Other individual amino acids

Sports Nutrition: Fats and Proteins

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 279-353

  Spruce, Neal F ^a   Titchenal, C Alan ^b  

^a Apex Fitness Group   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84938297163     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (364)

1. Garrett RH, Grisham CM. Biochemistry, 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: ThomsonBrooks/Cole, 2005, pp. 78-80.
2. Schmidt CLA. Chemical statics of amino acids and proteins. In The Chemistry of the Amino Acids and Proteins, Schmidt CLA, Ed. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1944, chap. 1.
3. Ajinomoto's Amino Acid Handbook. Japan: Ajinomoto, 2004.
4. Gropper SS, Smith JL, Groff JL. Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism, 4th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2005, pp. 205-206.
5. Liu Z, Barrett EJ. Human protein metabolism: its measurement and regulation. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2002;283:E1105-E1112.
6. Liu Z, Long W, Fryburg DA, Barrett EJ. The regulation of body and skeletal muscle protein metabolism by hormones and amino acids. J Nutr 2006;136(Suppl):212S-217S.
7. Castaneda C, Charnley JM, Evans WJ, Crim MC. Elderly women accommodate to a low-protein diet with losses of body cell mass, muscle function, and immune response. Am J Clin Nutr 1995;62:30-39.
8. Rennie MJ, Tipton KD. Protein and amino acid metabolism during and after exercise and the effects of nutrition. Annu Rev Nutr 2000;20:457-483.
9. Shils ME, Young VR. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, 7th ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1988, p. 4.
10. Linder MC. Nutritional Biochemistry and Metabolism, 2nd ed. New York: Elsevier, 1991, p. 93.
11. Wagenmakers AJ. Muscle amino acid metabolism at rest and during exercise: role in human physiology and metabolism. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1998;26:287-314.
12. Mourtzakis M, Saltin B, Graham T, Pilegaard H. Carbohydrate metabolism during prolonged exercise and recovery: interaction between pyruvate dehydrogenase, fatty acids, and amino acids. J Appl Physiol 2006;June;100(6):1822-1830.
13. Pitkanen HT, Nykanen T, Knuutinen J, Lahti K, Keinanen O, Alen M, Komi PV, Mero AA. Free amino acid pool and muscle protein balance after resistance exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003;35:784-792.
14. Pitkanen H, Mero A, Oja SS, Komi PV, Pontinen PJ, Saransaari P, Takala T. Serum amino acid responses to three different exercise sessions in male power athletes. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2002;42:472-480.
15. Venerando R, Miotto G, Kadowaki M, Siliprandi N, Mortimore GE. Multiphasic control of proteolysis by leucine and alanine in the isolated rat hepatocyte. Am J Physiol 1994;266:C455-C461.
16. Cynober LA. Amino Acid Metabolism and Therapy in Health and Nutritional Disease. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1995, p. 361.
17. Hunt SM, Groff JL. Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., 1990, pp. 134-154.
18. Aimaretti G, Corneli G, Razzore P, Bellone S, Baffoni C, Arvat E, Camanni F, Ghigo E. Comparison between insulin-induced hypoglycemia and growth hormone (GH)-releasing hormone + arginine as provocative tests for the diagnosis of GH deficiency in adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:1615-1618.
19. Eto B, Le Moel G, Porquet D, Peres G. Glutamate-arginine salts and hormonal responses to exercise. Arch Physiol Biochem 1995;103:160-164.
20. Schaefer A, Piquard F, Geny B, Doutreleau S, Lampert E, Mettauer B, Lonsdorfer J. L-Arginine reduces exercise-induced increase in plasma lactate and ammonia. Int J Sports Med 2002;23:403-407.
21. McConell GK, Huynh NN, Lee-Young RS, Canny BJ, Wadley GD. L-Arginine infusion increases glucose clearance during prolonged exercise in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2006;290:E60-E66.
22. Fahey JL. Toxicity and blood ammonia rise resulting from intravenous amino acid administration in man; protective effect of L-arginine. J Clin Invest 1957;36:1647.
23. Najarian JS, Harper HA. A clinical study of the effect of arginine on blood ammonia. Am J Med 1956;21:832.
24. Stevens BR, Godfrey MD, Kaminski TW, Braith RW. High-intensity dynamic human muscle performance enhanced by a metabolic intervention. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000;Dec;32(12):2102-2108.
25. Buford BN, Koch AJ. Glycine-arginine-alpha-ketoisocaproic acid improves performance of repeated cycling sprints. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004;36:583-587.
26. Colombani PC, Bitzi R, Frey-Rindova P, Frey W, Arnold M, Langhans W, Wenk C. Chronic arginine aspartate supplementation in runners reduces total plasma amino acid level at rest and during a marathon run. Eur J Nutr 1999;38:263-270.
27. Abel T, Knechtle B, Perret C, Eser P, von Arx P, Knecht H. Influence of chronic supplementation of arginine aspartate in endurance athletes on performance and substrate metabolism: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Int J Sports Med 2005;26:344-349.
28. Elam RP. Morphological changes in adult males from resistance exercise and amino acid supplementation. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1988;28:35-39.
29. Calloway DH, Margen S. Creatine metabolism in men: creatine pool size and turnover in relation to creatine intake. J Nutr 1976;106;371:106.
30. Whitney EN, Rolfes SR, Eds. Understanding Nutrition, 7th ed. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing, 1996, pp. 197-226.
31. Berdanier CD. Advanced Nutrition: Macronutrients, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000, p. 177.
32. Rebouche CJ, Paulson DJ. Carnitine metabolism and function in humans. Annu Rev Nutr 1986;6:41-66.
33. Flodin NW. The metabolic roles, pharmacology, and toxicology of lysine. J Am Coll Nutr 1997;16:7-21.
34. Hall SL, Greendale GA. The relation of dietary vitamin C intake to bone mineral density: results from the PEPI study. Calci} Tissue Int 1998;63:183-189.
35. Civitelli R, Villareal DT, Agnusdei D, Nardi P, Avioli LV, Gennari C. Dietary L-lysine and calcium metabolism in humans. Nutrition 1992;8:400-405.
36. Oxlund H, Barckman M, Ortoft G, Andreassen TT. Reduced concentrations of collagen cross-links are associated with reduced strength of bone. Bone 1995;17(Suppl): 365S-371S.
37. Torricelli P, Fini M, Giavaresi G, Giardino R, Gnudi S, Nicolini A, Carpi A. L-Arginine and L-lysine stimulation on cultured human osteoblasts. Biomed Pharmacother 2002;56:492-497.
38. McCarthy CF, Borland JL, Lynch HJ, Owen EE, Tyor MP. Defective uptake of basic amino acids and L-cystine by intestinal mucosa of patients with cystinuria. J Clin Invest 1964;43:1518-1524.
39. Merimee TJ, Lillicrap DA, Rabinowitz D. Effect of arginine on serum-levels of human growth-hormone. Lancet 1965;2:668-670.
40. Merimee TJ, Rabinowtitz D, Fineberg SE. Arginine-initiated release of human growth hormone. Factors modifying the response in normal man. N Engl J Med 1969;280:1434-1438.
41. Knopf RF, Conn JW, Falans SS, Floyd JC, Guntsche EM, Rull JA. Plasma growth hormone responses to intravenous administration of amino acids. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1965;25:1140.
42. Monteleone P, Maj M, Iovino M, Steardo L. Evidence for a sex difference in the basal growth hormone response to GABAergic stimulation in humans. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh). 1988;119:353-357.
43. McCann SM, Vijayan E, Negro-Vilar A, Mizunuma H, Mangat H. Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), a modulator of anterior pituitary hormone secretion by hypothalamic and pituitary action. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1984;9:97-106.
44. McCann SM, Rettori V. Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) controls anterior pituitary hormone secretion. Adv Biochem Psychopharmacol 1986;42:173-189.
45. Volpi R, Chiodera P, Caffarra P, Scaglioni A, Saccani A, Coiro V. Different control mechanisms of growth hormone (GH) secretion between gamma-amino- and gammahydroxy-butyric acid: neuroendocrine evidence in Parkinson's disease. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1997;22:531-538.
46. Vankelecom H, Matthys P, Denef C. Involvement of nitric oxide in the interferon-gamma-induced inhibition of growth hormone and prolactin secretion in anterior pituitary cell cultures. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1997;129:157-167.
47. Alba-Roth J, Muller OA, Schopohl J, von Werder K. Arginine stimulates growth hormone secretion by suppressing endogenous somatostatin secretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988;67:1186-1189.
48. McGilvery RW, Ed. Biochemistry: A Functional Approach, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 1979.
49. Nieper HA, Blumberger K. Electrolyte transport therapy of cardiovascular diseases. In Electrolytes and Cardiovascular Diseases, Vol. 2, Bajusz E, Ed. Basel: S. Karger, 1966.
50. Boszormenyl E, Farsang C, Debreczeni LA. Hemodynamic and cardiac effects of potassium magnesium aspartate in the dog. Acta Physiol Acad Sci Hung 1977;50:149-160.
51. Kuhn P, Probst P. Effect of potassium-magnesium aspartate on hemodynamics and myocardial metabolism of coronary disease patient during beta receptor stimulation. Z Kardiol 1975;64:616-624.
52. Saborowski F, Lang D, Albers C. Intracellular pH of cardiac muscle after administration of potassium-magnesium-aspartate. Arzneimittelforschung 1975;25:1897-1900.
53. Slezak J, Tribulova N. Morphological changes after combined administration of isoproterenol and K+,Mg2+-aspartate as a physiological Ca2+ antagonist. Recent Adv Stud Cardiac Struct Metab 1975;6:75-84.
54. Fedelesova M et al. Prevention by K+,Mg2+-aspartate of isoproterenol-induced metabolic changes in the myocardium. Recent Adv Stud Cardiac Struct Metab 1975;6:59-73.
55. Fedelesova M, Ziegelhoffer A, Luknarova O, Dzurba A, Kostolansky S. Influence of K+,Mg++-(D,L)-aspartate on various ATPase activities of the dog heart. Arzneimittelforschung 1973;23:1048-1053.
56. Yang JP, Zhang GL, Guo YS. Potentiated polarized liquid therapy and heart emergency. Chung Hua Nei Ko Tsa Chih 1992;31:617-618, 657-658.
57. Kuhn P, Oberthaler G, Oswald J. Anti-arrhythmia effectiveness of potassium-magnesium-aspartate infusion. Wien Med Wochenschr 1991;141:64-65.
58. Aksel'rod LB, Arshinova LS, Gaidenko AI, Maksimovich IaB, Sukolovskaia DM. Comparative evaluation of cardiotropic effects of nicamag, panangin and asparkam. Farmakol Toksikol 1985;48:51-55.
59. Skotnicki AB, Jablonski MJ, Musial J, Swadzba J. The role of magnesium in the pathogenesis and therapy of bronchial asthma. Przegl Lek 1997;54:630-633.
60. Anonymous. The application of potassium magnesium aspartate in heart operation. Zhonghua Xinxueguanbing ZaZhi 1996;24:31-32.
61. Spath P, Barankay A, Richter JA. The influence of rapid potassium administration on hemodynamics and endogenous catecholamine production during extracorporeal circulation. J Cardiothorac Anesth 1989;3:176-180.
62. Sen Gupta J, Srivastava KK. Effect of potassium-magnesium aspartate on endurance work in man. Indian J Exp Biol 1973;11:392-394.
63. Trudeau F, Murphy R. Effects of potassium-aspartate salt administration on glycogen use in the rat during a swimming stress. Physiol Behav. 1993;54:7-12.
64. Marquezi ML, Roschel HA, dos Santa Costa A, Sawada LA, Lancha AH Jr. Effect of aspartate and asparagine supplementation on fatigue determinants in intense exercise. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2003;13:65-75.
65. Laborit H, Maynier R, Guiot G, Barow C, Niaussat P. Influence of various pharmacological agents on the swimming test of white rats. Comput Rend Soc Biol 1958;152:486.
66. Laborit H, Magnier R, Coirault R, Thiebault J, Guiot G, Niaussat P, Weber B, Jouany JM, Baron C. The place of certain salts of DL aspartic acid in the mechanisms of preservation of activity in reaction to the environment: summary of an experimental and clinical study. Presse Med 1958;66:1307.
67. Wesson M, McNaughton L, Davies P, Tristram S. Effects of oral administration of aspartic acid salts on the endurance capacity of trained athletes. Res Q Exerc Sport 1988;59:234-239.
68. Ahlborg B, Ekelund LG, Nilsson CG. Effect of potassium-magnesium-aspartate on the capacity for prolonged exercise in man. Acta Physiol Scand 1968;74:238-245.
69. Von Franz IW, Chintanaseri C. Uber die Wirkung des Kalium-Magnesium-Aspartates auf die ausdauerleistung unter besonder Berucksichtigung des aspartates. Sportarzt Sportmed 1977;28:37.
70. Nagle FJ, Balke B, Ganslen RV, Davis AW. The mitigation of physical fatigue with "Spartase." US Civil Aeromed Res Inst Rep Civ Aeromed Inst US 1963;Jul;94:1-10.
71. Fallis N, Wilson WR, Tetreault LL, Lasagna L. Effect of potassium and magnesium aspartate on athletic performance. JAMA 1963;185:129.
72. Consolazio CF, Nelson RA, Matoush LO, Isaac GJ. Effects of aspartic acid salts (Mg and K) on physical performance of men. J Appl Physiol 1964;19:257.
73. de Haan A, van Doorn JE, Westra HG. Effects of potassium + magnesium aspartate on muscle metabolism and force development during short intensive static exercise. Int J Sports Med 1985;6:44-49.
74. Hagan RD, Upton SJ, Duncan JJ, Cummings JM, Gettman LR. Absence of effect of potassium-magnesium aspartate on physiologic responses to prolonged work in aerobically trained men. Int J Sports Med 1982;3:177-181.
75. Maughan RJ, Sadler DJ. The effects of oral administration of salts of aspartic acid on the metabolic response to prolonged exhausting exercise in man. Int J Sports Med 1983;4:119-123.
76. Nakahara M, Yoshihara T, Tokita T, Nakanishi Y, Sakahashi H, Shibata N. Difference in action between D- and L-potassium and magnesium aspartates. Arzneimittelforschung 1966;16:1491-1494.
77. Lancha AH Jr, Recco MB, Abdalla DS, Curi R. Effect of aspartate, asparagine, and carnitine supplementation in the diet on metabolism of skeletal muscle during a moderate exercise. Physiol Behav 1995;57:367-371.
78. Crim MC, Calloway DH, Margen S. Creatine metabolism in men: urinary creatine and creatinine excretions with creatine feeding. J Nutr 1975;105:428-438.
79. Crim MC, Calloway DH, Margen S. Creatine metabolism in men, creatine pool size and turnover in relation to creatine intake. J Nutr 1976;106:371-375.
80. Kasai K, Kobayashi M, Shimoda SI. Stimulatory effect of glycine on human growth hormone secretion. Metabolism 1978;27:201-208.
81. Meister A, Anderson ME, Hwang O. Intracellular cysteine and glutathione delivery systems. J Am Coll Nutr 1986;5:137-151.
82. Smilkstein MJ, Knapp GL, Kulig KW, Rumack BH. Efficacy of oral N-acetylcysteine in the treatment of acetaminophen overdose. Analysis of the national multicenter study (1976 to 1985). N Engl J Med 1988;319:1557-1562.
83. Sen CK, Rankinen T, Vaisanen S, Rauramaa R. Oxidative stress after human exercise: effect of N-acetylcysteine supplementation. J Appl Physiol 1994;76:2570-2577.
84. Medved I, Brown MJ, Bjorksten AR, McKenna MJ. Effects of intravenous N-acetylcysteine infusion on time to fatigue and potassium regulation during prolonged cycling exercise. J Appl Physiol 2004;96:211-217.
85. Medved I, Brown MJ, Bjorksten AR, Murphy KT, Petersen AC, Sostaric S, Gong X, McKenna MJ. N-Acetylcysteine enhances muscle cysteine and glutathione availability and attenuates fatigue during prolonged exercise in endurance-trained individuals. J Appl Physiol 2004;97:1477-1485.
86. King MW. Introduction to Amino Acid Metabolism. IU School of Medicine, 2006. http://www.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/amino-acid-metabolism.html#tyrosine.
87. Deijen JB, Orlebeke JF. Effect of tyrosine on cognitive function and blood pressure under stress. Brain Res Bull 1994;33:319-323.
88. Deijen JB, Wientjes CJ, Vullinghs HF, Cloin PA, Langefeld JJ. Tyrosine improves cognitive performance and reduces blood pressure in cadets after one week of a combat training course. Brain Res Bull 1999;48:203-209.
89. Owasoyo JO, Neri DF, Lamberth JG. Tyrosine and its potential use as a countermeasure to performance decrement in military sustained operations. Aviat Space Environ Med 1992;63:364-369.
90. Struder HK, Hollmann W, Platen P, Donike M, Gotzmann A, Weber K. Influence of paroxetine, branched-chain amino acids and tyrosine on neuroendocrine system responses and fatigue in humans. Horm Metab Res 1998;30:188-194.
91. Sutton EE, Coill MR, Deuster PA. Ingestion of tyrosine: effects on endurance, muscle strength, and anaerobic performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2005;15:173-185.
92. Chinevere TD, Sawyer RD, Creer AR, Conlee RK, Parcell AC. Effects of L-tyrosine and carbohydrate ingestion on endurance exercise performance. J Appl Physiol 2002;93:1590-1597.
93. Lieberman HR, Georgelis JH, Maher TJ, Yeghiayan SK. Tyrosine prevents effects of hyperthermia on behavior and increases norepinephrine. Physiol Behav 2005;84:33-38.
94. Yeghiayan SK, Luo S, Shukitt-Hale B, Lieberman HR. Tyrosine improves behavioral and neurochemical deficits caused by cold exposure. Physiol Behav 2001;72:311-316.
95. Garlick PJ. The nature of human hazards associated with excessive intake of amino acids. J Nutr. 2004;134(Suppl):1633S-1639S; discussion, 1664S-1666S, 1667S-1672S (review).
96. Graham TE, Sgro V, Friars D, Gibala MJ. Glutamate ingestion: the plasma and muscle free amino acid pools of resting humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2000;278:E83-E89.
97. Garattini S. Glutamic acid, twenty years later. J Nutr 2000;130(Suppl):901S-909S.
98. Watkins JC, Evans RH. Excitatory amino acid transmitters. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1981;21:165-204 (review).
99. Walker R, Lupien JR. The safety evaluation of monosodium glutamate. J Nutr 2000;130:1049S-1052S.
100. Bruce M, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Greenhaff PL, Boobis LH, Williams C, Bowtell JL. Glutamine supplementation promotes anaplerosis but not oxidative energy delivery in human skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2001;280:E669-E675.
101. Mourtzakis M, Graham TE. Glutamate ingestion and its effects at rest and during exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol 2002;93:1251-1259.
102. Yuan Y, So R, Wong S, Chan KM. Ammonia threshold: comparison to lactate threshold, correlation to other physiological parameters and response to training. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2002;12:358-364.
103. Eto B, Peres G, Le Moel G. Effects of an ingested glutamate arginine salt on ammonemia during and after long lasting cycling. Arch Int Physiol Biochim Biophys 1994;102:161-162.
104. Kriengsinyos W, Rafii M, Wykes LJ, Ball RO, Pencharz PB. Long-term effects of histidine depletion on whole-body protein metabolism in healthy adults. J Nutr 2002;132:3340-3348.
105. Johnson P, Hammer JL. Histidine dipeptide levels in ageing and hypertensive rat skeletal and cardiac muscles. Comp Biochem Physiol B 1992;103:981-984.
106. Guiotto A, Calderan A, Ruzza P, Borin G. Carnosine and carnosine-related antioxidants: a review. Curr Med Chem 2005;12:2293-2315 (review).
107. Begum G, Cunliffe A, Leveritt M. Physiological role of carnosine in contracting muscle. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2005;15:493-514 (review).
108. Kraemer WJ, Gordon SE, Lynch JM, Pop ME, Clark KL. Effects of multibuffer supplementation on acid-base balance and 2,3-diphosphoglycerate following repetitive anaerobic exercise. Int J Sport Nutr 1995;5:300-314.
109. Suzuki Y, Nakao T, Maemura H, Sato M, Kamahara K, Morimatsu F, Takamatsu K. Carnosine and anserine ingestion enhances contribution of nonbicarbonate buffering. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006;38:334-338.
110. Suzuki Y, Ito O, Mukai N, Takahashi H, Takamatsu K. High level of skeletal muscle carnosine contributes to the latter half of exercise performance during 30-s maximal cycle ergometer sprinting. Jpn J Physiol 2002;52:199-205.
111. Geliebter AA, Hashim SA, Van Itallie TB. Oral L-histidine fails to reduce taste and smell acuity but induces anorexia and urinary zinc excretion. Am J Clin Nutr 1981;34:119-120.
112. Askanazi J, Carpentier YA, Michelsen CB, Elwyn DH, Furst P, Kantrowitz LR, Gump FE, Kinney JM. Muscle and plasma amino acids following injury. Influence of intercurrent infection. Ann Surg 1980;192:78-85.
113. Sitren HS, Fisher H. Nitrogen retention in rats fed on diets enriched with arginine and glycine. 1. Improved N retention after trauma. Br J Nutr 1977;37:195-208.
114. Motil KJ, Thotathuchery M, Montandon CM, Hachey DL, Boutton TW, Klein PD, Garza C. Insulin, cortisol and thyroid hormones modulate maternal protein status and milk production and composition in humans. J Nutr 1994;124:1248-1257.
115. Miller RG, Keshen TH, Jahoor F, Shew SB, Jaksic T. Compartmentation of endogenously synthesized amino acids in neonates. J Surg Res 1996;63:199-203.
116. Huq F, Thompson M, Ruell P. Changes in serum amino acid concentrations during prolonged endurance running. Jpn J Physiol 1993;43:797-807.
117. van Loon LJ, Saris WH, Verhagen H, Wagenmakers AJ. Plasma insulin responses after ingestion of different amino acid or protein mixtures with carbohydrate. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:96-105.
118. van Loon LJ, Saris WH, Kruijshoop M, Wagenmakers AJ. Maximizing postexercise muscle glycogen synthesis: carbohydrate supplementation and the application of amino acid or protein hydrolysate mixtures. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:106-111.
119. Shaw K, Turner J, Del Mar C. Tryptophan and 5-hydroxytryptophan for depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002;1:CD003198 (review).
120. Davis JM, Alderson NL, Welsh RS. Serotonin and central nervous system fatigue: nutritional considerations. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:573S-578S.
121. Acworth I, Nicholass J, Morgan B, Newsholme EA. Effect of sustained exercise on concentrations of plasma aromatic and branched-chain amino acids and brain amines. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1986;137:149-153.
122. Blomstrand E, Perrett D, Parry-Billings M, Newsholme EA. Effect of sustained exercise on plasma amino acid concentrations and on 5-hydroxytryptamine metabolism in six different brain regions in the rat. Acta Physiol Scand 1989;136:473-481.
123. Blomstrand E. Amino acids and central fatigue. Amino Acids 2001;20:25-34.
124. Fernstrom JD, Fernstrom MH. Exercise, serum free tryptophan, and central fatigue. J Nutr 2006;136:553S-559S.
125. Petruzzello SJ, Landers DM, Pie J, Blilie J. Effect of branched-chain amino acid supplements on exercise-related mood and performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992;24:S2.
126. Krieder RB, Jackson CW. Effects of amino acid supplementation on psychological status during an intercollegiate swim season. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994;26:S115.
127. Calders P, Pannier JL, Matthys DM, Lacroix EM. Pre-exercise branched-chain amino acid administration increases endurance performance in rats. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997;29:1182-1186.
128. Farris JW, Hinchcliff KW, McKeever KH, Lamb DR, Thompson DL. Treadmill endurance of standard breed horses infused with tryptophan and/or glucose. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996;28:S48.
129. Mittleman KD, Ricci MR, Bailey SP. Branched-chain amino acids prolong exercise during heat stress in men and women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998;30:83-91.
130. Segura R, Ventura JL. Effect of L-tryptophan supplementation on exercise performance. Int J Sports Med 1988;9:301-305.
131. Stensrud T, Ingjer F, Holm H, Stromme SB. L-Tryptophan supplementation does not improve running performance. Int J Sports Med 1992;13:481-485.
132. Patmas MA. Eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome not associated with L-tryptophan. N Engl J Med 1992;89:285-286.
133. Goda Y, Suzuki J, Maitani T, Yoshihira K, Takeda M, Uchiyama M. 3-Anilino-L-alanine, structural determination of UV-5, a contaminant in EMS-associated L-tryp-tophan samples. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 1992;40:2236-2238.
134. Remesy C, Fafournoux P, Demigne C. Control of hepatic utilization of serine, glycine and threonine in fed and starved rats. J Nutr 1983;113:28-39.
135. McDaniel MA, Maier SF, Einstein GO. "Brain-specific" nutrients: a memory cure? Nutrition 2003;19:957-975.
136. Jorissen BL, Brouns F, Van Boxtel MP, Ponds RW, Verhey FR, Jolles J, Riedel WJ. The influence of soy-derived phosphatidylserine on cognition in age-associated memory impairment. Nutr Neurosci 2001;4:121-134.
137. Monteleone P, Beinat L, Tanzillo C, Maj M, Kemali D. Effects of phosphatidylserine on the neuroendocrine response to physical stress in humans. Neuroendocrinology 1990;52:243-248.
138. Monteleone P, Maj M, Beinat L, Natale M, Kemali D. Blunting by chronic phos-phatidylserine administration of the stress-induced activation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis in healthy men. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1992;42:385-388.
139. Kingsley MI, Wadsworth D, Kilduff LP, McEneny J, Benton D. Effects of phosphatidylserine on oxidative stress following intermittent running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005;37:1300-1306.
140. Kingsley MI, Miller M, Kilduff LP, McEneny J, Benton D. Effects of phosphatidylserine on exercise capacity during cycling in active males. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006;38:64-71.
141. Fukagawa NK, Galbraith RA. Advancing age and other factors influencing the balance between amino acid requirements and toxicity. J Nutr 2004;134(Suppl):1569S-1574S.
142. Trimble KC, Molloy AM, Scott JM, Weir DG. The effect of ethanol on one-carbon metabolism: increased methionine catabolism and lipotrope methyl-group wastage. Hepatology 1993;18:984-989.
143. Duranton B, Freund JN, Galluser M, Schleiffer R, Gosse F, Bergmann C, Hasselmann M, Raul F. Promotion of intestinal carcinogenesis by dietary methionine. Carcinogenesis 1999;20:493-497.
144. Humm A, Fritsche E, Steinbacher S, Huber R. Crystal structure and mechanism of human L-arginine:glycine amidinotransferase: a mitochondrial enzyme involved in creatine biosynthesis. EMBO J 1997;16:3373-3385.
145. Vaz FM, Wanders RJ. Carnitine biosynthesis in mammals. Biochem J 2002;361:417-429 (review).
146. Storch KJ, Wagner DA, Burke JF, Young VR. [1-13C; methyl-2H3]methionine kinetics in humans: methionine conservation and cystine sparing. Am J Physiol 1990;258:E790-E798.
147. Storch KJ, Wagner DA, Burke JF, Young VR. Quantitative study in vivo of methionine cycle in humans using [methyl-2H3]- and [1-13C]methionine. Am J Physiol 1988;255:E322-E331.
148. Kien CL, Young VR, Rohrbaugh DK, Burke JF. Increased rates of whole body protein synthesis and breakdown in children recovering from burns. Ann Surg 1978;187:383-391.
149. Yoshida A, Moritoki K. Nitrogen sparing action of methionine and threonine in rats receiving a protein free diet. Nutr Rep Int 1974;9:159-168.
150. Millward DJ, Rivers JP. The need for indispensable amino acids: the concept of the anabolic drive. Diabetes Metab Rev 1989;5:191-211 (review).
151. Yokogoshi H, Yoshida A. Some factors affecting the nitrogen sparing action of methionine and threonine in rats fed a protein free diet. J Nutr 1976;106:48-57.
152. Knopf RF, Conn JW, Fajans SS. Plasma growth hormone response to intravenous administration of amino acids. J Clin Endocrinol 1965;25:1140.
153. Chromiak JA, Antonio J. Use of amino acids as growth hormone-releasing agents by athletes. Nutrition 2002;18:657-661.
154. Harden LM, Neveling N, Rossouw F, Semple SJ, Marx FE, Rossouw J, Rogers G. The effects of an L-methionine combination supplement on symptoms of upper respiratory tract infections and performance in ultramarathon runners before, during, and after ultra-endurance exercise. S Afr J Sports Med 2004;16:10-16
155. Energy and Protein Requirements. Report of a joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation. World Health Organization Technical Report Series 1985;724:1-206.
156. Borgonha S, Regan MM, Oh SH, Condon M, Young VR. Threonine requirement of healthy adults, derived with a 24-h indicator amino acid balance technique. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;75:698-704.
157. Kurpad AV, Raj T, Regan MM, Vasudevan J, Caszo B, Nazareth D, Gnanou J, Young VR. Threonine requirements of healthy Indian men, measured by a 24-h indicator amino acid oxidation and balance technique. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:789-797.
158. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients). Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board (FNB), Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2005, p. 27. www.nap.edu.
159. Wolfe RR. Skeletal muscle protein metabolism and resistance exercise. J Nutr 2006;136:525S-528S.
160. Volek JS, Rawson ES. Scientific basis and practical aspects of creatine supplementation for athletes. Nutrition 2004;20:609-614 (review).
161. Lambert EV, Goedecke JH. The role of dietary macronutrients in optimizing endurance performance. Curr Sports Med Rep 2003;2:194-201.
162. Cynober L, Coudray-Lucas C. Ornithine and alpha-ketoglutarate administration in surgical, trauma and cancer-bearing patients. In Nutritional Support in Cancer and Transplant Patients, Latifi R, Marrell RC, Eds. Austin, TX: R.G. Landis Co., 2001, p. 145.
163. Berneis K, Ninnis R, Haussinger D, Keller U. Effects of hyper- and hypoosmolality on whole body protein and glucose kinetics in humans. Am J Physiol 1999;276:E188-E195.
164. Tapiero H, Mathe G, Couvreur P, et al. I. Arginine. Biomed Pharmacother (France) 2002;56:439-445.
165. Evain-Brion D, Donnadieu M, Roger M, Job JC. Simultaneous study of somatotrophic and corticotrophic pituitary secretions during ornithine infusion test. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1982;17:119-122.
166. Corpas E, Blackman MR, Roberson R, Scholfield D, Harman SM. Oral argininelysine does not increase growth hormone or insulin-like growth factor-I in old men. J Gerontol 1993;48:M128-M133.
167. Lambert MI, Hefer JA, Millar RP, Macfarlane PW. Failure of commercial oral amino acid supplements to increase serum growth hormone concentrations in male bodybuilders. Int J Sport Nutr 1993;3:298-305.
168. Suminski RR, Robertson RJ, Goss FL, Arslanian S, Kang J, DaSilva S, Utter AC, Metz KF. Acute effect of amino acid ingestion and resistance exercise on plasma growth hormone concentration in young men. Int J Sport Nutr 1997;7:48-60.
169. Fogelholm GM, Naveri HK, Kiilavuori KT, Harkonen MH. Low-dose amino acid supplementation: no effects on serum human growth hormone and insulin in male weightlifters. Int J Sport Nutr 1993;3:290-297.
170. Fry AC, Kraemer WJ, Stone MH, Warren BJ, Kearney JT, Maresh CM, Weseman CA, Fleck SJ. Endocrine and performance responses to high volume training and amino acid supplementation in elite junior weightlifters. Int J Sport Nutr 1993;3:306-322.
171. Jorgensen JO, Pedersen SA, Thuesen L, Jorgensen J, Ingemann-Hansen T, Skakkebaek NE, Christiansen JS. Beneficial effects of growth hormone treatment in GH-deficient adults. Lancet 1989;1:1221-1225.
172. Degerblad M, Elgindy N, Hall K, Sjoberg HE, Thoren M. Potent effect of recombinant growth hormone on bone mineral density and body composition in adults with panhypopituitarism. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1992;126:387-393.
173. de Boer H, Blok GJ, Van der Veen EA. Clinical aspects of growth hormone deficiency in adults. Endocr Rev. 1995;16:63-86.
174. Ahmad AM, Hopkins MT, Thomas J, Ibrahim H, Fraser WD, Vora JP. Body composition and quality of life in adults with growth hormone deficiency; effects of low-dose growth hormone replacement. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2001;54:709-717.
175. Richelsen B, Pedersen SB, Borglum JD, Moller-Pedersen T, Jorgensen J, Jorgensen JO. Growth hormone treatment of obese women for 5 wk: effect on body composition and adipose tissue LPL activity. Am J Physiol 1994;266:E211-E216.
176. Rudman D, Feller AG, Nagraj HS, Gergans GA, Lalitha PY, Goldberg AF, Schlenker RA, Cohn L, Rudman IW, Mattson DE. Effects of human growth hormone in men over 60 years old. N Engl J Med 1990;323:1-6.
177. Frisch H. Growth hormone and body composition in athletes. J Endocrinol Invest 1999;22(Suppl):106-109 (review).
178. Taaffe DR, Jin IH, Vu TH, Hoffman AR, Marcus R. Lack of effect of recombinant human growth hormone (GH) on muscle morphology and GH-insulin-like growth factor expression in resistance-trained elderly men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996;81:421-425.
179. Yarasheski KE, Zachwieja JJ, Campbell JA, Bier DM. Effect of growth hormone and resistance exercise on muscle growth and strength in older men. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 1995;268:E268-E276.
180. Yarasheski KE, Campbell JA, Smith K, Rennie MJ, Holloszy JO, Bier DM. Effect of growth hormone and resistance exercise on muscle growth in young men. Am J Physiol 1992;262:E261-E267.
181. Yarasheski KE. Growth hormone effects on metabolism, body composition, muscle mass, and strength. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1994;22:285-312.
182. Berggren A, Ehrnborg C, Rosen T, Ellegard L, Bengtsson BA, Caidahl K. Short-term administration of supraphysiological recombinant human growth hormone (GH) does not increase maximum endurance exercise capacity in healthy, active young men and women with normal GH-insulin-like growth factor I axes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90:3268-3273.
183. Jorgensen JO, Moller J, Laursen T, Orskov H, Christiansen JS, Weeke J. Growth hormone administration stimulates energy expenditure and extrathyroidal conversion of thyroxine to triiodothyronine in a dose-dependent manner and suppresses circadian thyrotrophin levels: studies in GH-deficient adults. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1994;41:609-614.
184. Wolthers T, Grofte T, Norrelund H, Poulsen PL, Andreasen F, Christiansen JS, Jorgensen JO. Differential effects of growth hormone and prednisolone on energy metabolism and leptin levels in humans. Metabolism 1998;47:83-88.
185. Lange KH, Isaksson F, Juul A, Rasmussen MH, Bulow J, Kjaer M. Growth hormone enhances effects of endurance training on oxidative muscle metabolism in elderly women. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2000;279:E989-E996.
186. Papadakis MA, Grady D, Black D, Tierney MJ, Gooding GA, Schambelan M, Grun-feld C. Growth hormone replacement in healthy older men improves body composition but not functional ability. Ann Intern Med 1996;124:708-716.
187. Zachwieja JJ, Yarasheski KE. Does growth hormone therapy in conjunction with resistance exercise increase muscle force production and muscle mass in men and women aged 60 years or older? Phys Ther 1999;79:76-82 (review).
188. Stoll B, Gerok W, Lang F, Haussinger D. Liver cell volume and protein synthesis. Biochem J 1992;287:217-222.
189. Lang F, Friedrich F, Paulmichl M, Schobersberger W, Jungwirth A, Ritter M, Steidl M, Weiss H, Woll E, Tschernko E, et al. Ion channels in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells (MDCK). Ren Physiol Biochem 1990;13:82-93.
190. Lang F, Ritter M, Volkl H, Haussinger D. The biological significance of cell volume. Ren Physiol Biochem 1993;16:48-65.
191. Weiss H, Lang F. Ion channels activated by swelling of Madin Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. J Membr Biol 1992;126:109-114.
192. Haussinger D, Lang F. Exposure of perfused liver to hypotonic conditions modifies cellular nitrogen metabolism. J Cell Biochem 1990;43:355-361.
193. Davis RJ. The mitogen-activated protein kinase signal transduction pathway. J Biol Chem 1993;268:14553-14556.
194. Haussinger D. The role of cellular hydration in the regulation of cell function. Biochem J 1996;313:697-710.
195. Hallbrucker C, Ritter M, Lang F, Gerok W, Haussinger D. Hydroperoxide metabolism in rat liver. K+ channel activation, cell volume changes and eicosanoid formation. Eur J Biochem 1993;211:449-458.
196. Saha N, Schreiber R, vom Dahl S, Lang F, Gerok W, Haussinger D. Endogenous hydroperoxide formation, cell volume and cellular K+ balance in perfused rat liver. Biochem J 1993;296:701-707.
197. 2 induced hyperpolarization of pancreatic B-cells. Pflugers Arch 1994;426:552-554.
198. Hallbrucker C, vom Dahl S, Lang F, Gerok W, Haussinger D. Inhibition of hepatic proteolysis by insulin. Role of hormone-induced alterations of the cellular K+ balance. Eur J Biochem 1991;199:467-474.
199. Hallbrucker C, vom Dahl S, Lang F, Gerok W, Haussinger D. Modification of liver cell volume by insulin and glucagon. Pflugers Arch 1991;418:519-521.
200. vom Dahl S, Hallbrucker C, Lang F, Gerok W, Haussinger D. Regulation of liver cell volume and proteolysis by glucagon and insulin. Biochem J 1991;278:771-777.
201. vom Dahl S, Hallbrucker C, Lang F, Haussinger D. Regulation of cell volume in the perfused rat liver by hormones. Biochem J 1991;280:105-109.
202. Haussinger D, Hallbrucker C, vom Dahl S, Decker S, Schweizer U, Lang F, Gerok W. Cell volume is a major determinant of proteolysis control in liver. FEBS Lett 1991;283:70-72.
203. Hallbrucker C, vom Dahl S, Ritter M, Lang F, Haussinger D. Effects of urea on K+ fluxes and cell volume in perfused rat liver. Pflugers Arch 1994;428:552-560.
204. al-Habori M, Peak M, Thomas TH, Agius L. The role of cell swelling in the stimulation of glycogen synthesis by insulin. Biochem J 1992;282:789-796.
205. Baquet A, Hue L, Meijer AJ, van Woerkom GM, Plomp PJ. Swelling of rat hepatocytes stimulates glycogen synthesis. J Biol Chem 1990;265:955-959.
206. Grant A, Tosh D, Burchell A. Liver perfusion with hyper-osmotic media stimulates microsomal glucose-6-phosphatase activity. Biochem Soc Trans 1993;21:39S.
207. Peak M, al-Habori M, Agius L. Regulation of glycogen synthesis and glycolysis by insulin, pH and cell volume. Interactions between swelling and alkalinization in mediating the effects of insulin. Biochem J 1992;282:797-805.
208. Haussinger D, Lang F, Bauers K, Gerok W. Control of hepatic nitrogen metabolism and glutathione release by cell volume regulatory mechanisms. Eur J Biochem 1990;193:891-898.
209. Low SY, Taylor PM, Rennie MJ. Responses of glutamine transport in cultured rat skeletal muscle to osmotically induced changes in cell volume. J Physiol (Lond) 1996;492:877-885.
210. Moran J, Maar TE, Pasantes-Morales H. Impaired cell volume regulation in taurine deficient cultured astrocytes. Neurochem Res 1994;19:415-420.
211. Law RO. Taurine efflux and the regulation of cell volume in incubated slices of rat cerebral cortex. Biochim Biophys Acta 1994;1221:21-28.
212. Faff-Michalak L, Reichenbach A, Dettmer D, Kellner K, Albrecht J. K(+)-, hypoosmolarity-, and NH4(+)-induced taurine release from cultured rabbit Muller cells: role of Na+ and Cl- ions and relation to cell volume changes. Glia 1994;10:114-120.
213. Kirk K, Kirk J. Volume-regulatory taurine release from a human lung cancer cell line. Evidence for amino acid transport via a volume-activated chloride channel. FEBS Lett 1993;336:153-158.
214. Schousboe A, Pasantes-Morales H. Role of taurine in neural cell volume regulation. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1992;70(Suppl):S356-S361.
215. Fugelli K, Thoroed SM. Taurine transport associated with cell volume regulation in flounder erythrocytes under anisosmotic conditions. J Physiol (Lond) 1986;374:245-261.
216. Law RO. Taurine efflux and cell volume regulation in cerebral cortical slices during chronic hypernatraemia. Neurosci Lett 1995;185:56-59.
217. Goldstein L, Davis EM. Taurine, betaine, and inositol share a volume-sensitive transporter in skate erythrocyte cell membrane. Am J Physiol 1994;267:R426-R431.
218. Parry-Billings M, Bevan SJ, Opara E, Newsholme EA. Effects of changes in cell volume on the rates of glutamine and alanine release from rat skeletal muscle in vitro. Biochem J 1991;276:559-561.
219. Haussinger D, Hallbrucker C, vom Dahl S, Lang F, Gerok W. Cell swelling inhibits proteolysis in perfused rat liver. Biochem J 1990;272:239-242.
220. Fugelli K, Kanli H, Terreros DA. Taurine efflux is a cell volume regulatory process in proximal renal tubules from the teleost Carassius auratus. Acta Physiol Scand 1995;155:223-232.
221. vom Dahl S, Hallbrucker C, Lang F, Haussinger D. Role of eicosanoids, inositol phosphates and extracellular Ca2+ in cell-volume regulation of rat liver. Eur J Biochem 1991;198:73-83.
222. Baquet A, Maisin L, Hue L. Swelling of rat hepatocytes activates acetyl-CoA carboxylase in parallel to glycogen synthase. Biochem J 1991;278:887-890.
223. Baquet A, Lavoinne A, Hue L. Comparison of the effects of various amino acids on glycogen synthesis, lipogenesis and ketogenesis in isolated rat hepatocytes. Biochem J 1991;273:57-62.
224. Guzman M, Velasco G, Castro J, Zammit VA. Inhibition of carnitine palmitoyltransferase I by hepatocyte swelling. FEBS Lett 1994;344:239-241.
225. Graf J, Haddad P, Haeussinger D, Lang F. Cell volume regulation in liver. Ren Physiol Biochem 1988;11:202-220.
226. Lang F, Stehle T, Haussinger D. Water, K+, H+, lactate and glucose fluxes during cell volume regulation in perfused rat liver. Pflugers Arch 1989;413:209-216.
227. Meijer AJ, Baquet A, Gustafson L, van Woerkom GM, Hue L. Mechanism of activation of liver glycogen synthase by swelling. J Biol Chem 1992;267:5823-5828.
228. Rivas T, Urcelay E, Gonzalez-Manchon C, Parrilla R, Ayuso MS. Role of amino acid-induced changes in ion fluxes in the regulation of hepatic protein synthesis. J Cell Physiol 1995;163:277-284.
229. Felipe A, Snyders DJ, Deal KK, Tamkum MM. Influence of cloned voltage-gated K+ channel expression on alanine transport, Rb+ uptake, and cell volume. Am J Physiol 1993;265:C1230-C1238.
230. Kristensen LO, Folke M. Volume-regulatory K+ efflux during concentrative uptake of alanine in isolated rat hepatocytes. Biochem J 1984;221:265-268.
231. Wettstein M, vom Dahl S, Lang F, Gerok W, Haussinger D. Cell volume regulatory responses of isolated perfused rat liver. The effect of amino acids. Biol Chem Hoppe Seyler 1990;371:493-501.
232. Biolo G, Tipton KD, Klein S, Wolfe RR. An abundant supply of amino acids enhances the metabolic effect of exercise on muscle protein. Am J Physiol 1997;273:E122-E129.
233. Meijer AJ, Gustafson LA, Luiken JJ, Blommaart PJ, Caro LH, Van Woerkom GM, Spronk C, Boon L. Cell swelling and the sensitivity of autophagic proteolysis to inhibition by amino acids in isolated rat hepatocytes. Eur J Biochem 1993;215:449-454.
234. Kruppa J, Clemens MJ. Differential kinetics of changes in the state of phosphorylation of ribosomal protein S6 and in the rate of protein synthesis in MPC 11 cells during tonicity shifts. EMBO J 1984;3:95-100.
235. Roth E, Spittler A, Oehler R. Glutamine: effects on the immune system, protein balance and intestinal functions. Wien Klin Wochenschr 1996;108:669-676.
236. Varnier M, Leese GP, Thompson J, Rennie MJ. Stimulatory effect of glutamine on glycogen accumulation in human skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol 1995;269:E309-E315.
237. Wu G, Flynn NE. Regulation of glutamine and glucose metabolism by cell volume in lymphocytes and macrophages. Biochim Biophys Acta 1995;1243:343-350.
238. Smith RJ. Glutamine metabolism and its physiologic importance. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1990;14(Suppl):40S-44S.
239. Hudson RL, Schultz SG. Sodium-coupled glycine uptake by Ehrlich ascites tumor cells results in an increase in cell volume and plasma membrane channel activities. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988;85:279-283.
240. vom Dahl S, Stoll B, Gerok W, Haussinger D. Inhibition of proteolysis by cell swelling in the liver requires intact microtubular structures. Biochem J 1995;308:529-536.
241. Holen I, Gordon PB, Seglen PO. Inhibition of hepatocytic autophagy by okadaic acid and other protein phosphatase inhibitors. Eur J Biochem 1993;215:113-122.
242. Luiken JJ, Blommaart EF, Boon L, van Woerkom GM, Meijer AJ. Cell swelling and the control of autophagic proteolysis in hepatocytes: involvement of phosphorylation of ribosomal protein S6? Biochem Soc Trans 1994;22:508-511.
243. Strange K, Ed. Cellular and Molecular Physiology of Cell Volume Regulation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1994, pp. 215-224.
244. Bianchini L, Grinstein S. In Interaction of Cell Volume and Cell Function. Lang F, Haussinger D, Eds. Heidelberg: Spinger Verlag, 1993, pp. 249-277.
245. Colclasure GC, Parker JC. Cytosolic protein concentration is the primary volume signal in dog red cells. J Gen Physiol 1991;98:881-892.
246. Maeda T, Wurgler-Murphy SM, Saito H. A two-component system that regulates an osmosensing MAP kinase cascade in yeast. Nature 1994;369:242-245.
247. Galcheva-Gargova Z, Derijard B, Wu IH, Davis RJ. An osmosensing signal transduction pathway in mammalian cells. Science 1994;265:806-808.
248. Lang F, Haussinger D, Eds. Interaction of Cell Volume and Cell Function. Heidelberg: Springer Verlag, 1993.
249. Slawinski M, Grodzinska L, Kostka-Trabka E, Bieron K, Goszcz A, Gryglewski RJ. L-arginine - substrate for NO synthesis - its beneficial effects in therapy of patients with peripheral arterial disease: comparison with placebo-preliminary results. Acta Physiol Hung 1996;84:457-458.
250. Ceremuzynski L, Chamiec T, Herbaczynska-Cedro K. Effect of supplemental oral L-arginine on exercise capacity in patients with stable angina pectoris. Am J Cardiol 1997;80:331-333.
251. Bradley SJ, Kingwell BA, McConell GK. Nitric oxide synthase inhibition reduces leg glucose uptake but not blood flow during dynamic exercise in humans. Diabetes 1999;48:1815-1821; erratum, 1999;48:2480.
252. Kingwell BA, Formosa M, Muhlmann M, Bradley SJ, McConell GK. Nitric oxide synthase inhibition reduces glucose uptake during exercise in individuals with type 2 diabetes more than in control subjects. Diabetes 2002;51:2572-2580.
253. Tipton KD, Rasmussen BB, Miller SL, et al. Timing of amino acid-carbohydrate ingestion alters anabolic response of muscle to resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2001;281:E197.
254. Campbell B, Baer J, Roberts M, Vacanti T, Marcello B, Thomas A, Kirksick C, Wilborn C, Rohle D, Taylor L, Rasmussen C, Greenwood M, Wilson R, Kreider R. Effects of Arginine Alpha-Ketoglutarate Supplementation on Body Composition and Training Adaptations. Paper presented at International Society of Sports Nutrition National Conference, June 17-18, 2004, Las Vegas, NV.
255. Vacanti T, Campell B, Marcello B, Thomas A, Kirksick C, Wilborn C, Rohle D, Taylor L, Rasmussen C, Greenwood M, Wilson R, Kreider R. Effects of Arginine Alpha-Ketoglutarate Supplementation on Markers of Catabolism and Health Status. Paper presented at International Society of Sports Nutrition National Conference, June 17-18, 2004.
256. Biolo G, Maggi SP, Williams BD, Tipton KD, Wolfe RR. Increased rates of muscle protein turnover and amino acid transport after resistance exercise in humans. Am J Physiol 1995;268:E514.
257. Chesley A, MacDougall JD, Tarnopolsky MA, Atkinson SA, Smith K. Changes in human muscle protein synthesis after resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol 1992;73:1383.
258. Phillips SM, Tipton KD, Aarsland A, Wolf SE, Wolfe RR. Mixed muscle protein synthesis and breakdown following resistance exercise in humans. Am J Physiol 1997;273:E99.
259. Yarasheski KE, Zachwieja JF, Bier DM. Acute effects of resistance exercise on muscle protein synthesis rate in young and elderly men and women. Am J Physiol 1993;265:E210.
260. Phillips SM, Tipton KD, Ferrando AA, Wolfe RR. Resistance training reduces the acute exercise-induced increase in muscle protein turnover. Am J Physiol 1999;276:E118.
261. Rasmussen BB, Tipton KD, Miller SL, Wolf SE, Wolfe RR. An oral essential amino acid-carbohydrate supplement enhances muscle protein anabolism after resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol 2000;88:386.
262. Tipton KD, Ferrando AA, Phillips SM, Doyle DJ, Wolfe RR. Postexercise net protein synthesis in human muscle from orally administered amino acids. Am J Physiol 1999;276:E628-E634.
263. Svanberg E, Möller-Loswick A-C, Matthews DE, et al. Effects of amino acids on synthesis and degradation of skeletal muscle proteins in humans. Am J Physiol 1996;271:E718.
264. Svanberg E, Ohlsson C, Hyltander A, Lundholm KG. The role of diet components, gastrointestinal factors, and muscle innervation on activation of protein synthesis in skeletal muscles following oral refeeding. Nutrition 1999;15:257.
265. Svanberg E, Jefferson LS, Lundholm K, Kimball SR. Postprandial stimulation of muscle protein synthesis is independent of changes in insulin. Am J Physiol 1997;272:E841.
266. Svanberg E. Amino acids may be intrinsic regulators of protein synthesis in response to feeding. Clin Nutr 1998;17:77.
267. Tipton KD, Wolfe RR. Exercise-induced changes in protein metabolism. Acta Physiol Scand 1998;162:377.
268. Bohe J, Low A, Wolfe RR, Rennie MJ. Human muscle protein synthesis is modulated by extracellular, not intramuscular amino acid availability: a dose response study. J Physiol 2003;552:315.
269. Carraro F, Stuart CA, Hartl WH, Rosenblatt J, Wolfe RR. Effect of exercise and recovery on muscle protein synthesis in human subjects. Am J Physiol 1990;259:E470-E476.
270. Biolo G, Fleming RYD, Wolfe RR. Physiologic hyperinsulinemia stimulates protein synthesis and enhances transport of selected amino acids in human skeletal muscle. J Clin Invest 1995;95:811-819.
271. Borsheim E, Tipton KD, Wolf SE, Wolfe RR. Essential amino acids and muscle protein recovery from resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2002;283:E648.
272. Miller SL, Tipton KD, Chinkes DL, Wolf SE, Wolfe RR. Independent and combined effects of amino acids and glucose after resistance exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003;35:449.
273. Tipton KD, Borsheim E, Wolf SE, Sanford AP, Wolfe RR. Acute response of net muscle protein balance reflects 24-h balance after exercise and amino acid ingestion. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2003;284:E76.
274. Bohe J, Low Aili F, Wolfe RR, Rennie MJ. Latency and duration of stimulation of human muscle protein synthesis during continuous infusion of amino acids. J Physiol 2001;532:575-579.
275. Volpi E, Kobayashi H, Sheffield-Moore M, Mittendorfer B, Wolfe RR. Essential amino acids are primarily responsible for the amino acid stimulation of muscle protein anabolism in healthy elderly adults. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;78:250-258.
276. Wojtaszewski JF, Nielsen JN, Richter EA. Invited review: effect of acute exercise on insulin signaling and action in humans. J Appl Physiol 2002;93:384-392.
277. Kimball SR, Farrell PA, Jefferson LS. Invited review: role of insulin in translational control of protein synthesis in skeletal muscle by amino acids or exercise. J Appl Physiol 2002;93:1168-1180 (review).
278. Esmarck B, Andersen JL, Olsen S, et al. Timing of postexercise protein intake is important for muscle hypertrophy with resistance training in elderly humans. J Physiol 2001;535:301.
279. Tarnopolsky MA, MacDougall JD, Atkinson SA. Influence of protein intake and training status on nitrogen balance and lean body mass. J Appl Physiol 1988;64:187-193.
280. Tarnopolsky MA, Atkinson SA, MacDougall JD, et al. Evaluation of protein requirements for trained strength athletes. J Appl Physiol 1992;73:1986.
281. Lemon PW, Tarnopolsky MA, MacDougall JD, Atkinson SA. Protein requirements and muscle mass/strength changes during intensive training in novice bodybuilders. J Appl Physiol 1992;73:767.
282. Walberg JL, Leidy MK, Sturgill DJ, Hinkle DE, Ritchey SJ, Sebolt DR. Macronutrient content of a hypoenergy diet affects nitrogen retention and muscle function in weight lifters. Int J Sports Med 1988;9:261-266.
283. Hoffer LJ, Bistrian BR, Young VR, Blackburn GL, Matthews DE. Metabolic effects of very low calorie weight reduction diets. J Clin Invest 1984;73:750-758.
284. Millward DJ, Bowtell JL, Pacy P, Rennie MJ. Physical activity, protein metabolism and protein requirements. Proc Nutr Soc 1994;53:223.
285. Millward DJ. The Role of Protein and Amino Acids in Sustaining and Enhancing Performance. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1999, p. 169.
286. Butterfield GE, Calloway DH. Physical activity improves protein utilization in young men. Br J Nutr 1984;51:171.
287. Gontzea I, Sutzescu P, Dumitrache S. The influence of adaptation to physical effort on nitrogen balance in man. Nutr Rep Int 1975;22:231.
288. Ratamess NA, Kraemer WJ, Volek JS, Rubin MR, Gomez AL, French DN, Sharman MJ, McGuigan MM, Scheett T, Hakkinen K, Newton RU, Dioguardi F. The effects of amino acid supplementation on muscular performance during resistance training overreaching. J Strength Cond Res 2003;17:250-258.
289. Phillips SM, Parise G, Roy BD, et al. Resistance-training-induced adaptations in skeletal muscle protein turnover in the fed state. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2002;80:1045.
290. Todd KS, Butterfield GE, Calloway DH. Nitrogen balance in men with adequate and deficient energy intake at three levels of work. J Nutr 1984;114:2107.
291. Calloway DH, Spector H. Nitrogen balance as related to caloric and protein intake in active young men. Am J Clin Nutr 1954;2:405.
292. Zachwieja JJ, Ezell DM, Cline AD, et al. Short-term dietary energy restriction reduces lean body mass but not performance in physically active men and women. Int J Sports Med 2001;22:310.
293. Cox KL, Burke V, Morton AR, Beilin LJ, Puddey IB. The independent and combined effects of 16 weeks of vigorous exercise and energy restriction on body mass and composition in free-living overweight men - a randomized controlled trial. Metabolism 2003;52:107.
294. Kraemer WJ, Volek JS, Clark KL, et al. Influence of exercise training on physiological and performance changes with weight loss in men. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999;31:1320.
295. Farnsworth E, Luscombe ND, Noakes M, et al. Effect of a high-protein, energy restricted diet on body composition, glycemic control, and lipid concentrations in overweight and obese hyperinsulinemic men and women. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;78:31.
296. Richardson DP, Wayler AH, Scrimshaw NS, Young VR. Quantitative effect of an isoenergetic exchange of fat for carbohydrate on dietary protein utilization in healthy young men. Am J Clin Nutr 1979;32:2217.
297. Phillips SM. Protein requirements and supplementation in strength sports. Nutrition 2004;20:689-695 (review).
298. Hellman A, Brummer K. Effect of dietary supplement on plasma hGH following exercise challenge. Biolog Biomed Sci, 2003; 1.
299. Fricker PA, Beasly SK, Copeland IW. Physiological growth hormone response of throwers to amino acids, eating, and exercise. Aust J Med Sport 1988;20:21.
300. Isidori A, Lo Monaco A, Cappa M. A study of growth hormone release in man after oral administration of amino acids. Curr Med Res Opin 1981;7:475-481.
301. Carlson HE, Gillin JC, Gorden P, Snyder F. Abscence of sleep-related growth hormone peaks in aged normal subjects and in acromegaly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1972;34:1102-1105.
302. Finkelstein JW, Roffwarg HP, Boyar RM, Kream J, Hellman L. Age-related change in the twenty-four-hour spontaneous secretion of growth hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1972;35:665-670.
303. Rudman D, Kutner MH, Rogers CM, Lubin MF, Fleming GA, Bain RP. Impaired growth hormone secretion in the adult population: relation to age and adiposity. J Clin Invest 1981;67:1361-1369.
304. Prinz PN, Weitzman ED, Cunningham GR, Karacan I. Plasma growth hormone during sleep in young and aged men. J Gerontol 1983;38:519-524.
305. Zadik Z, Chalew SA, McCarter RJ Jr, Meistas M, Kowarski AA. The influence of age on the 24-hour integrated concentration of growth hormone in normal individuals. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985;60:513-516.
306. Florini JR, Prinz PN, Vitiello MV, Hintz RL. Somatomedin-C levels in healthy young and old men: relationship to peak and 24-hour integrated levels of growth hormone. J Gerontol 1985;40:2-7.
307. Vermeulen A. Nyctohemeral growth hormone profiles in young and aged men: correlation with somatomedin-C levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987;64:884-888.
308. Ho KY, Evans WS, Blizzard RM, Veldhuis JD, Merriam GR, Samojlik E, Furlanetto R, Rogol AD, Kaiser DL, Thorner MO. Effects of sex and age on the 24-hour profile of growth hormone secretion in man: importance of endogenous estradiol concentrations. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987;64:51-58.
309. Tanaka K, Inoue S, Shiraki J, Shishido T, Saito M, Numata K, Takamura Y. Age-related decrease in plasma growth hormone: response to growth hormone-releasing hormone, arginine, and L-dopa in obesity. Metabolism 1991;40:1257-1262.
310. Pritzlaff CJ, Wideman L, Weltman JY, Abbott RD, Gutgesell ME, Hartman ML, Veldhuis JD, Weltman A. Impact of acute exercise intensity on pulsatile growth hormone release in men. J Appl Physiol 1999;87:498-504.
311. Sutton J, Lazarus L. Growth hormone in exercise: comparison of physiological and pharmacological stimuli. J Appl Physiol 1976;41:523-527.
312. Sutton J, Lazarus L. Effect of adrenergic blocking agents on growth hormone responses to physical exercise. Horm Metab Res 1974;6:428-429.
313. Gotshalk LA, Loebel CC, Nindl BC, Putukian M, Sebastianelli WJ, Newton RU, Hakkinen K, Kraemer WJ. Hormonal responses of multiset versus single-set heavy-resistance exercise protocols. Can J Appl Physiol 1997;22:244-255.
314. Kraemer WJ, Fleck SJ, Dziados JE, Harman EA, Marchitelli LJ, Gordon SE, Mello R, Frykman PN, Koziris LP, Triplett NT. Changes in hormonal concentrations after different heavy-resistance exercise protocols in women. J Appl Physiol 1993;75:594-604.
315. Kraemer WJ, Gordon SE, Fleck SJ, Marchitelli LJ, Mello R, Dziados JE, Friedl K, Harman E, Maresh C, Fry AC. Endogenous anabolic hormonal and growth factor responses to heavy resistance exercise in males and females. Int J Sports Med 1991;12:228-235.
316. Kraemer WJ, Marchitelli L, Gordon SE, Harman E, Dziados JE, Mello R, Frykman P, McCurry D, Fleck SJ. Hormonal and growth factor responses to heavy resistance exercise protocols. J Appl Physiol 1990;69:1442-1450.
317. Vanhelder WP, Radomski MW, Goode RC. Growth hormone responses during intermittent weight lifting exercise in men. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1984;53:31-34.
318. Kraemer RR, Kilgore JL, Kraemer GR, Castracane VD. Growth hormone, IGF-I, and testosterone responses to resistive exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992;24:1346-1352.
319. Ahlborg G, Felig P, Hagenfeldt L, Hendler R, Wahren J. Substrate turnover during prolonged exercise in man. Splanchnic and leg metabolism of glucose, free fatty acids, and amino acids. J Clin Invest 1974;53:1080-1090.
320. Kraemer WJ, Volek JS, Bush JA, Putukian M, Sebastianelli WJ. Hormonal responses to consecutive days of heavy-resistance exercise with or without nutritional supplementation. J Appl Physiol 1998;85:1544-1555.
321. Chandler RM, Byrne HK, Patterson JG, Ivy JL. Dietary supplements affect the anabolic hormones after weight-training exercise. J Appl Physiol 1994;76:839-845.
322. Spruce N, Titchenal A. An Evaluation of Popular Fitness-Enhancing Supplements. Thousand Oaks, CA: Evergreen Communications, 2001.
323. Sellini M, Fierro A, Marchesi L, Manzo G, Giovannini C. Behavior of basal values and circadian rhythm of ACTH, cortisol, PRL and GH in a high-protein diet. Boll Soc Ital Biol Sper 1981;57:963-969.
324. Jorgensen JO, Moller N, Lauritzen T, Christiansen JS. Pulsatile versus continuous intravenous administration of growth hormone (GH) in GH-deficient patients: effects on circulating insulin-like growth factor-I and metabolic indices. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990;70:1616-1623.
325. Laursen T, Jorgensen JO, Jakobsen G, Hansen BL, Christiansen JS. Continuous infusion versus daily injections of growth hormone (GH) for 4 weeks in GH-deficient patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995;80:2410-2418.
326. Macintyre JG. Growth hormone and athletes. Sports Med. 1987;4:129-142.
327. Quirion A, Brisson G, De Carufel D, Laurencelle L, Therminarias A, Vogelaere P. Influence of exercise and dietary modifications on plasma human growth hormone, insulin and FFA. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1988;28:352-353.
328. Wolfe RR. Protein supplements and exercise. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72(Suppl):551S-557S (review).
329. Paddon-Jones D, Sheffield-Moore M, Aarsland A, Wolfe RR, Ferrando AA. Exogenous amino acids stimulate human muscle anabolism without interfering with the response to mixed meal ingestion. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2005;288:E761-E767.
330. Paddon-Jones D, Sheffield-Moore M, Urban RJ, Sanford AP, Aarsland A, Wolfe RR, Ferrando AA. Essential amino acid and carbohydrate supplementation ameliorates muscle protein loss in humans during 28 days bedrest. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:4351-4358.
331. Andersen LL, Tufekovic G, Zebis MK, Crameri RM, Verlaan G, Kjaer M, Suetta C, Magnusson P, Aagaard P. The effect of resistance training combined with timed ingestion of protein on muscle fiber size and muscle strength. Metabolism 2005;54:151-156.
332. Campbell WW, Crim MC, Young VR, Joseph LJ, Evans WJ. Effects of resistance training and dietary protein intake on protein metabolism in older adults. Am J Physiol 1995;268:E1143-E1153.
333. Fiatarone MA, O'Neill EF, Ryan ND, Clements KM, Solares GR, Nelson ME, Roberts SB, Kehayias JJ, Lipsitz LA, Evans WJ. Exercise training and nutritional supplementation for physical frailty in very elderly people. N Engl J Med 1994;330:1769-1775.
334. Welle S, Thornton CA. High-protein meals do not enhance myofibrillar synthesis after resistance exercise in 62- to 75-yr-old men and women. Am J Physiol 1998;274:E677-E683.
335. Volpi E, Ferrando AA, Yeckel CW, Tipton KD, Wolfe RR. Exogenous amino acids stimulate net muscle protein synthesis in the elderly. J Clin Invest 1998;101:2000-2007.
336. Volpi E, Mittendorfer B, Wolf SE, Wolfe RR. Oral amino acids stimulate muscle protein anabolism in the elderly despite higher first pass splanchnic extraction. Am J Physiol 1999;277:E513-E520.
337. Volpi E, Mittendorfer B, Rasmussen BB, Wolfe RR. The response of muscle protein anabolism to combined hyperaminoacidemia and glucose-induced hyperinsulinemia is impaired in the elderly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85:4481-4490.
338. Fujita S, Volpi E. Amino acids and muscle loss with aging. J Nutr 2006;136(Suppl):277S-280S (review).
339. Volpi E, Sheffield-Moore M, Rasmussen BB, Wolfe RR. Basal muscle amino acid kinetics and protein synthesis in healthy young and older men. JAMA 2001;286:1206-1212.
340. Antonio J, Sanders MS, Ehler LA, Uelmen J, Raether JB, Stout JR. Effects of exercise training and amino-acid supplementation on body composition and physical performance in untrained women. Nutrition 2000;16:1043-1046.
341. Williams AG, Van den Oord M, Sharma A, Jones DA. Is glucose/amino acid supplementation after exercise an aid to strength training? Br J Sports Med 2001;35:109-113.
342. Singh M, Karpovich PV. Isotonic and isometric forces of forearm flexors and extensors. J Appl Physiol 1966;21:1435-1437.
343. Komi PV, Buskirk ER. Effect of eccentric and concentric muscle conditioning on tension and electrical activity of human muscle. Ergonomics 1972;15:417-434.
344. McNeil PL, Khakee R. Disruptions of muscle fiber plasma membranes. Am J Pathol 1992;140:1097-1099.
345. Warren GL, Lowe DA, Hayes DA, Farmer MA, Armstrong RB. Redistribution of cell membrane probes following contraction-induced injury of mouse soleus muscle. Cell Tissue Res 1995;282:311-320.
346. Byrd SK. Alterations in the sarcoplasmic reticulum: a possible link to exercise-induced muscle damage. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992;24:531-536.
347. Sugita M, Ohtani M, Ishii N, Maruyama K, Kobayashi K. Effect of a selected amino acid mixture on the recovery from muscle fatigue during and after eccentric contraction exercise training. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2003;67:372-375.
348. Ohtani M, Maruyama K, Suzuki S, Sugita M, Kobayashi K. Changes in hematological parameters of athletes after receiving daily dose of a mixture of 12 amino acids for one month during the middle- and long-distance running training. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2001;65:348-355.
349. Ohtani M, Maruyama K, Sugita M, Kobayashi K. Amino acid supplementation affects hematological and biochemical parameters in elite rugby players. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2001;65:1970-1976.
350. Staron RS, Karapondo DL, Kraemer WJ, et al. Skeletal muscle adaptations during early phase of heavy-resistance training in men and women. J Appl Physiol 1994;76:1247.
351. Green H, Goreham C, Ouyang J, Ball-Burnett M, Ranney D. Regulation of fiber size, oxidative potential, and capillarization in human muscle by resistance exercise. Am J Physiol 1999;276:R591.
352. McCall GE, Byrnes WC, Dickinson A, Pattany PM, Fleck SJ. Muscle fiber hypertrophy, hyperplasia, and capillary density in college men after resistance training. J Appl Physiol 1996;81:2004.
353. Yarasheski KE, Pak-Loduca J, Hasten DL, et al. Resistance exercise training increases mixed muscle protein synthesis rate in frail women and men 76 yr old. Am J Physiol 1999;277:E118.
354. Tipton KD, Cocke TL, Wolf SE, Wolfe RR. Response of muscle protein metabolism to resistance training and acute resistance exercise during hyperaminoacidemia. Am J Physiol 2006; in press.
355. Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2005.
356. Safety Information. Food and Drug Administration, 2006. http://www.fda.gov/med-watch/.
357. Maughan RJ, Burke LM. Sports Nutrition: Olympic Handbook of Sports Medicine. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2002.
358. FAO/WHO. Protein Quality Evaluation. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 51. Rome: FAO, 1991.
359. American College of Sports Medicine, American Dietetic Association, Dietitians of Canada. Joint position statement: nutrition and athletic performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000;32:2130-2145.
360. Isidori A, Lo Monaco A, Cappa M. A study of growth hormone release in man after oral administration of amino acids. Curr Med Res Opin 1981;7(7):475-481.
361. Ohtani M, Sugita M, Maruyama K. Amino acid mixture improves training efficiency in athletes. J Nutr 2006;Feb;136(2):538S-543S.
362. Faber M, Benada AJ, Nutrient intake and dietary supplementation in bodybuilders. S Afr Med J 1987;72:831.
363. Roy BD, Tarnopolsky MA, MacDougall JD, Fowles J, Yarasheski KE. Effect of glucose supplement timing on protein metabolism after resistance training. J Appl Physiol 1997;82:1882.
364. Short SH, Short WR. Four-year study of university athletes' dietary intake. J Am Diet Assoc 1983;82:632.