The glass cliff: Exploring the dynamics surrounding the appointment of women to precarious leadership positions

Academy of Management Review

Volumn 32, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 549-572

  Ryan, Michelle K ^a   Haslam, S Alexander ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EXETER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34247480030     PISSN: 03637425     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5465/AMR.2007.24351856     Document Type: Article

References (180)

1. Agars, M. D. 2004. Reconsidering the impact of gender stereotypes on the advancement of women in organizations. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28: 103-111.
2. Arbuthnot, J. 1983. Attributions of responsibility by simulated jurors: Stage of moral reasoning and guilt by association. Psychological Reports, 52: 287-298.
3. Arfken, D. E., Bellar, S. L, & Helms, M. M. 2004. The ultimate glass ceiling revisited: The presence of women on corporate boards. Journal of Business Ethics, 50: 177-186.
4. Ashby, J., Ryan, M. K., & Haslam, S. A. In press. Legal work and the glass cliff: Evidence that women are preferentially selected to lead problematic cases. William and Mary Journal of Women and the Law.
5. Ashforth, B. E., & Kreiner, G. E. 1999. "How can you do it?" Dirty work and the challenge of constructing a positive identity. Academic of Management Review, 24: 413-434.
6. Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. 1989. Social identity theory and the organization. Academy of Management Review. 14: 20-39.
7. Athey, S., Avery, C., & Zemsky, P. 2000. Mentoring and diversity. American Economic Review, 90: 765-786.
8. Balls, E. 1992. Economics of failure: No jobs for the boys. New Statesman and Society, 5: 14-15.
9. Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. 1994. Shatter the glass ceiling: Women may make better managers. Human Resource Management, 33: 549-560.
10. Berthoin Antal, A., & Izreali, D. N. 1993. A global comparison of women in management: Women managers in their homelands and as expatriates. In E. Fagenson (Ed.), Women in management: Trends, issues, and challenges in managerial diversity: 52-96. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
11. Birnbaum, M. H. 2003. Methodological and ethical issues in conducting social psychological research via the internet. In C. Sanson, C. C. Morf, & A. T. Panter (Eds.), Handbook of methods in social psychology: 259-282. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
12. Blanton, K. 2005. Above glass ceiling footing is fragile: Factors appear to work against longer tenures for women CEOs. Boston Globe, February 18: D1.
13. Bligh, M. C., Kohles, J. C., & Meindl, J. R. 2004. Charisma under crisis: Presidential leadership, rhetoric, and media responses before and after the September 11th terrorist attacks. Leadership Quarterly, 15: 211-239.
14. Blum T. C., Fields D. L., & Goodman, J. S. 1994. Organizationlevel determinants of women in management. Academy of Management Journal, 37: 241-268.
15. Blum, L., & Smith, V. 1988. Women's mobility in the corporation: A critique of the politics of optimism. Signs, 13: 528-545.
16. Boyce, L. A., & Herd, A. M. 2003. The relationship between gender role stereotypes and requisite military characteristics. Sex Roles, 49: 365-379.
17. Braddock, D., & Bachelder, L. 1994. The glass ceiling and persons with disabilities. Report for the Glass Ceiling Commission. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor.
18. Branscombe, N. R. 1998. Thinking about one's gender group's privileges or disadvantages: Consequences for wellbeing in women and men. British Journal of Social Psychology, 37: 167-184.
19. Branscombe, N. R., & Ellemers, N. 1998. Coping with groupbased discrimination: Individualistic versus group-level strategies. In J. K. Swim & C. Stangor (Eds.), Prejudice: The target's perspective; 243-266. New York: Academic Press.
20. Brenner, O. C., Tomkiewicz, J., & Schein, V. E. 1989. The relationship between sex-role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics revisited. Academy of Management Journal 32: 662-669.
21. Bullard A. M., & Wright D. S. 1993. Circumventing the glass ceiling: Women executives in American state governments. Public Administration Review, 53: 189-202.
22. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2005. Women in the labor force: A databook. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor.
23. Burke R. J., & McKeen, C. A. 1995. Work experiences, career development, and career success of managerial and professional women. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 10: 81-96.
24. Burrell, B. 1993. John Bailey's legacy: Political parties and women's candidacies for public office. In L. Lovelace (Ed.), Women in politics: Outsiders or insiders: 123-134. New York: Prentice-Hall.
25. Catalyst. 2000. Census of women corporate officers and top earners. New York: Catalyst.
26. Cejka, M. A., & Eagly, A. H. 1999. Gender-stereotypic images of occupations correspond to the sex segregation of employment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25: 413-423.
27. CNN QuickVote. 2004. Does the glass cliff phenomenon exist? http://edition.cnn.com/POLLSERVER/results/13138.exclude. html, accessed September 28.
28. Cockburn, C. 1991. In the way of women: Men's resistance to sex equality in organizations. London: Macmillan.
29. Cooper, V. W. 1997. Homophily or the queen bee syndrome: Female evaluation of female leadership. Small Group Research, 28: 483-499.
30. Cornelissen, J. P., Haslam, S. A., & Balmer, J. M. T. In press. Social identity, organizational identity and corporate identity: Towards an integrated understanding of processes, patternings and products. British Journal of Management.
31. Cuddy, A. J. C., Fiske, S. T., & Glick, P. 2004. When professionals become mothers, warmth doesn't cut the ice. Journal of Social Issues, 60: 701-718.
32. Deal, J. J. 1998. Perceptions of female and male managers in the 1990s: Plus ça change.... Sex Roles, 38: 287-300.
33. Dolan, K. 1997. Gender differences in support for women candidates: Is there a glass ceiling in American politics? Women and Politics, 17(2): 27-41.
34. Dreher, G. F. 2003. Breaking the glass ceiling: The effects of sex ratios and work-life programs on female leadership at the top. Human Relations, 56: 541-562.
35. Duck, J. M., & Fielding, K. S. 1999. Leaders and subgroups: One of us or one of them? Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 2: 203-230.
36. Duleep, H. O., & Sanders, S. 1992. Discrimination at the top: American-born Asian and white men. Industrial Relations, 31: 416-432.
37. Eagly, A. H. 2005. Has the managerial stereotype become less masculine and more feminine? A meta-analysis. Paper presented at the 14th General Meeting of the European Association of Experimental Social Psychology, Würzburg.
38. Eagly, A. H., & Johnson, B. 1990. Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 108: 233-256.
39. Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. 2002. Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109: 573-598.
40. Eagly, A. H., Makhijani, M. G., & Klonsky, B. G. 1992. Gender and the evaluation of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 111: 3-22.
41. Ellemers, N. 1993. The influence of socio-structural variables on identity enhancement strategies. European Review of Social Psychology, 4: 27-57.
42. Ellemers, N. 2001. Individual upward mobility and the perceived legitimacy of intergroup relations. In J. T. Jost & B. Major (Eds.), The psychology of legitimacy: 205-222. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
43. Ellemers, N., Barreto, M., & Spears, R. 1999. Commitment and strategic responses to social context. In N. Ellemers, R. Spears, & B. Doosje (Eds.), Social identity: Context, commitment, content: 59-83. Oxford: Blackwell.
44. Ellemers, N., De Gilder, D., & Haslam, S. A. 2004. Motivating individuals and groups at work: A social identity perspective on leadership and group performance. Academy of Management Review, 29: 459-478.
45. Ellemers, N., van den Heuvel, H., De Gilder, D., Maass, A., & Bonvini, A. 2004. The underrepresentation of women in science: Differential commitment or the queen bee syndrome? British Journal of Social Psychology, 43: 315-338.
46. Emrich, C. G. 1999. Context effects in leadership perception. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25: 991-1006.
47. Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC). 2002. Women and men in Britain: Management. Manchester, UK: EOC.
48. Erickson, R. J., & Ritter, C. 2001. Emotional labor, burnout, and inauthenticity: Does gender matter? Social Psychology Quarterly. 64: 146-163.
49. Eyring, A., & Stead, B. A. 1998. Shattering the glass ceiling: Some successful corporate practices. Journal of Business Ethics, 17: 245-251.
50. Fajak, A., & Haslam, S. A. 1998. Gender solidarity in organizational hierarchies. British Journal of Social Psychology, 37: 73-94.
51. Fiedler, F. E. 1964. A contingency model of leadership effectiveness. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 1: 149-190.
52. Fiedler, F. E. 1978. The contingency model and the dynamics of the leadership process. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 11: 59-112.
53. Fujimoto, K. 2004. Feminine capital: The forms of capital in the female labor market in Japan. Sociological Quarterly, 45: 91-111.
54. Furnham, A. 1993. lust world beliefs in 12 societies. Journal of Social Psychology, 133: 317-329.
55. Fiske, S. T., Bersoff, D. N., Borgida, E., Deaux, K., & Heilman, M. E. 1991. Social science research on trial: Use of sex stereotyping research in Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins. American Psychologist, 46: 1049-1060.
56. Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J., Glick, P., & Xu, J. 2002. A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82: 878-902.
57. Frankforter, S. A. 1996. The progression of women beyond the glass ceiling. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 11: 121-132.
58. Frazier, P. A., & Hunt, J. A. 1998. Research on gender and the law: Where are we going, where have we been? Law and Human Behavior, 22: 1-16.
59. Gallagher, J. 1994. QUANGOS: Jobs for the boys. New Statesman and Society, 7: 16.
60. Garcia, D., Horstman Reser, A., Amo, R. B., Redersdirff, S., & Branscombe, N. In press. Perceivers' responses to ingroup and outgroup members who blame a negative outcome on discrimination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.
61. Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. 2001 An ambivalent alliance: Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality. American Psychologist, 56: 109-118.
62. Gold, V., & Pringle, J. 1988. Gender-specific factors in management promotion. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 4: 17-22.
63. Goodman, J. S., Fields, D. L., & Blum, T. C. 2003. Cracks in the glass ceiling: In what kinds of organizations do women make it to the top? Group and Organization Management, 28: 475-501.
64. Greenhaus, I. H., Parasuraman, S., & Wormley, W. M. 1990. Effects of race on organizational experiences, job-performance evaluations, and career outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 33: 64-86.
65. Guy, M. E., & Newman, M. A. 2004. Women's jobs, men's jobs: Sex segregation and emotional labor. Public Administration Review, 64: 289-298.
66. Haslam. S. A. 2001. Psychology m organizations: The social identity approach. London: Sage.
67. Haslam, S. A., Eggins, R. A., & Reynolds, K. J. 2003. The ASPIRe model: Actualizing Social and Personal Identity Resources to enhance organizational outcomes. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology. 76: 83-113.
68. Haslam, S. A., & McGarty, C. 2004. Experimental design and causality in social psychological research. In C. Sanson, C. C. Morf, & A. T. Panter (Eds.), Handbook of methods in social psychology: 235-264. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
69. Haslam, S. A., O'Brien, A., Jetten, J., Vormedal, K., & Penna, S. 2005. Taking the strain: Social identity, social support and the experience of stress. British Journal of Social Psychology. 44: 355-370.
70. Haslam, S. A., & Platow, M. J. 2001. The link between leadership and followership: How affirming social identity translates vision into action. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27: 1469-1479.
71. Haslam, S. A., Platow, M. J., Turner, J. C, Reynolds, K. J., McGarty, C., Oakes, P. J., Johnson, S., Ryan, M. K., & Veenstra, K. 2001. Social identity and the romance of leadership: The importance of being seen to be "doing it for us." Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 4: 191-205.
72. Haslam, S. A., Powell, C., & Turner, J. C. 2000. Social identity, self-categorization and work motivation: Rethinking the contribution of the group to positive and sustainable organizational outcomes. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 49: 319-339.
73. Haslam, S. A., & Reicher, S. D. 2005. The psychology of tyranny. Scientific American Mind, October: 32-39.
74. Haslam, S. A., & Reicher, S. D. 2006. Stressing the group: Social identity and the unfolding dynamics of responses to stress. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91: 1037-1052.
75. Haslam, S. A., & Ryan, M. K. 2007. The road to the glass cliff: Differences in the perceived suitability of men and women for leadership positions in succeeding and failing organizations. Working paper, University of Exeter.
76. Haslam, S. A., & Turner, J. C. 1992. Context-dependent variation in social stereotyping 2: The relationship between frame of reference, self-categorization and accentuation. European Journal of Social Psychology, 22: 251-277.
77. Haslam, S. A., & Turner, J. C. 1995. Context-dependent variation in social stereotyping 3: Extremism as a selfcategorical basis for polarized judgement. European Journal of Social Psychology, 25: 341-371.
78. Haslam, S. A., van Knippenberg, D., Platow, M., & Ellemers, N. (Eds.). 2003. Social identity at work: Developing theory for organizational practice. Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
79. Hegtvedt, K. A., Clay-Warner, J., & Ferrigno, E. D. 2002. Reactions to injustice: Factors affecting workers' resentment toward family-friendly policies. Social Psychology Quarterly, 65: 386-400.
80. Heilman, M. E. 1983. Sex bias in work settings: The lack of fit model. Research in Organizational Behavior, 5: 269-298.
81. Heilman, M. E., Block, C. J., & Martell, R. F. 1995. Sex stereotypes: Do they influence perceptions of managers? Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 10: 237-252.
82. Heilman. M. E., Block, C. J., Martell, R. F., & Simon. M. C. 1989. Has anything changed? Current characterizations of men, women, and managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74: 935-942.
83. Heilman, M. E., Wallen, A. S., Fuchs, D., & Tamkins, M. M. 2004. Penalties for success: Reactions to women who succeed at male gender-typed tasks. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89: 416-427.
84. Hewstone, M. 1990. The ultimate attribution error: A review of the literature on intergroup causal attribution. European Journal of Social Psychology, 20: 311-355.
85. Higgins, M. C., & Kram, K. E. 2001. Reconceptualizing mentoring at work: A developmental network perspective. Academy of Management Review, 26: 264-288.
86. Hogg, M. A. 2001. A social identity theory of leadership. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5: 184-200.
87. Hunt, J. G., Boal, K. B., & Dodge, G. E. 1999. The effects of visionary and crisis-responsive charisma on followers: An experimental examination of two kinds of charismatic leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 10: 423-448.
88. Ibarra, H. 1993. Personal networks of women and minorities in management: A conceptual framework. Academy of Management Review, 18: 56-87.
89. Jacobs, J. A. 1992. Women's entry into management: Trends in earnings, authority and values among salaried mangers. Administrative Science Quarterly. 37: 282-301.
90. Jones, F. L. 1993. Unlucky Australians: Labor-market outcomes among Aboriginal Australians. Ethnic and Racial Studies. 16: 420-458.
91. Judge, E. 2003. Women on board: Help or hindrance? Times, November 11: 21.
92. Kaiser, C. R., & Miller, C. T. 2001. Stop complaining! The social costs of making attributions to discrimination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27: 254-263.
93. Kanter, R. M. 1977. Men and women of the corporation. New York: Basic Books.
94. Kaplan, S., & Minton, B. 1994. Appointments of outsiders to Japanese boards: Determinants and implications for managers. Journal of Financial Economics, 36: 225-257.
95. Kay, F. M., & Hagan, J. 1995. The persistent glass ceiling: Gendered inequalities in the earnings of lawyers. British Journal of Sociology, 46: 279-310.
96. Kay, F. M., & Hagan, J. 1999. Cultivating clients in the competition for partnership: Gender and the organizational restructuring of law firms in the 1990s. Law and Society Review, 33: 517-555.
97. Kent, R. L., & Moss. S. E. 1994. Effects of sex and gender role on leader emergence. Academy of Management Journal, 37: 1335-1346.
98. Kozol, J. 1991. Savage inequalities: Children in America's public schools. New York: Harper Collins.
99. Langan-Fox, J. 2001. Women's careers and occupational stress. In C. Cooper & I. Robertson (Eds.), Well-being in organizations: 178-208. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
100. Lee, P. M., & James, E. H. 2003. She-E-Os: Gender effects and stock price reactions to the announcements of top executive appointments. Working paper No. 02-11, Darden Graduate School of Business Administration, University of Virginia, Charlottesville.
101. Label, S. A., & St. Clair, L. 1992. Effects of family responsibilities, gender, and career identity salience on performance outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 35: 1057- 1069.
102. Lord, R. G., Brown, D. J., Harvey, J. L., & Hall, R. J. 2001. Contextual constraints on prototype generation and their multi-level consequences for leadership perceptions. Leadership Quarterly, 12: 311-338.
103. Lord, R. G., Foti, R., & DeVader, C. L. 1984. A test of leadership categorization theory: Internal structure, information processing, and leadership perceptions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34: 343-378.
104. Lord, R. G., & Maher, K. J. 1990. Perceptions of leadership and their implications in organizations. In J. S. Carrol (Ed.), Applied social psychology and organizational settings: 129-154. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
105. Lord, R. G., & Maher, K. I. 1991. Leadership and information processing: Linking perceptions and performance. Boston: Unwin Hyman.
106. Lord, R. G., & Smith, W. G. 1999. Leadership and the changing nature of work performance. In D. R. Ilgin & E. D. Pulakos (Eds.), The changing nature of work: Implications for staffing, personnel actions, and development: 192-239. Santa Barbara, CA: New Lexington Press.
107. Lyness, K. S., & Thompson, D. E. 1997. Above the glass ceiling? A comparison of matched samples of female and male executives. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82: 359-375.
108. Maier, M. 1991. Evolving the paradigms of management in organizations: A gender analysis. Journal of Management Systems, 4(1): 29-45.
109. Mainiero, L. A. 1994. On breaking the glass ceiling: The political seasoning of powerful women executives. Organizational Dynamics, 22(4): 5-20.
110. Matud, M. P. 2004. Gender differences in stress and coping styles. Personality and Individual Differences, 37: 1401-1415.
111. Maume, D. J. 1999. Glass ceilings and glass escalators: Occupational segregation and race and sex differences in managerial promotions. Work and Occupations, 26: 483-509.
112. Maume, D. J. 2004. Is the glass ceiling a unique form of inequality? Work and Occupations, 31: 250-274.
113. Meindl, J. R. 1993. Reinventing leadership: A radical social psychological approach. In J. K. Mumighan (Ed.), Social psychology in organizations: 89-118. Englewood Cliffs, NI: Prentice-Hall.
114. Meindl, J. R., Ehrlich, S. B., SE Dukerich, J. M. 1985. The romance of leadership. Administrative Science Quarterly, 30: 78-102.
115. Mensnewsdaily. 2004. Wow this article from the BBC is pretty! http://mensnewsdaily.com/blog/channel1/2004/09/wow-this-article-from-bbc-is- pretty.htm accessed September 8.
116. Merritt, D. J., Reskin, B. F., & Fondell, M. 1993. Family, place, and career: The gender paradox in law-school hiring. Wisconsin Law Review. 5: 395-463.
117. Monktumer, E. 1992. Sexual nuances within internal labor- markets: The politics of being known. Social Science Journal, 29: 227-232.
118. Morisson, A. M., White, R. P., & Van Velsor, E. 1987. Breaking the glass ceiling: Can women reach the top of America's largest corporations? Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
119. Nutley, S., & Mudd, J. 2005. Has the glass cliff replaced the glass ceiling for women employed in the public sector? Public Money and Management 25: 3-4.
120. Oakes, P. J., Haslam, S. A., & Turner, J. C. 1994. Stereotyping and social reality. Oxford: Blackwell.
121. Ohlott, P. J., Ruderman, M. N., & McCauley, C. D. 1994. Gen- der differences in managers' developmental job experi- ences. Academy of Management Journal, 37: 46-67.
122. Osborn, R. N. 1995. Crises. In N. Nicholson (Ed.), Encyclopedic dictionary of organizational behavior: 118-120. Oxford: Blackwell.
123. Pauchant, T. C., & Mitroff, I. I. 1992. Transforming the crisis- prone organization: Preventing individual, organization- al and environmental tragedies. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass.
124. Perry, E. L., Davis-Blake, A., & Kulik, C. T. 1994. Explaining gender-based selection decisions: A synthesis of contex- tual and cognitive approaches. Academy of Manage- ment Review, 19: 786-820.
125. Pillai, R., & Meindl, J. R. 1998. Context and charisma: A meso level approach to the relationship of organic structure, collectivism and crisis to charismatic leadership. Jour- nal of Management, 24: 643-671.
126. Postmes, T., Branscombe, N. R., Spears, R., & Young, H. 1999. Comparative processes in personal and group judg- ments: Resolving the discrepancy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76: 320-338.
127. Powell, G. N. 1980. Career development and the woman manager: A social power perspective. Personnel, 57(3): 22-32.
128. Powell, G. N., & Butterfield, D. 2002. Exploring the influence of decision makers' race and gender on actual promo- tions to top management. Personnel Psychology, 55: 397-428.
129. Pugliesi, K. 1999. The consequences of emotional labor: Ef- fects on work stress, job satisfaction, and well-being. Motivation and Emotion, 23: 125-154.
130. Ragins, B. R., Cotton, J. L., & Miller, J. S. 2000. Marginal mentoring: The effects of type of mentor, quality of rela- tionship, and program design on work and career atti- tudes. Academy of Management Journal, 43: 1177-1194.
131. Ramsay, H., & Parker, M. 1992. Gender, bureaucracy and organizational culture. In A. Witz & M. Savage (Eds.), Gender and bureaucracy: 253-276. Oxford: Blackwell.
132. Reicher, S. D., Haslam, S. A., & Hopkins, N. 2005. Social identity and the dynamics of leadership: Leaders and followers as collaborative agents in the transformation of social reality. Leadership Quarterly, 16: 547-568.
133. Reicher, S. D., & Hopkins, N. 2004. On the science of the art of leadership. In D. van Knippenberg & M. A. Hogg (Eds.), Leadership, power and identity: 197-209. Lon- don: Sage.
134. Reicher, S. D., & Levine, M. 1994. Deindividuation, power relations between groups and the expression of social identity: The effects of visibility to the outgroup. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33: 145-163.
135. Reynolds, K. J., Turner, J. C., Haslam, S. A., & Ryan, M. K. 2001. Self-categorization and the changing relationship be- tween personality and prejudice. Journal of Experimen- tal Social Psychology, 37: 427-434.
136. Ridgeway, C. L. 2001. Gender, status, and leadership. Journal of Social Issues, 57: 637-655.
137. Roethlisberger, F. J., & Dickson, W. J. 1939. Management and the worker: An account of a research program conducted by the Western Electric Company, Haw- thorne Works, Chicago. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- versity Press.
138. Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. 2001. Prescriptive gender stereo- types and backlash toward agentic women. Journal of Social Issues, 57: 743-762.
139. Ryan, M. K., & David, B. 2003. Gender differences in ways of knowing: The context-dependence of The Attitudes To- ward Thinking and Learning Survey. Sex Roles, 49: 693-699.
140. Ryan, M. K., & Haslam, S. A. 2004. Introducing the glass cliff. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/3755031.stm online BBC article, accessed May 29.
141. Ryan, M. K., & Haslam, S. A. 2005. The glass cliff: Evidence that women are over-represented in precarious lead- ership positions. British Journal of Management, 16: 81-90.
142. Ryan, M. K., Haslam, S. A., Hersby, M., & Bongiorno, R. 2007. Think crisis-think female: Glass cliffs and contextual variation in the think manager-think male stereotype. Working paper, University of Exeter.
143. Ryan, M. K., Haslam, S. A., Hersby, M. D., Kulich, C., & Wil- son-Kovacs, M. D. In press. The stress of working on the edge: Examining the implications of glass cliffs for both women and organizations. In M. Barreto, M. K. Ryan, & M. Schmitt (Eds.), Barriers to diversity: The glass ceiling 20 years on. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
144. Ryan, M. K., Haslam, S. A., & Kulich, C. 2007a. On the dura- bility of glass cliffs: Women in UK general elections (1996-2005). Working paper, University of Exeter.
145. Ryan, M. K., Haslam, S. A., & Kulich, C. 2007b. Women in politics: Evidence for the glass cliff. Working paper. Uni- versity of Exeter.
146. Ryan, M. K., Haslam, S. A., & Postmes, T. In press. Reactions to the glass cliff: Gender differences in the explanations for the precariousness of women's leadership positions. Journal of Change Management.
147. Sandanger, I., Nygard, J. F., Sorensen, T., & Moum, T. 2004. Is women's mental health more susceptible than men's to the influence of surrounding stress? Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 39: 177-184.
148. Schein, V. E. 1973. The relationship between sex role stereo- types and requisite management characteristics. Jour- nal of Applied Psychology, 57: 95-105.
149. Schein, V. E. 1975. The relationship between sex role stereo- types and requisite management characteristics among female managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60: 340-344.
150. Schein, V. E. 2001. A global look at psychological barriers to women's progress in management. Journal of Social Is- sues. 57: 675-688.
151. Schein, V. E., & Mueller, R. 1992. Sex role stereotyping and requisite management characteristics: A cross cultural look. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13: 439-447.
152. Schein, V. E., Mueller, R., Lituchy, T., & Liu, J. 1996. Think manager-think male: A global phenomenon? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 17: 33-41.
153. Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., Kobrynowicz, D., & Owen, S. 2002. Perceiving discrimination against one's gender- group has different implications for well-being in women and men. Personality and Social Psychology Bul- letin. 28: 197-210.
154. Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., & Postmes, T. 2003. Wom- en's emotional responses to the perception of pervasive gender discrimination. European Journal of Social Psy- chology, 33: 297-312.
155. Schmitt, M. T., Ellemers, N., & Branscombe, N. R. 2003. Per- ceiving and responding to gender discrimination in or- ganizations. In S. A. Haslam, D. van Knippenberg, M. J. Platow, & N. Ellemers (Eds.), Social identity at work: Developing theory for organizational practice: 277-292. Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
156. Sczesny, S. 2003. A closer look beneath the surface: Various facets of the think-manager-think-male stereotype. Sex Roles, 49: 353-363.
157. Simon, R. J., & Landis, J. M. 1989. Women's and men's atti- tudes about a woman's place and role. Public Opinion Quarterly, 53: 265-276.
158. Singh, V., & Vinnicombe, S. 2003. The 2003 Female FTSE Index. Women Pass a Milestone: 101 Directorships on the FTSE 100 Boards. London: Cranfield School of Manage- ment.
159. Singh, V., & Vinnicombe, S. 2004. Why so few women direc- tors in top UK boardrooms? Evidence and theoretical explanations. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 12: 479-488.
160. Stroh, L. K., Brett, J. M., & Reilly, A. H. 1996. Family structure, glass ceiling, and traditional explanations for the dif- ferential rate of turnover of female and male managers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 49: 99-118.
161. Tabak, F. 1997. Women's upward mobility in manufacturing organizations in Istanbul: A glass ceiling initiative? Sex Roles, 36: 93-102.
162. Tajfel, H. 1981. Social stereotypes and social groups. In J. C. Turner & H. Giles (Eds.), Intergroup behavior: 144-167. Oxford: Blackwell.
163. Tajfel, H., Flament, C., Billig, M. G., & Bundy, R. F. 1971. Social categorization and intergroup behavior. Euro- pean Journal of Social Psychology, 1: 149-177.
164. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. 1979. An integrative theory of inter- group conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations: 33-47. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
165. Tharenou, P., Latimer, S., & Conroy, D. 1994. How do you make it to the top? An examination of influences on women and men managerial advancement. Academy of Management Journal, 37: 899-931.
166. Thompson, P., & McHugh, D. 2002. Work organizations: A critical introduction (3rd ed.). Houndmills, UK: Macmil- lan.
167. Turner, J. C. 1991. Social influence. Milton Keynes, UK: Open University Press & Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
168. Turner, J. C. 1999. Some current issues in research on social identity and self-categorization theories. In N. Ellemers, R. Spears, & B. Doosje (Eds.), Social identity: Context, commitment, content: 6-34. Oxford: Blackwell.
169. Turner, J. C., & Haslam, S. A. 2001. Social identity, organiza- tions and leadership. In M. E. Turner (Ed.), Groups at work: Advances in theory and research: 25-65. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
170. Turner, J. C., & Oakes, P. J. 1989. Self-categorization theory and social influence. In P. B. Paulus (Ed.), The psychol- ogy of group influence (2nd ed.): 233-275. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
171. van Knippenberg, D., & Haslam, S. A. 2003. Harnessing the diversity dividend: Exploring the subtle interplay be- tween identity, ideology and reality. In S. A. Haslam, D. van Knippenberg, M. J. Platow, & N. Ellemers (Eds.), Social identity at work: Developing theory for organiza- tional practice: 61-77. Philadelphia; Psychology Press.
172. van Knippenberg, D., & Hogg, M. A. (Eds.). 2004. Leadership and power: Identity processes in groups and organiza- tions. London: Sage.
173. Wall Street Journal. 1986. The corporate woman: A special report. March 24: 32-page supplement.
174. Williams, C. L. 1992. The glass escalator: Hidden advantages for men in the "female" professions. Social Problems, 39: 253-267.
175. Woods, J. 2004. Are female executives walking into trouble? Daily Telegraph, September 9: 23.
176. Wright, E. O., Baxter, J., & Birkelund, G. E. 1995. The gender- gap in workplace authority: A cross-national study. American Sociological Review, 60: 407-435.
177. Wright, P., Ferris, S. P., Miller. J. S., & Kroll, M. 1995. Compet- itiveness through management of diversity: Effects on stock price evaluation. Academy of Management Jour- nal, 38: 272-287.
178. Wright, S. C., & Taylor, D. M. 1998. Responding to tokenism: Individual action in the face of collective injustice. Eu- ropean Journal of Social Psychology, 28: 647-667.
179. Yaffe, J. 1993. The glass ceiling: The impasse of women in management in a county government workforce. Local Government Studies, 19: 431-446.
180. Zuo, J. P., & Tang, S. M. 2000. Breadwinner status and gender ideologies of men and women regarding family roles. Sociological Perspectives, 43: 29-43.