304.
42. Hollander, E. P. (1980). Leadership and social exchange processes. In K. Gergen, M. S. Greenberg, & R. H. Willis (Eds.), Social exchange: Advances in theory and research (pp. 103–118). New York: Plenum Press.
43. Hollander, E. P., & Offermann, L. R. (1990). Power and leadership in organizations: Relationships in transition. American Psychologist, 45(2), 179–189.
44. Hollander, E. P. (1992). The essential interdependence of leadership and followership. Current Directions in Psychological Science (Wiley-Blackwell), 1(2), 71–75.
45. Hollenbeck, J. R., Moon, H., Ellis, A. P. J., West, B. J., Ilgen, D. R., Sheppard, L.,…Wagner, J. A., III. (2002). Structural contingency theory and individual differences: Examination of external and internal person-team fit. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(3), 599–606.
46. Homans, C. G. (1958). Social behavior as exchange. American Journal of Sociology, 62, 597–606.
47. House, R. J., & Dessler, G. (1974). The path-goal theory of leadership: Some post hoc and a priori tests. In J. G. Hunt, & L. L. Larson (Eds.), Contingency approaches to leadership (pp. 29–55). Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.
48. Howell, J. P., Dorfman, P. W., & Kerr, S. (1986). Moderator variables in leadership research. The Academy of Management Review, 11(1), 88–102.
49. Humphrey, S. E., Hollenbeck, J. R., Meyer, C. J., & Ilgen, D. R. (2007). Trait configurations in self-managed teams: A conceptual examination of the use of seeding for maximizing and minimizing trait variance in teams. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(3), 595–615.
50. Indvik, J. (1986). Path-goal theory of leadership: A meta-analysis. Chicago: AMA.
51. Indvik, J. (1988). A more complete testing of path-goal theory. Paper Presented at the Academy of Management Annual Meeting, Anaheim, CA.
52. Jackson, S. E., Brett, J. F., Sessa, V. I., Cooper, D. M., Julin, J. A., & Peyronnin, K. (1991). Some differences make a difference: Individual dissimilarity and group heterogeneity as correlates of recruitment, promotions, and turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(5), 675–689.
53. Jackson, S. E., May, K. E., & Whitney, K. (1995). Understanding the dynamics of diversity in decision-making teams. In R. A. Guzzo, & E. Salas (Eds.), Team effectiveness and decision making in organizations (pp. 204–261). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
54. James, L. R., Demaree, R. G., & Wolf, G. (1984). Estimating within-group interrater reliability with and without response bias. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 85–98.
55. Jehn, K. A., Northcraft, G. B., & Neale, M. A. (1999). Why differences make a difference: A field study of diversity, conflict, and performance in workgroups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(4), 741–763.
56. Judge, T. A., & Piccolo, R. F. (2004). Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(5), 755–768.
57. Junker, N. M., & van Dick, R. (2014). Implicit theories in organizational settings: A systematic review and research agenda of implicit leadership and followership theories. The Leadership Quarterly, 25(6), 1154–1173.
58. Kearney, E. (2008). Age differences between leader and followers as a moderator of the relationship between transformational leadership and team performance. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 81(4), 803–811.
59. Kearney, E., & Gebert, D. (2009). Managing diversity and enhancing team outcomes: The promise of transformational leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(1), 77–89.
60. Keltner, D., Van Kleef, G. A., Chen, S., & Kraus, M. (2008). A reciprocal influence model of social power: Emerging principles and lines of inquiry. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 151–192.
61. Kenney, R. A., Schwartz-Kenney, B. M., & Blascovich, J. (1996). Implicit leadership theories: Defining leaders described as worthy of influence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(11), 1128–1143.
62. Kipnis, D. (1976). The powerholders. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
63. Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Bell, B. S. (2003). Work groups and teams in organizations. In W. C. Borman, D. R. Ilgen & R. J. Klimoski (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 333–375). London: Wiley.
64. Kwon, K., & Rupp, D. E. (2013). High-performer turnover and firm performance: The moderating role of human capital investment and firm reputation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34(1), 129–150.
65. Lawrence, B. S. (1984). Age grading: The implicit organizational timetable. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 5(1), 23–35.
66. Lawrence, B. S. (1988). New wrinkles in the theory of age: Demography, norms, and performance rating. Academy of Management Journal, 31(2), 309–337.
67. Lord, R. G. (1985). An information processing approach to social perceptions, leadership, and behavioral measurement in organizations. In B. M. Staw, & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (pp. 87–128). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
68. Lord, R. G., & Maher, K. J. (1991). Leadership and information processing: Linking perceptions and performance. Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman.
69. Lord, R. G., Brown, D. J., Harvey, J. L., & Hall, R. J. (2001). Contextual constraints on prototype generation and their multilevel consequences for leadership perceptions. The Leadership Quarterly, 12(3), 311–338.
70. Lord, R. G., Foti, R. J., & De Vader, C. L. (1984). A test of leadership categorization theory: Internal structure, information processing, and leadership perceptions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34(3), 343–378.
71. McElroy, J. C., Morrow, P. C., & Rude, S. N. (2001). Turnover and organizational performance: A comparative analysis of the effects of voluntary, involuntary, and reduction-in-force turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(6), 1294–1299.
72. Mobley, W. H. (1982). Employee turnover: Causes, consequences, and control. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
73. Montepare, J. M., & Zebrowitz, L. A. (1998). Person perception comes of age: The salience and significance of age in social judgments. In M.P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 30, pp. 93–161). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
74. Morrison, A. M., & von Glinow, M. A. (1990). Women and minorities in management. American Psychologist, 45(2), 200–208.
75. Nishii, L. H. (2013). The benefits of climate for inclusion for gender-diverse groups. Academy of Management Journal, 56(6), 1754–1774.
76. Nishii, L. H., & Mayer, D. M. (2009). Do inclusive leaders help to reduce turnover in diverse groups? The moderating role of leader-member exchange in the diversity to turnover relationship. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(6), 1412–1426.
77. Oldmeadow, J. (2007). Status generalization in context: The moderating role of groups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(2), 273–279.
78. Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P. Jr. (2002). Vertical versus shared leadership as predictors of the effectiveness of change management teams: An examination of aversive, directive, transactional, transformational, and empowering leader behaviors. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 6(2), 172–197.
79. Pelled, L. H., Eisenhardt, K. M., & Xin, K. R. (1999). Exploring the black box: An analysis of work group diversity, conflict, and performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(1), 1–28.
80. Platow, M. J., & Van Knippenberg, D. (2001). A social identity analysis of leadership endorsement: The effects of leader ingroup prototypicality and distributive intergroup fairness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(11), 1508–1519.
81. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2012). Sources of method bias in social science research and recommendations on how to control it. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 539–569.
82. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Moorman, R. H., & Fetter, R. (1990). Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers' trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly, 1(2), 107–142.
83. Porter, L. W., & Steers, R. M. (1973). Organizational, work, and personal factors in employee turnover and absenteeism. Psychological Bulletin, 80(2), 151–176.
84. Ridgeway, C. L., Berger, J., & Smith, L. (1985). Nonverbal cues and status: An expectation states approach. American Journal of Sociology, 90(5), 955–978.
85. Ridgeway, C. L. (2001). Gender, status, and leadership. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 637–655.
86. Ridgeway, C. L. (2003). Status characteristics and leadership. In D. Van Knippenberg, & M. A. Hogg (Eds.), Leadership and power: Identity processes in groups and organizations (pp. 65–78). London: Sage.
87. Ridgeway, C. (1991). The social construction of status value: Gender and other nominal characteristics. Social Forces, 70(2), 367–386. doi: 10.1093/sf/70.2.367
88. Rosette, A., Leonardelli, G. J., & Phillips, K. W. (2008). The white standard: Racial bias in leader categorization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 758–777.
89. Ross, I. C., & Zander, A. (1957). Need satisfactions and employee turnover. Personnel Psychology, 10 (3), 327–338. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1957.tb00786.x
90. Rudolph, C. W., & Zacher, H. (2015). Intergenerational perceptions and conflicts in multi-age and multigenerational work environments. In L. M. Finkelstein, D. M. Truxillo, F. Fraccaroli & R. Kanfer (Eds.), Facing the challenges of a multi-age workforce: A use-inspired approach (pp. 253–282). New York: Routledge.
91. Ryan, M. K., & Haslam, S. A. (2007). The glass cliff: Exploring the dynamics surrounding the appointment of women to precarious leadership positions. Academy of Management Review, 32(2), 549–572.
92. Sagie, A., & Koslowsky, M. (2000). Participation and empowerment in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
93. Sauer, S. J. (2011). Taking the reins: The effects of new leader status and leadership style on team performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(3), 574–587.
94. Spisak, B. R., Grabo, A. E., Arvey, R. D., & van Vugt, M. (2014). The age of exploration and exploitation: Younger-looking leaders endorsed for change and older-looking leaders endorsed for stability. The Leadership Quarterly, 25(5), 805–816.
95. Spisak, B. R., Homan, A. C., Grabo, A., & Van Vugt, M. (2012). Facing the situation: Testing a biosocial contingency model of leadership in intergroup relations using masculine and feminine faces. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(2), 273–280.
96. Stumpf, S. A., & Dawley, P. K. (1981). Predicting voluntary and involuntary turnover using absenteeism and performance indices. Academy of Management Journal, 24(1), 148–163.
97. Tannen, D. (1995). The power of talk: Who gets heard and why. Harvard Business Review, 73(5), 138–148.
98. Tsui, A. S., Porter, L. W., & Egan, T. D. (2002). When both similarities and dissimilarities matter: Extending the concept of relational demography. Human Relations, 55(8), 899–929.
99. Van der Vegt, G. S., & Janssen, O. (2003). Joint impact of interdependence and group diversity on innovation. Journal of Management, 29(5), 729–751.
100. Vecchio, R. P. (1993). The impact of differences in subordinate and supervisor age on attitudes and performance. Psychology and Aging, 8(1), 112–119.
101. Wagner, J. A. III. (1994). Participation's effects on performance and satisfaction: A reconsideration of research evidence. Academy of Management Review, 19, 312–330.
102. Walter, F., & Scheibe, S. (2013). A literature review and emotion-based model of age and leadership: New directions for the trait approach. The Leadership Quarterly, 24(6), 882–901.
103. Walton, R. A. (1985). From control to commitment in the workplace. Harvard Business Review, 63(2), 77–84.
104. Weber, R., Camerer, C., Rottenstreich, Y., & Knez, M. (2001). The illusion of leadership: Misattribution of cause in coordination games. Organization Science, 12(5), 582–598.
105. Yammarino, F. J., Dubinsky, A. J., Comer, L. B., & Jolson, M. A. (1997). Women and transformational and contingent reward leadership: A multiple-levels-of-analysis perspective. The Academy of Management Journal, 40(1), 205–222.
106. Yukl, G. (2013). Leadership in organizations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
107. Yukl, G., & Falbe, C. M. (1991). Importance of different power sources in downward and lateral relations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(3), 416–423.
108. Zacher, H., Rosing, K., & Frese, M. (2011). Age and leadership: The moderating role of legacy beliefs. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(1), 43–50.