Implicit theories in organizational settings: A systematic review and research agenda of implicit leadership and followership theories

Leadership Quarterly

Volumn 25, Issue 6, 2014, Pages 1154-1173

  Junker, Nina Mareen ^a   Van Dick, Rolf ^a  

^a GOETHE UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

Author keywords

Implicit followership theories; Implicit leadership theories; Implicit theories; Prototypes; Review

Indexed keywords

EID: 84919845781     PISSN: 10489843     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2014.09.002     Document Type: Review

References (128)

1. Abdalla I.A., Al-Hamoud M.A. Exploring the implicit leadership theory in the Arabian Gulf States. Applied Psychology: An International Review 2001, 50:506-531.
2. Altana Leadership guidelines Retrieved from. http://www.altana.com/company/profile/leadership-guidelines.html.
3. Antonakis J., Avolio B.J., Sivasubramaniam N. Context and leadership: An examination of the nine-factor full-range leadership theory using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. The Leadership Quarterly 2003, 14:261-295.
4. Antonakis J., Dalgas O. Predicting elections: Child's play!. Science 2009, 323:1183.
5. Antonakis J., Schriesheim C.A., Donovan J.A., Gopalakrishna-Pillai K., Pellegrini E.K., Rossomme J.L. Methods for studying leadership. The nature of leadership 2004, 48-70. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. J. Antonakis, A.T. Cianciolo, R.J. Sternberg (Eds.).
6. Atkins P.W.B., Wood R.E. Self-versus others' ratings as predictors of assessment center ratings: Validation evidence for 360-degree feedback programs. Personnel Psychology 2006, 55:871-904.
7. Ayman-Nolley S., Ayman R. Children's implicit theories of leadership. Implicit leadership theories - Essays and explorations 2005, 227-274. Information Age Publishing, Greenwich, CT. B. Schyns, J.R. Meindl (Eds.).
8. Barsalou L.W. Ideals, central tendency, and frequency of instantiation as determinants of graded structure in categories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 1985, 11:629-654.
9. Bass B.M., Avolio B.J. Potential biases in leadership measures: How prototypes, leniency, and general satisfaction relate to ratings and rankings of transformational and transactional leadership constructs. Educational and Psychological Measurement 1989, 49:509-527.
10. Binning J.F., Lord R.G. Boundary conditions for performance cue effects on group process ratings: Familiarity versus type of feedback. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 1980, 26:115-130.
11. Blaker N.M., Rompa I., Dessing I.H., Vriend A.F., Herschberg C., Van Vugt M. The height leadership advantage in men and women: Testing evolutionary psychology predictions about the perceptions of tall leaders. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 2013, 16:17-27.
12. Bligh M.C., Kohles J.C., Pillai R. Romancing leadership: Past, present, and future. The Leadership Quarterly 2011, 22:1058-1077.
13. Brodbeck F.C., Frese M., Akerblom S., Audia G., Bakacsi G., Bendova H., et al. Cultural variation of leadership prototypes across 22 European countries. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 2000, 73:1-29.
14. Caetano A., Vala J., Leyens J.-P. Judgeability in person perception: The confidence of leaders. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice 2001, 5:102-110.
15. Carsten M.K., Uhl-Bien M., West B.J., Patera J.L., McGregor R. Exploring social constructions of followership: A qualitative study. The Leadership Quarterly 2010, 21:543-562.
16. Cialdini R.B., Trost M.R. Social influence: Social norms, conformity and compliance. The handbook of social psychology 1998, Vol. 2:151-192. McGraw-Hill, New York. 4th ed. D.T. Gilbert, S.T. Fiske, G. Lindzey (Eds.).
17. Cronshaw S.F., Lord R.G. Effects of categorization, attribution, and encoding processes on leadership perceptions. Journal of Applied Psychology 1987, 72:97-106.
18. Deal J.J., Stevenson M.A. Perceptions of female and male managers in the 1990s: Plus ça change. Sex Roles 1998, 38:287-300.
19. Den Hartog D.N., House R.J., Hanges P.J., Ruiz-Quintanilla A., Dorfman P.W. Culture specific and cross-culturally generalizable implicit leadership theories: Are attributes of charismatic/transformational leadership universally endorsed?. The Leadership Quarterly 1999, 10:219-256.
20. DeNisi A.S., Kluger A.M. Feedback effectiveness: Can 360-degree appraisals be improved?. Academy of Management Executive 2000, 14:129-139.
21. DeRue D.S., Ashford S.J. Who will lead and who will follow? A social process of leadership identity construction in organizations. Academy of Management Review 2010, 35:627-647.
22. Dinh J.E., Lord R.G. Implications of dispositional and process views of traits for individual difference research in leadership. The Leadership Quarterly 2012, 23:651-669.
23. Dipboye R.L., Fromkin H.L., Wiback K. Relative importance of applicant sex, attractiveness, and scholastic standing in evaluation of job applicant résumés. Journal of Applied Psychology 1975, 60:39-43.
24. Dorfman P.W., Hanges P.J., Brodbeck F.C. Leadership prototypes and cultural variation: The identification of culturally endorsed implicit theories of leadership. Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies 2004, 10-22. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. R.J. House, P.J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P.W. Dorfman, V. Gupta (Eds.).
25. Eagly A.H., Chin J.L. Diversity and leadership in a changing world. American Psychologist 2010, 65:216-224.
26. Eagly A.H., Karau S.J. Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review 2002, 109:573-598.
27. Eagly A.H., Karau S.J., Makhijani M.G. Gender and effectiveness of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 1995, 117:125-145.
28. Eagly A.H., Makhijani M.G., Klonsky B.G. Gender and the evaluation of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 1992, 111:3-22.
29. Eden D. Leadership and expectations: Pygmalion effects and other self-fulfilling prophecies in organizations. The Leadership Quarterly 1992, 3:271-305.
30. Eden D., Leviatan U. Implicit leadership theory as a determinant of the factor structure underlying supervisory behavior scales. Journal of Applied Psychology 1975, 60:736-741.
31. Engle E.M., Lord R.G. Implicit theories, self-schemas, and leader-member exchange. Academy of Management Journal 1997, 40:988-1010.
32. Ensari N., Murphy S.E. Cross-cultural variations in leadership perceptions and attribution of charisma to the leader. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 2003, 92:52-66.
33. Epitropaki O., Martin R. Implicit leadership theories in applied settings: Factor structure, generalizability, and stability over time. Journal of Applied Psychology 2004, 89:293-310.
34. Epitropaki O., Martin R. From ideal to real: A longitudinal study of the role of implicit leadership theories on leader-member-exchanges and employee outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology 2005, 90:659-676.
35. Erker S., Thomas B. Finding the first rung: A study on the challenges facing today's frontline leader 2010, DDI, Bridgeville, PA.
36. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions Demographic change and work in Europe Retrieved from. http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/ewco/surveyreports/EU0902019D/EU0902019D.pdf.
37. Finkelstein L.M., Burke M.J., Raju N.S. Age discrimination in simulated employment contexts: An integrative analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology 1995, 80:652-663.
38. Fleishman E.A. Twenty years of consideration and structure. Current developments in the study of leadership 1973, 1-40. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, IL. E.A. Fleishman, J.G. Hunt (Eds.).
39. Forbes The top 10 workplace trends for 2014 Retrieved from. http://www.forbes.com/sites/danschawbel/2013/10/24/the-top-10-workplace-trends-for-2014/.
40. Forsyth D.R., Heiney M.M., Wright S.S. Biases in appraisals of women leaders. Group Dynamics Theory, Research, and Practice 1997, 1:98-103.
41. Foti R.J., Fraser S.L., Lord R.G. Effects of leadership labels and prototypes on perceptions of political leaders. Journal of Applied Psychology 1982, 67:326-333.
42. Gardner W.L., Avolio B.J. The charismatic relationship: A dramaturgical perspective. Academy of Management Review 1998, 23:32-58.
43. Garg A.X., Hackam D., Tonelli M. Systematic review and meta-analysis: When one study is just not enough. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 2008, 3:253-260.
44. Gerstner C.R., Day D.V. Cross-cultural comparisons of leadership prototypes. The Leadership Quarterly 1994, 2:121-134.
45. Gerstner C.R., Day D.V. Meta-analytic review of leader-member exchange theory: Correlates and construct issues. Journal of Applied Psychology 1997, 82:827-844.
46. Gilbert D.T., Malone P.S. The correspondence bias. Psychological Bulletin 1995, 117:21-38.
47. Gordon R.A., Arvey R.D. Age bias in laboratory and field settings: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2004, 34:1-27.
48. Green S.G., Mitchell T.R. Attributional processes of leaders in leader-member interactions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performances 1979, 23:429-458.
49. Hains S.C., Hogg M.A., Duck J.M. Self-categorization and leadership: Effects of group prototypicality and leader stereotypicality. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 1997, 23:1087-1099.
50. Hanges P.J., Lord R.G., Dickson M.W. An information-processing perspective on leadership and culture: A case for connectionist architecture. Applied Psychology: An International Review 2000, 49:133-161.
51. Heilman M.E. Sex bias in work settings: The lack of fit model. Research in Organizational Behavior 1983, 5:269-298.
52. Higgins E.T. Self-discrepancy - A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review 1987, 94:219-340.
53. Hollander E.P., Julian J.W. Contemporary trends in the analysis of leadership processes. Psychological Bulletin 1969, 71:387-397.
54. Hollander E.P., Offermann L.R. Power and leadership in organizations - Relationships in transitions. American Psychologist 1990, 45:179-189.
55. House R.J., Hanges P.J., Ruiz-Quintanilla S.A., Dorfman P.W., Javidan M., Dickson M.W., Gupta V., et al. Cultural influences on leadership and organizations: Project GLOBE. Advances in global leadership 1999, Vol. 1:171-233. JAI Press, Stamford. W.F. Mobley, M.J. Gessner, V. Arnold (Eds.).
56. House R.J., Javidan M., Dorfman P. Project GLOBE: An introduction. Applied Psychology: An International Review 2001, 50:489-505.
57. House R.J., Javidan M., Hanges P., Dorfman P. Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe: An introduction to project GLOBE. Journal of World Business 2002, 37:3-10.
58. Hunt J.G., Boal K.B., Sorenson R.L. Top management leadership: Inside the black box. The Leadership Quarterly 1990, 1:41-65.
59. Johnson S.K., Murphy S.E., Zewdie S., Reichard R.J. The strong, sensitive type: Effects of gender stereotypes and leadership prototypes on the evaluation of male and female leaders. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 2008, 106:39-60.
60. Judge T.A., Piccolo R. Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology 2004, 89:755-768.
61. Judge T.A., Thoresen C.J., Bono J.E., Patton G.K. The job satisfaction - Job performance relationship: A qualitative and quantitative review. The Psychological Bulletin 2001, 127:376-407.
62. Junker N.M. Is it worth considering idiosyncratic implicit leadership theories?. Presentation held at the 15th Conference of the European Association of Work and Organizational Psychology, Maastricht, 25.-28. May 2011.
63. Junker N.M., Schyns B. On the relevance of gender roles for implicit leadership theories. Poster presented at the 16th General Meeting of the European Association of Social Psychology, Stockholm, 12-16 July 2011.
64. Junker N.M., Schyns B., van Dick R., Scheurer S. Die Bedeutung der Fuehrungskraefte-Kategorisierung für Commitment, Arbeitszufriedenheit und Wohlbefinden unter Beruecksichtigung der Geschlechterrollentheorie. Zeitschrift fuer Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie 2011, 55:171-179.
65. Junker, N. M., Stegmann, S., Braun, S., & van Dick, R. (2014). The ideal and the counter-ideal follower - Advancing implicit followership theories. Goethe University, Frankfurt: Unpublished manuscript.
66. Kite M.E., Stockdale G.D., Whitley B.E., Johnson B.T. Attitudes toward younger and older adults: An updated meta-analytic review. Journal of Social Issues 2005, 61:241-266.
67. Krings F., Sczesny S., Kluge A. Stereotypical inferences as mediators of age discrimination: The role of competence and warmth. British Journal of Management 2011, 22:187-201.
68. Ling W., Chia R., Fang L. Chinese implicit leadership theory. Journal of Social Psychology 2000, 140:729-739.
69. Lord R.G. An information processing approach to social perceptions, leadership and behavioral measurement in organizations. Research in organizational behavior 1985, Vol. 7:87-128. JAI Press, Greenwich, CT. B.M. Staw, L.L. Cummings (Eds.).
70. Lord R.G., Brown D.J., Freiberg S.J. Understanding the dynamics of leadership: The role of follower self-concepts in the leader/follower relationship. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 1999, 78:167-203.
71. Lord R.G., Brown D.J., Harvey J.L. System constraints on leadership perceptions, behavior and influence: An example of connectionist level processes. Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Group processes 2001, 283-310. Blackwell, Oxford. M.A. Hogg, R.S. Tindale (Eds.).
72. Lord R.G., Brown D.J., Harvey J.L., Hall R.J. Contextual constraints on prototype generation and their multilevel consequences for leadership perceptions. The Leadership Quarterly 2001, 12:311-338.
73. Lord R.G., Foti R.J., De Vader C.L. A test of leadership categorization theory: Internal structure, information processing, and leadership perceptions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 1984, 34:343-378.
74. Lord R.G., Foti R.J., Phillips J.S. A theory of leadership categorization. Leadership: Beyond establishment views 1982, 104-121. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, IL. J.G. Hunt, U. Sekaran, C. Schriesheim (Eds.).
75. Lord R.G., Smith J.E. Theoretical, information processing, and situational factors affecting attribution theory models of organizational behavior. Academy of Management Review 1983, 5:50-60.
76. MacKinnon D.P. Integrating mediators and moderators in research design. Research on Social Work Practice 2011, 21:675-681.
77. Martin R., Epitropaki O. Role of organizational identification on implicit leadership theories (ILTs), transformational leadership and work attitudes. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 2001, 4:247-262.
78. Matsa D.A., Miller A.R. A female style in corporate leadership? Evidence from quotas. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 2013, 5:136-169.
79. McGregor J., Gray L. Stereotypes and older workers: The New Zealand experience. Social Policy Journal of New Zealand 2002, 18:163-177.
80. Meindl J.R., Ehrlich S.B., Dukerich J.M. The romance of leadership. Administrative Science Quarterly 1985, 30:78-102.
81. Mitchell T.R., Larson J.R., Green S.G.G. Leader behavior, situational moderators, and group performance: An attributional analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 1977, 18:254-268.
82. Needleman I.G. A guide to systematic reviews. Journal of Clinical Periodontology 2002, 29(Suppl. 3):6-9.
83. Nye J.L., Forsyth D.R. The effects of prototype-based biases on leadership appraisals: A test of leadership categorization theory. Small Group Research 1991, 22:360-379.
84. Offermann L.R., Kennedy J.K., Wirtz P.W. Implicit leadership theories: Content, structure and generalizability. The Leadership Quarterly 1994, 5:43-58.
85. Paris L.D., Howell J.P., Dorfman P.W., Hanges P.J. Preferred leadership prototypes of male and female leaders in 27 countries. Journal of International Business Studies 2009, 40:1396-1405.
86. Payne D.G., Klin C.M., Lampinen J.M., Neuschatz J.S., Lindsay D.S. Memory applied. The handbook of applied cognition 1999, 83-113. Wiley, NY. F.T. Durso, R. Nickerson, R.W. Schvaneveldt, S.T. Dumais, D.S. Lindsay, M.T.H. Chi (Eds.).
87. Phillips J.S. The accuracy of leadership ratings: A cognitive categorization perspective. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 1984, 33:125-138.
88. Powell G.N., Butterfield D.A., Parent J.D. Gender and managerial stereotypes: Have the times changed?. Journal of Management 2002, 28:177-193.
89. Rosch E.H. Principles of categorization. Cognition and categorization 1978, 27-48. Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NY. E. Rosch, B.L. Lloyd (Eds.).
90. Rosen B., Jerdee T.H. The influence of age stereotypes on managerial decisions. Journal of Applied Psychology 1976, 61:428-432.
91. Rush M.C., Phillips J.S., Lord R.G. Effects of temporal delay in rating on leader behavior descriptions: A laboratory investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology 1981, 66:442-450.
92. Schein V.E. The relationship between sex-role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology 1973, 57:95-100.
93. Schein V.E. Relationships between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics among female managers. Journal of Applied Psychology 1975, 60:340-344.
94. Schein V.E. A global look at psychological barriers to women's progress in management. Journal of Social Issues 2001, 4:675-688.
95. Schein V.E., Davidson M.J. Think manager, think male. Management Development Review 1993, 6:24-28.
96. Schein V.E., Mueller R., Lituchy T., Liu J. Think manager - think male: A global phenomenon?. Journal of Organizational Behavior 1996, 17:33-41.
97. Schyns B. The role of implicit leadership theories in the performance appraisals and promotion recommendations of leaders. Equal Opportunities International 2006, 25:88-199.
98. Schyns B., Bligh M. On the romance of leadership - In memory of James R. Meindl. Applied Psychology: An International Review 2007, 56:501-504.
99. Schyns B., Day D. Critique and review of leader-member exchange theory: Issues of agreement, consensus, and excellence. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 2010, 19:1-29.
100. Schyns B., Kiefer T., Kerschreiter R., Tymon A. Teaching implicit leadership theories to develop leaders and leadership: How and why it can make a difference. Academy of Management Learning & Education 2011, 10:397-408.
101. Schyns B., Schilling J. Implicit leadership theories: Think leader, think effective?. Journal of Management Inquiry 2011, 20:141-150.
102. Scullen S.E., Mount M.K., Goff M. Understanding the latent structure of job performance ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology 2000, 85:956-970.
103. Shamir B. From passive recipients to active co-producers - Followers' roles in the leadership process. Follower-centered perspectives on leadership - A tribute to the memory of James R. Meindl 2007, 9-39. Information Age Publishing, Greenwich, CT. B. Shamir, P. Pillai, M.C. Bligh, M. Uhl-Bien (Eds.).
104. Sheppard H.L. Toward an industrial gerontology 1970, Schenkman, Cambridge, Mass.
105. Shondrick S.J., Dinh J.E., Lord R.G. Developments in implicit leadership theory and cognitive science: Applications to improving measurement and understanding alternatives to hierarchical leadership. The Leadership Quarterly 2010, 21:959-978.
106. Shondrick S.J., Lord R.G. Implicit leadership and followership theories: Dynamic structures for leadership perceptions, memory, leader-follower processes. International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology 2010, 1-33. G.P. Hodgkinson, J.K. Ford (Eds.).
107. Spisak B.R., Homan A.C., Grabo A., Van Vugt M. Facing the situation: Testing a biosocial contingency model of leadership in intergroup relations using masculine and feminine faces. The Leadership Quarterly 2011, 23:273-280.
108. Staw B.M., Ross J. Commitment in an experimenting society: A study of the attribution of leadership from administrative scenarios. Journal of Applied Psychology 1980, 65:249-260.
109. Sy T. What do you think of followers? Examining the content, structure, and consequences of implicit followership theories. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 2010, 113:73-84.
110. Sy T., Shore L.M., Strauss J., Shore T.H., Tram S., Whiteley P., Ikeda-Muromachi K. Leadership perceptions as a function of race-occupation fit: The case of Asian Americans. Journal of Applied Psychology 2010, 95:902-919.
111. Thomas D.C., Ravlin E.C. Reponses of employees to cultural adaptation by a foreign manager. Journal of Applied Psychology 1995, 80:133-146.
112. Tillsley C. The impact of age upon employment. Warwick papers in industrial relations 1990, 33. Industrial Relations Research Unit, Warwick Business School, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK.
113. Tram S. Self-fulfilling prophecies, leaders' implicit followership theories (LIFTs) and follower group outcomes. Presentation held at the 2010 Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management. Montreal: Canada 2010, August.
114. Trichas S., Schyns B. The face of leadership: Perceiving leaders from facial expression. The Leadership Quarterly 2012, 23:545-566.
115. Van Gils S., Van Quaquebeke N., van Knippenberg D. The X-factor: On the relevance of implicit leadership and followership theories for leader-member exchange (LMX) agreement. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 2010, 19:333-363.
116. Van Quaquebeke N., Brodbeck F.C. Entwicklung und Validierung zweier Instrumente zur Erfassung von Fuerungskraefte-Kategorisierung im deutschsprachigen Raum. Zeitschrift fuer Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie 2008, 52:70-80.
117. Van Quaquebeke N., Graf M.M., Eckloff T. What do leaders have to live up to? Contrasting the effects of central tendency- versus ideal-based leader prototypes in leader categorization processes. Leadership 2014, 10:190-215.
118. Van Quaquebeke N., Kerschreiter R., Buxton A.E., van Dick R. Two lighthouses to navigate - Effects of ideal and counter-ideal values on follower identification and satisfaction. Journal of Business Ethics 2010, 93:293-305.
119. Van Quaquebeke N., Schmerling A. Kognitive Gleichstellung - Wie die blosse Abbildung bekannter weiblicher und maennlicher Fuehrungskraefte unser implizites Denken zu Fuehrung beeinflusst. Zeitschrift fuer Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie 2010, 54:91-104.
120. Van Quaquebeke N., van Knippenberg D., Brodbeck F.C. More than meets the eye: The role of subordinates' self-perceptions in leader categorization processes. The Leadership Quarterly 2011, 22(2):367-382.
121. Van Quaquebeke N., van Knippenberg D., Eckloff T. Individual differences in the leader categorization to openness to influence relationship: The role of followers' self-perception and social comparison orientation. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 2011, 14:605-622.
122. Van Vugt M. Evolutionary origins of leadership and followership. Personality and Social Psychology Review 2006, 10:354-371.
123. Weick K.E. Sensemaking in organizations 1995, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
124. Weiss H.M., Adler S. Cognitive complexity and the structure of implicit leadership theories. Journal of Applied Psychology 1981, 66:69-78.
125. Wernimont P.F. What supervisors and subordinates expect of each other. Personnel Journal 1971, 50:204-208.
126. Whiteley P., Sy T., Johnson S.K. Leaders' conception of followers: Implications for naturally occurring Pygmalion effects. The Leadership Quarterly 2012, 23:822-834.
127. Wong E.M., Ormiston M.E., Haselhuhn M.P. A face only an investor could love: CEOs' facial structure predicts their firms' financial performance. Psychological Science 2011, 22:1478-1483.
128. Zacher H., Rosing K., Henning T., Frese M. Establishing the next generation at work: Leader generativity as a moderator of the relationships between leader age, leader-member exchange, and leadership success. Psychology and Aging 2011, 26:241-252.