Dinoflagellate Toxins: An Overview

Seafood and Freshwater Toxins: Pharmacology, Physiology, and Detection

Volumn , Issue , 2014, Pages 3-38

  Holmes, Michael J ^a   Brust, Andreas ^b   Lewis, Richard J ^b  

^a DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84907525395     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1201/b16662-1     Document Type: Chapter

References (303)

1. Abraham A, Wang Y, El Said KR, Plakas SM (2012) Characterization of brevetoxin metabolism in Karenia brevis bloom-exposed clams (Mercenaria sp.) by LC-MS/MS. Toxicon 60: 1030-1040.
2. Adachi R, Fukuyo Y (1979) The thecal structure of a marine toxic dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus gen. et sp. nov. collected in a ciguatera-endemic area. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 45: 67-71.
3. Aikman KE, Tindall DR, Morton SL (1993) Physiology and potency of the dinoflagellate Prorocentrum hoffmannianum (Faust) during one complete growth cycle. In: Smadya TJ, Shimuzu Y (eds.) Toxic Phytoplankton in the Sea. Elsevier, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, pp. 463-468.
4. An T, Winshell J, Scorzetti G, Fell JW, Rein KS (2010) Identification of okadaic acid production in the marine dinoflagellate Prorocentrum rhathymum from Florida Bay. Toxicon 55: 653-657.
5. Anderson DM, Alpermann TJ, Cembella AD, Collos Y, Masseret E, Monstressor M (2012a) The globally distributed genus Alexandrium: Multifaceted roles in marine ecosystems and impacts on human health. Harmful Algae 14: 10-35.
6. Anderson DM, Cembella AD, Haellegraeff GM (2012b) Progress in understanding harmful algal blooms: Paradigm shifts and new technologies for research, monitoring, and management. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 4: 143-176.
7. Anderson DM, Kulis DM, Sullivan JJ, Hall S (1990) Toxin composition variation in one isolate of the dinoflagellate Alexandrium fundyense. Toxicon 28: 885-893.
8. Anderson DM, Lobel PS (1987) The continuing enigma of ciguatera. Biol. Bull. 172: 89-107.
9. Aune T (2008) Risk assessment of marine toxins. In: Botana LM (ed.) Seafood and Freshwater Toxins, Pharmacology, Physiology and Detection. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 3-20.
10. Baden DC, Adams DJ (2000) Brevetoxins: Chemistry, mechanism of action and methods of detection. In: Botana LM (ed.) Seafood and Freshwater Toxins. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, pp. 505-532.
11. Baden DC, Mende TJ (1982) Toxicity of two toxins from the Florida red tide marine dinoflagellate, Ptychodiscus brevis. Toxicon 20: 457-461.
12. Bagnis R, Kuberski T, Laughier S (1979) Clinical observations on 3, 09 cases of ciguatera (fish poisoning) in the South Pacific. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 28: 1067-1073.
13. Balech E (1995) The genus Alexandrium Halim (Dinoflagellata). Sherkin Island Marine Station Special Publications, Cork, 151pp.
14. Balech R, Tangen K (1985) Morphology and taxonomy of toxic species in the tamarensis group (Dinophyceae): Alexandrium excavatum (Braarud) comb. nov. and Alexandrium ostenfeldii (Paulsen) comb. nov. Sarsia 70: 333-343.
15. Bellocci M, Sala GL, Callegari F, Rossini GP (2010) Azaspiracid-1 inhibits endocytosis of plasma membrane proteins in epithelial cells. Toxicol. Sci. 117: 109-121.
16. Bergholtz T, Daugbjerg N, Moestrup Ø, Fernándeez-Tejedor M (2006) On the identity of Karlodinium veneficum and description of Karlodinium armiger sp. nov. (Dinophyceae), based on light and electron microscopy, nuclear-encoded LSU rDNA, and pigment composition. J. Phycol. 42: 170-193.
17. Berry JP, Reece KS, Rein KS, Baden DG, Haas LW, Ribeiro WL, Shields JD, Snyder RV, Vogelbein WK, Gawley RE (2002) Are Pfiesteria species toxicogenic? Evidence against production of ichthyotoxins by Pfiesteria shumwayae. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99: 10970-10975.
18. Bialojan C, Takai A (1988) Inhibitory effect of a marine-sponge toxin, okadaic acid, on protein phosphatases. Biochem. J. 256: 283-290.
19. Boada LD, Zumbado M, Luzardo OP, Almeida-Gonzáez M, Plakas SM, Granade HR, Abraham A, Jester ELE, Dickey RW (2010) Ciguatera fish poisoning on the West Africa Coast: An emerging risk in the Canary Islands (Spain). Toxicon 56: 1516-1519.
20. Bomber JW, Tindall DR, Miller DM (1989) Genetic variability in toxin potencies among seventeen clones of Gambierdiscus toxicus. J. Phycol. 25: 617-625.
21. Borkman DG, Smayda TJ, Tomas CR, York R, Strangman W, Wright JLC (2012) Toxic Alexandrium peruvianum (Balech and de Mendiola) Balech and Tangen in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. Harmful Algae 19: 92-100.
22. Botes L, Sym SD, Pitcher GC (2003) Karenia cristata sp. nov. and Karenia bicuneiformis sp. nov. (Gymnodiniales, Dinophyceae): Two new Karenia species of the South African coast. Phycologia 42: 563-571.
23. Bottein M-YD, Kashinsky L, Wang Z, Littnan C, Ramsdell JS (2011) Identification of ciguatoxins in Hawaiian monk seals Monachus schauinslandi from the northwestern and main Hawaiian Islands. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45: 5403-5409.
24. Bourne Y, Radić Z, Aráoz R, Talley TT, Benoit E, Servent D, Taylor P, Molgó J, Marchot P (2010) Structural determinants in phycotoxins abd AChBP conferring high affinity binding and nicotinic ACHR antagonism. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 107: 6076-6081.
25. Brand LE, Campbell L, Bresnan E (2012) Karenia: The biology and ecology of a toxic genus. Harmful Algae 14: 156-178.
26. Burke JM, Marchisotto J, McLaughlin JJA, Provasoli L (1960) Analysis of the toxin produced by Gonyaulax catenella in axenic culture. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 90: 837-842.
27. Burkholder JM, Gilbert PM, Skelton HM (2008) Mixotrophy, a major mode of nutrition for harmful algal species in eutrophic waters. Harmful Algae 8: 77-93.
28. Burkholder JM, Marshall HG (2012) Toxigenic Pfiesteria species-Updates on biology, ecology, toxins, and impacts. Harmful Algae 14: 196-230.
29. Burkholder JM, Noga EJ, Hobbs CH, Glasgow HB, Smith SA (1992) New “Phantom” dinoflagellate is the causative agent of major estuarine fish kills. Nature 358: 407-410.
30. Caillaud A, de la Iglesia P, Barber E, Eixarch H, Mohamma-Noor N, Yasumoto T, Diogène J (2011) Monitoring of dissolved ciguatoxin and maitotoxin using solid-phase adsorption toxin tracking devices: Application to Gambierdiscus pacificus in culture. Harmful Algae 10: 433-446.
31. Caillaud A, de la Iglesia P, Campàs M, Elandaloussi L, Fernández M, Mohammad-Noor N, Andree K, Diogène J (2010) Evidence of okadaic acid production in a cultured strain of the marine dinoflagellate Prorocentrum rhathymum from Malaysia. Toxicon 55: 633-637.
32. Capra MF, Cameron J, Flowers AE, Combe IF, Blanton CG, Hahn S (1988) The effects of ciguatoxins in teleosts. In: Choat et al. (eds.) 6th International Coral Reef Symposium Executive Committee, Townsville, Queensland, Australia, vol. 3, pp. 37-41.
33. Cembella A, Krock B (2008) Cyclic imine toxins: Chemistry, biogeography, biosynthesis, and pharmacology. In: Botana LM (ed.) Seafood and Freshwater Toxins Pharmacology, Physiology and Detection. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 561-580.
34. Cembella AD, Lewis NI, Quilliam MA (1999) Spirolide composition of micro-extracted pooled cells isolated from natural plankton assemblages and from cultures of the dinoflagellate Alexandrium ostenfeldii. Nat. Toxins 7: 197-206.
35. Chang FH (1999) Gymnodinium brevisulcatum sp. nov. (Gymnodiniales, Dinophyceae), a new species isolated from the 1998 summer toxic bloom in Wellington Harbour, New Zealand. Phycologia 38: 337-384.
36. Chang FH (2011) Toxic effects of three closely-related dinoflagellates, Karenia concordia, K. brevisulcata and K. mikimotoi (Gymnodiniales, Dinophyceae) on other microalgal species. Harmful Algae 10: 181-187.
37. Chang FH, Bourdelais AJ, Baden DG, Gall M, Hulston D, Webb V (2006) Karenia concordia (Dinophyceae) as a brevetoxin-producer and comparison with two closely related species K. brevisulcata and K. mikimotoi. In: 12th International Conference on Harmful Algae, Programme and Abstracts, Copenhagen, Denmark, September 4-8, p. 51.
38. Chang FH, Ryan KG (2004) Karenia concordia sp. nov. (Gymnodiniales, Dinophyceae), a new nonthecate dinoflagellate isolated from the New Zealand northeast coast during the 2002 harmful algal bloom events. Phycologia 43: 552-562.
39. Cheng YS, Villareal TA, Zhou Y, Gao J, Pierce R, Naar J, Baden DG (2005) Characterization of red tide aerosol on the Texas coast. Harmful Algae 4: 87-94.
40. Cheng YS, Zhou Y, Pierce RH, Henry M, Baden DG (2010) Characterization of red tide aerosol and the temporal profile of aerosol concentration. Toxicon 55: 992-929.
41. Chinain M, Darius HT, Ung A, Cruchet P, Wang Z et al. (2010) Growth and toxin production in the ciguatera-causing dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus polynesiensis (Dinophyceae) in culture. Toxicon 56: 739-750.
42. Chinain M, Faust MA, Pauillac S (1999) Morphology and molecular analyses of three species of Gambierdiscus (Dinophyceae): G. pacificus sp. nov., G. australes sp. nov., and G. polynesiensis sp. nov. J. Phycol. 35: 1282-1296.
43. Ciminiello P, Dell’Aversano C, Dello Iacovo E, Fattorusso E, Forino M, Grauso L, Tartaglione L, Guerrini F, Pistocchi R (2010a) Complex palytoxin-like profile of Ostreopsis ovata. Identification of four new ovatoxins by high resolution liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 24: 2735-2744.
44. Ciminiello P, Dell’Aversano C, Fattorussa E, Forino M (2010b). Palytoxins: A still haunting Hawaiian curse. Phytochem. Rev. 9: 491-500.
45. Ciminiello P, Dell’Aversano C, Fattorusso E, Forino M, Magno GS, Tartaglione L, Grillo C, Melchiorre N (2006) The Genoa 2005 outbreak. Determination of putative palytoxin in Mediterranean Ostreopsis ovata by a new liquid chromatography mass spectrometry method. Anal. Chem. 78: 6153-6159.
46. Ciminiello P, Fattorusso E (2008) Chemistry, metabolism, and chemical analysis. In: Botana LM (ed.) Seafood and Freshwater Toxins Pharmacology, Physiology and Detection. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 287-314.
47. Ciminiello P, Fattorusso E, Forino M, Montressor M (2000) Saxitoxin and neosaxitoxin as toxic principles of Alexandrium andersoni (Dinophyceae) from the Gulf of Naples, Italy. Toxicon 38: 1871-1877.
48. Costas E, Zardoya R, Baustista J, Garrido A, Rojo C, López-Rodas (1995) Morphospecies vs. genospecies in toxic marine dinoflagellates: An analysis of Gymnodinium catenatum/Gyrodinium impudicum and Alexandrium minutum/A. lusitanicum using antibodies, lectens, and gene sequences. J. Phycol. 31: 801-807.
49. Cruz-Rivera E, Villareal TA (2006) Macroalgal palatability and the flux of ciguatera toxins through marine food webs. Harmful Algae 5: 487-525.
50. Daugbjerg N, Hansen G, Larsen J, Moestrup Ø (2000) Phylogeny of some of the major genera of dinoflagellates based on ultrastructure and partial LSU rDNA sequence data, including the erection of three new genera of unarmoured dinoflagellates. Phycologia 39: 302-317.
51. Davin WT, Kohler CC, Tindall DR (1986) Effects of ciguatera toxins on the bluehead. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 115: 908-912.
52. Davis C (1948) Gymnodinium breve: A cause of discolored water and animal mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Bot. Gaz. 109: 358-360.
53. Deeds JR, Landsberg JH, Etheridge SM, Pitcher GC, Longan SW (2008) Non-traditional vectors for paralytic shellfish poisoning. Mar. Drugs 6: 308-348.
54. Dickey RW, Bobzin SC, Faulkner DJ, Bencsath FA, Andrzejewski D (1990) Identification of okadaic acid from a Caribbean dinoflagellate Prorocentrum concavum. Toxicon 28: 371-377.
55. Dickey RW, Jester E, Granade R, Mowdy D, Moncreiff C, Rebarchik D, Robl M, Musser S, Poli M (1999) Monitoring brevetoxins during a Gymnodinium breve red tide: Comparison of sodium channel specific cytotoxicity assay and mouse bioassay for determination of neurotoxic shellfish toxins in shellfish extracts. Nat. Toxins 7: 157-165.
56. Endean R, Monks SA, Griffith JK, Llewellyn LE (1993) Apparent relationships between toxins elaborated by the cyanobacterium Trichodesmium erythraeum and those present in the Spanish mackerel Scomberomorus commersoni. Toxicon 31: 1155-1165.
57. Faust MA (1998) Mixotrophy in tropical benthic dinoflagellates. In: Reguera B, Blanco J, Fernandéz L, Wyatts T (eds.) Harmful Algae. Xunta de Galacia and International Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, Santiago de Compostela, pp. 390-393.
58. Fensome RA, Saldarriaga JF, Taylor FJR (1999) Dinoflagellate phylogeny revisited: Reconciling morphological and molecular based phylogenies. GRANA 38: 66-80.
59. Fensome RA, Taylor FJR, Norris G, Sarjeant WAS, Wharton DI, Williams GL (1993) A classification of living and fossil dinoflagellates. Micropaleontology, Special Publication No. 7, 351pp.
60. Fernández ML, Reguera B, González-Gil S, Míguez A (2006) Pectenotoxin-2 in single cell isolates of Dinophysis caudata and Dinophysis acuta from the Galicean Rías (NW Spain). Toxicon 48: 477-490.
61. Fire SE, Wang Z, Byrd M, Whitehead HR (2011) Co-occurrence of multiple classes of harmful algal toxins in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) stranding during an unusual mortality event in Texas, USA. Harmful Algae 10: 330-336.
62. Fraga S, Rodriguez F, Caillaud A, Diogene J, Nicolas R, Zapata M (2011) Gambierdiscus excentricus sp. nov. (Dinophyceae), a benthic toxic dinoflagellate from the Canary Islands (NE Atlantic Ocean). Harmful Algae 11: 10-22.
63. Franchini A, Malagoli D, Ottaviani E (2010) Targets and effects of yessotoxin, okadaic acid and palytoxin: A differential review. Mar. Drugs 8: 658-677.
64. Fukuyo Y (1981) Taxonomical study on benthic dinoflagellates collected in coral reefs. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 47: 967-978.
65. Fukuyo Y, Yoshida K, Ogata T, Ishimaru T, Kodama M, Pholpunthin P, Wiessang S, Phanichyakarn V, Piyakarnchana T (1989) Suspected causative dinoflagellates of paralytic shellfish poisoning in the Gulf of Thailand. In: Okaichi T, Anderson DM, Nemoto T (eds.) Red Tides: Biology, Environmental Science and Toxicology. Elsevier, New York, pp. 403-406.
66. Furey A, García J, O’Callaghan K, Lehane M, Amandi MJ, James KJ (2007) Brevetoxins: Structure, toxicology, and origin. In: Botana LM (ed.) Phycotoxins: Chemistry and Biochemistry. Blackwell, Oxford, U.K., pp. 19-46.
67. Furey A, O’Doherty S, O’Callaghan K, Lehane M, James KJ (2010) Azaspiracid poisoning (AZP) toxins in shellfish: Toxicological and health considerations. Toxicon 56: 173-190.
68. Fux E, Smith J, Tong M, Guzmán L, Anderson DM (2011) Toxin profiles of five geographical isolates of Dinophysis spp. from North and South America. Toxicon 57: 275-287.
69. Gamboa PM, Park DL, Fremy J-M (1992) Extraction and purification of toxic fractions from barracuda (Sphyraena barracuda) implicated in ciguatera poisoning. In: Tosteson TR (ed.) Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Ciguatera Fish Poisoning, La Parguera, Puerto Rico, Polysciences Publications, Laval, Quebec, Canada, pp. 13-24.
70. Giacobbe MG, Peena A, Ceredi A, Milandri A, Poletti R, Yang X (2000) Toxicity and ribosomal DNA of the dinoflagellate Dinophysis sacculus (Dinophyta). Phycologia 39: 177-182.
71. Gillespie NC, Lewis RJ, Pearn JH, Bourke ATC, Holmes MJ, Bourke JB, Shields WJ (1986) Ciguatera in Australia: Occurrence, clinical features, pathophysiology and management. Med. J. Aust. 145: 584-590.
72. Glasgow HB, Burkhlder JM, Morton SL, Springer J (2001) A second species of ichthyotoxic Pfiesteria (Dinamoebales, Dinophyceae). Phycologia 40: 234-245.
73. Gómez F (2005) A list of free-living dinoflagellate species in the world’s oceans. Acta Bot. Croat. 64: 129-212.
74. Grzebyk D, Denardou A, Berland B, Pouchus YF (1997) Evidence of a new toxin in the red-tide dinoflagellate Prorocentrum minimum. J. Plankton Res. 19: 1111-1124.
75. Gudger EW (1930) Poisonous fishes and fish poisoning, with special reference to ciguatera in the West Indies. Am. J. Trop. Med. 10: 43-55.
76. Hackett JD, Tong M, Kulis DM, Fux E, Hess P, Bire R, Anderson DM (2009) DSP production de novo in cultures of Dinophysis acuminata (Dinophyceae) from North America. Harmful Algae 8: 873-879.
77. Hahn ST, Capra M (1992) The cyanobacterium Oscillatoria erythraea-A potential source of toxin in the ciguatera food chain. Food Addit. Contam. 9: 351-355.
78. Hallegraeff GM, Fraga S (1998) Bloom dynamics of the toxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum, with emphasis on Tasmanian and Spanish coastal waters. In: Anderson DM, Cembella AD, Hallegraeff GM (eds.) Physiological Ecology of Harmful Algal Blooms. Springer, Berlin, Germany, pp. 59-80.
79. Hallegraeff GM, Lucas IAN (1988) The marine dinoflagellate genus Dinophysis (Dinophyceae): Photosynthetic, neritic and non-photosynthetic, oceanic species. Phycologia 27: 25-42.
80. Hallegraeff GM, Maclean JL (eds.) (1989) ICLARM Conference Proceedings 21 on Biology, Epidemiology and Management of Pyrodinium Red Tides. Fisheries Department, Ministry of Development, Brunei Darussalam, and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manilla, Philippines, 286pp.
81. Hamamoto Y, Tachibana K, Holland PT, Shi F, Beuzenberg V, Itoh Y, Satake M (2012) Brevisulcenal-F: A polycyclic ether toxin associated with massive fish-kills in New Zealand. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 134: 4963-4968.
82. Hamilton B, Hurbungs M, Jones A, Lewis RJ (2002a) Multiple ciguatoxins present in Indian Ocean reef fish. Toxicon 40: 1347-1353.
83. Hamilton B, Hurbungs M, Vernoux JP, Jones A, Lewis RJ (2002b) Isolation and characterization of Indian Ocean ciguatoxin. Toxicon 40: 685-693.
84. Hansen PJ, Cembella AD, Moestrup Ø (1992) The marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium ostenfeldii: Paralytic shellfish toxin concentration, composition, and toxicity to a tintinnid ciliate. J. Phycol. 28: 597-603.
85. Haywood AJ, Steidinger KA, Truby EW, Berquist PR, Berquist PL, Adamsom J, MacKenzie L (2004) Comparative morphology and molecular phylogenetic analysis of three new species of the genus Karenia (Dinophyceae) from New Zealand. J. Phycol. 40: 165-179.
86. Hellyer SD, Selwood AI, Rhodes L, Kerr DS (2011) Marine algal pinnatoxins E and F cause neuromuscular block in an in vitro hemidiaphragm preparation. Toxicon 58: 693-699.
87. Henrichs DW, Scott PS, Steidinger KA, Errera RM, Abraham A, Campbell L (2013) Morphology and phylogeny of Prorocentrum texanum sp. nov. (Dinophyceae): A new toxic dinoflagellate from the Gulf of Mexico coastal waters exhibiting two distinct morphologies. J. Phycol. 49: 143-155.
88. Holland PT, Shi F, Satake M, Hamamoto Y, Ito E, Beuzenberg V, McNabb P et al. (2012) Novel toxins produced by the dinoflagellate Karenia brevisulcata. Harmful Algae 13: 47-57.
89. Holmes MJ, Bolch CJS, Green DH, Cembella AD, Teo SLM (2002) Singapore isolates of the dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum (Dinophyceae) produce a unique profile of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins. J. Phycol. 38: 96-106.
90. Holmes MJ, Lee FC, Teo SLM, Khoo HW (1998) A survey of benthic dinoflagellates on Singapore reefs. In: Reguera B, Blanco J, Fernández ML, Wyatt T (eds.) Harmful Algae. Xunta de Galacia and International Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, Santiago de Compostela, pp. 50-51.
91. Holmes MJ, Lewis R (2002) Toxin-producing dinoflagellates. In: Ménez A (ed.) Perspectives in Molecular Toxinology. John Wiley and Sons Ltd., Chichester, U.K., pp. 39-65.
92. Holmes MJ, Lewis RJ (1994) Purification and characterisation of large and small maitotoxins from cultured Gambierdiscus toxicus. Nat. Toxins 2: 64-72.
93. Holmes MJ, Lewis RJ, Gillespie NC (1990) Toxicity of Australian and French Polynesian strains of Gambierdiscus toxicus (Dinophyceae) grown in culture: Characterization of a new type of maitotoxin. Toxicon 28: 1159-1172.
94. Holmes MJ, Lewis RJ, Jones A, Wong Hoy A (1995) Cooliatoxin, the first toxin from Coolia monotis (Dinophyceae). Nat. Toxins 3: 355-362.
95. Holmes MJ, Lewis RJ, Poli MA, Gillespie NC (1991) Strain dependent production of ciguatoxin precursors (gambiertoxins) by Gambierdiscus toxicus (Dinophyceae) in culture. Toxicon 29: 761-775.
96. Holmes MJ, Teo, SLM, Lee FC, Khoo HW (1999) Persistent low concentrations of diarrhetic shellfish toxins in green mussels Perna viridis from the Johor Strait, Singapore: First record of diarrhetic shellfish toxins from South East Asia. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 181: 257-268.
97. Hoppenrath T, Murray S, Sparmann SF, Leandser BS (2012) Morphology and molecular phylogeny of Ankistrodinium gen. nov. (Dinophyceae), a new genus of marine sand-dwelling dinoflagellates formerly classified within Amphidinium. J. Phycol. 48: 1143-1152.
98. Horiguchi T, Tamura M, Katsumata K, Yamaguchi A (2012) Testudodinium gen. nov. (Dinophyceae), a new genus of sand-dwelling dinoflagellates formerly classified in the genus Amphidinium. Phycol. Res. 60: 137-149.
99. Howell JF (1953) Gonyaulax monilata sp. nov., the causative dinoflagellate of a red tide on the east coast of Florida in August-September, 1951. Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc. 72: 153-156.
100. Hu T, Curtis JM, Oshima Y, Quilliam MA, Walter JA, Watson-Wright WM, Wright JLC (1995) Spirolides B and D, two novel macrocycles isolated from the digestive glands of shellfish. J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. 2159-2161.
101. Hu W, Xu J, Sinkkonen J, Wu J (2010) Polyketides from marine dinoflagellates of the genus Prorocentrum, biosynthetic origin and bioactivity of their okadaic acid analogues. Mini-Rev. Med. Chem. 10: 51-61.
102. Ingersoll E (1882) On the fish mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. US Natl. Mus. 4: 74-80.
103. Ishida H, Nozawa A, Nukuya H, Rhodes L, McNabb P, Holland PT, Tsuiji K (2004) Confirmation of brevetoxin metabolism in cockle, Austrovenus stutchburyi, and greenshell mussels, Perna canaliculus, associated with New Zealand neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, by controlled exposure to Karenia brevis. Toxicon 43: 701-712.
104. Ishida H, Nozawa A, Totoribe K, Muramatsu N, Nukaya H, Tsuji K, Yamaguchi K, Yasumoto T, Kaspar H, Berkett N, Kosuge T (1995) Brevetoxin B1, a new polyether marine toxin from the New Zealand shellfish, Austrovenus stutchburyi. Tetrahedron Lett. 36: 725-728.
105. Ito E (2008) Toxicology of Azaspiracid-1: Acute and chronic poisoning, tumorigenicity and chemical structure relationship to toxicity in a mouse bioassay. In: Botana LM (ed.) Seafood and Freshwater Toxins: Pharmacology, Physiology and Detection. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis, New York, pp. 775-784.
106. Jacobson DM, Anderson RA (1994) The discovery of mixotrophy in photosynthetic species of Dinophysis (Dinophyceae): Light and electron microscopical observations of food vacuoles in Dinophysis acuminata, D. norvegica and two heterotrophic dinophysoid dinoflagellates. Phycologia 33: 97-110.
107. James KJ, Moroney C, Roden C, Satake M, Yasumoto T, Lehane M, Furey A (2003) Ubiquitous “benign” alga emerges as the cause of shellfish contamination responsible for the human toxic syndrome, azaspiracid poisoning. Toxicon 41: 145-154.
108. Jauffrais T, Herrenknecht C, Séchet V, Sibat V, Tillmann U, Krock B, Kilkoyne J, Miles CO, McCarron P, Amzil Z, Hess P (2012) Quantitative analysis of azaspiracids in Azadinium spinosum cultures. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 403: 833-846.
109. Jensen MH, Daugbjerg N (2009) Molecular phylogeny of selected species of the order Dinophysiales (Dinophyceae)-testing the hypothesis of a dinophysoid radiation. J. Phycol. 45: 1136-1152.
110. Jeong HJ, Kim JS, Park JY, Kim JH, Kim S, Lee I, Lee SH, Ha JH, Yih WH (2005) Stoeckeria algicida n. gen., n. sp. (dinophyceae) from the coastal waters off southern Korea: Morphology and small subunit ribosomal DNA sequence. J. Eukary. Micro. 52: 382-390.
111. John U, Fensome RA, Medlin LK (2003) The application of a molecular clock based on molecular sequences and the fossil record to explain biogeographic distributions within the Alexandrium tamarense “species complex.” Mar. Biol. Evol. 20: 1015-1027.
112. Kamiyama T, Suzuki T (2009) Production of dinophysistoxin-1 and pectenotoxin-2 by a culture of Dinophysis acuminata (Dinophyceae). Harmful Algae 8: 312-317.
113. Kelly BA, Jollow DJ, Felton ET, Voegtline MS, Higerd TB (1986) Response of mice to Gambierdiscus toxicus toxin. Marine Fish. Rev. 48: 35-37.
114. Kerbrat AS, Amzil Z, Pawlowietz R, Golubic S, Sibat M, Darius HT, Chinain M, Laurent D (2011) First evidence of palytoxin and 42-hydroxy-palytoxin in the marine cyanobacterium Trichodesmium. Mar. Drugs 9: 543-560.
115. Kerbrat AS, Darius HT, Pauillac S, Chinain M, Laurent D (2010) Detection of ciguatoxin-like and paralysing toxins in Trichodesmium spp. from New Caledonia lagoon. Mar. Poll. Bull. 61: 360-366.
116. Kibler SR, Litaker RW, Holland WC, Vandersea MW, Tester PA (2012) Growth of eight Gambierdiscus (Dinophyceae) species: Effects of temperature, salinity and irradiance. Harmful Algae 19: 1-14.
117. Kim HG (1998) Cochlodinium polykrikoides blooms in Korean coastal waters and their mitigation. In: Reguera B, Blanco J, Fernández ML, Wyatt T (eds.) Harmful Algae. Xunta de Galicia and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, Santiago de Compostela, Spain, pp. 227-228.
118. Kobayashi J, Kubota T (2007) Bioactive macrolides and polyketides from marine dinoflagellates of the genus Amphidinium. J. Nat. Prod. 70: 451-460.
119. Kodama AM, Hokama Y, Yasumoto T, Fukui M, Manea SJ, Sutherland N (1989) Clinical (mackerel). Toxicon 27: 1051-1053.
120. Kodama M, Ogata T, Fukuyo Y, Ishimaru T, Wisessand S, Saitanu K, Panichyakarn V, Piyakarnchana T (1988) Protogonyaulax cohorticula, a toxic dinoflagellate found in the Gulf of Thailand. Toxicon 26: 707-712.
121. Krock B, Tillmann U, John U, Cembella A (2009) Characterization of azaspiracids in plankton size-fractions and isolation of an azaspiracid-producing dinoflagellate from the North Sea. Harmful Algae 8: 254-263.
122. Krock B, Tillmann U, Vosz D, Koch B, Salas R, Witt M, Potvin É, Jeong HJ (2012) New azaspiracids in Amphidomataceae (Dinophyceae). Toxicon 60: 830-839.
123. Kudela RM, Gobler CJ (2012) Harmful dinoflagellate blooms caused by Cochlodinium sp.: Global expansion and ecological strategies facilitating bloom formation. Harmful Algae 14: 71-86.
124. Landsberg JH (2002) The effects of harmful algal blooms on aquatic organisms. Rev. Fish. Sci. 10: 113-390.
125. Landsberg JH, Hall S, Johannessen JN, White KD, Conrad SM et al. (2006) Saxitoxin puffer fish poisoning in the United States with the first report of Pyrodinium bahamense as the putative toxin source. Environ. Health Persp. 114: 1502-1507.
126. Lartigue J, Jester ELE, Dickey RW, Villareal TA (2009) Nitrogen source effects on the growth and toxicity of two strains of the ciguatera-causing dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus. Harmful Algae 8: 781-791.
127. Lawrence DN, Enriquez MB, Lumish RM, Maceo A (1980) Ciguatera fish poisoning in Miami. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 244: 254-258.
128. Lawrence JE, Grant J, Quilliam MA, Bauder AG, Cembella AD (2000) Colonization and growth of the toxic dinoflagellate Prorocentrum lima and associated fouling macroalgae on mussels in suspended culture. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 201: 147-154.
129. Lee JS, Igarashi T, Fraga S, Dahl E, Hovgaard P, Yasumoto T (1989) Determination of diarrhetic shellfish toxins in various dinoflagellate species. J. Appl. Phycol. 1: 147-152.
130. Lenoir S, Ten-Hage L, Turquet J, Quod JP, Bernard C, Hennison MC (2004) First evidence of palytoxin analogues from an Ostreopsis mascarenensis (Dinophyceae) benthic bloom in Southwestern Indian ocean. J. Phycol. 40: 1042-1051.
131. Lewis RJ (1992) Ciguatoxins are potent ichthyotoxins. Toxicon 30: 207-211.
132. Lewis RJ (2000) Ciguatera management. SPC Live Reef Fish Information Bulletin #7, pp. 11-13.
133. Lewis RJ (2001) The changing face of ciguatera. Toxicon 39: 97-106.
134. Lewis RJ, Holmes MJ (1993) Origin and transfer of toxins involved in ciguatera. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 106C: 615-628.
135. Lewis RJ, Sellin M (1992) Multiple ciguatoxins in the flesh of fish. Toxicon 30: 915-919.
136. Lewis RJ, Sellin M, Poli MA, Norton RS, MacLeod JK, Sheil MM (1991) Purification and characterization of ciguatoxins from moray eel (Lycodontis javanicus, Muraenidae). Toxicon 29: 1115-1127.
137. Lewis RJ, Vernoux JP, Brereton IM (1998) Structure of Caribbean ciguatoxin isolated from Caranx latus. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 120: 5914-5920.
138. Lilly EL, Halanych KM, Anderson DM (2005) Phylogeny, biogeography, and species boundaries within the Alexandrium minutum group. Harmful Algae 4: 1004-1020.
139. Lim PT, Usup G, Leaw CP, Ogata T (2005) First report of Alexandrium taylori and Alexandrium peruvianum (Dinophyceae) in Malaysian waters. Harmful Algae 4: 391-400.
140. Litaker RW, Steidinger KA, Mason PL, Landsberg JH, Shields JD et al. (2005) The reclassification of Pfiesteria shumwayae (Dinophyceae): Pseudopfiesteria, gen. nov. J. Phycol. 41: 643-651.
141. Litaker RW, Vandersea MW, Faust MA, Kibler SR, Chinain M, Holmes MJ, Holland WC, Tester PA (2009) Taxonomy of Gambierdiscus including four new species, Gambierdiscus caribaeus, Gambierdiscus carolinianus, Gambierdiscus carpenteri and Gambierdiscus ruetzleri (Gonyaucales, Dinophyceae). Phycologia 48: 344-390.
142. Litaker RW, Vandersea MA, Faust MA, Kibler SR, Nau AW, Holland WC, Chinain M, Holmes MJ, Tester PA (2010) Global distribution of ciguatera causing dinoflagellates in the genus Gambierdiscus. Toxicon 56: 711-730.
143. Litaker RW, Vandersea MW, Kibler SR, Reece KS, Stokes NA, Steidinger KA, Millie DF, Bendis BJ, Pigg RJ, Tester PA (2003) Identification of Pfiesteria piscicida (Dinophyceae) and Pfiesteria-like organisms using internal transcribed spacer-specific PCR assays. J. Phycol. 39: 754-761.
144. Llewellyn LE (2006) The behavior of mixtures of mixtures of paralytic shellfish toxins in competitive binding assays. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 19: 661-667.
145. Llewellyn LE (2009) Sodium channel inhibiting marine toxins. Prog. Mol. Subcell. Biol. 46: 67-97.
146. + channel. FEBS Lett. 219: 355-359.
147. López-Rivera AOCK, Moriarty M, O’Driscoll D, Hamilton B, Lehane M, James KJ, Furey A (2010) First evidence of azaspiracids (AZAs): A family of lipohilic polyether marine toxins in scallops (Argopecten purpuratus) and mussels (Mytilus chilensis) collected in two regions of Chile. Toxicon 55: 692-701.
148. Lundholm N, Moestrup Ø (2006) The biogeography of harmful algae. In: Granéli E, Turner JT (eds.) Ecology of Harmful Algae. Springer, Berlin, Germany, pp. 23-35.
149. Maclean JL (1977) Observations on Pyrodinium bahamense Plate, a toxic dinoflagellate in Papua New Guinea. Agric. J. 24: 131-138.
150. Maclean JL (1989) An overview of Pyrodinium red tides in the western Pacific. In: Hallegraeff GM, Maclean JL (eds.) ICLARM Conference Proceedings 21 on Biology, Epidemiology and Management of Pyrodinium Red Tides. Fisheries Department, Ministry of Development, Brunei Darussalam, and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manilla, Philippines, pp. 1-7.
151. Marasigan A, Sato S, Fukuyo Y, Kodama M (2001) Accumulation of a high level of diarrhetic shellfish toxins in the green mussel Perna viridis during a bloom of Dinophysis caudata and Dinophysis miles in Saipan Bay, Panay Island, the Philippines. Fish. Sci. 67: 994-996.
152. Marshall HG, Seaborn D, Wolny J (1999) Monitoring result for Pfiesteria piscicida and Pfiesteria-like organisms from Virginia waters in 1998. Virginia J. Sci. 50: 287-298.
153. Mason PL, Litaker RW, Jeong HJ, Ha JH, Reece KS et al. (2007) Description of a new genus of Pfiesteria-like dinoflagellate, Luciella gen. nov. (Dinophyceae), including two new species: Luciella masanensis sp. nov. and Luciella atlantis sp. nov. J. Phycol. 43: 798-810.
154. McNabb PS, McCoubrey DJ, Rhodes L, Smith K, Selwood AI, van Ginkel R, MacKenzie AL, Munday R, Holland PT (2012) New perspectives in biotoxin detection in Rangaunu Harbour, New Zealand arising from the discovery of pinnatoxins. Harmful Algae 13: 34-39.
155. Miles CO, Wilkins AL, Munday R, Dines MH, Hawkes AD et al. (2004) Isolation of pectenotoxin-2 from Dinophysis acuta and its conversion to pectenotoxin-2 seco acid, and preliminary assessment of their acute toxicities. Toxicon 43: 1-9.
156. Mills AR (1956) Poisonous fish in the South Pacific. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 59: 99-103.
157. Moeller PDR, Beauchesne KR, Huncik KM, Davis WC, Christopher SJ, Riggs-Gelasco P, Gelasco AK (2007) Metal complexes and free radical toxins produced by Pfiesteria piscicida. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41: 1166-1172.
158. Moestrup Ø, Akselman R, Cronberg G, Elbraechter M, Fraga S et al. (eds.) (2009 onwards). IOC-UNESCO taxonomic reference list of Harmful Micro Algae. Available online at http://www.marinespecies.org/HAB, accessed on 2012-10-11.
159. Mohammad-Noor N, Moestrup Ø, Daugbjerg N (2007) Light, electron microscopy and DNA sequences of the dinoflagellate Prorocentrum concavum (syn. P. arabianum) with special emphasis on the periflagellar area. Phycologia 46: 549-564.
160. Mohammad-Noor N, Moestrup Ø, Lundholm N, Fraga S, Holmes MJ, Saleh E (2013) Autecology and phylogeny of Coolia tropicalis and Coolia malayensis (Dinophyceae), with emphasis on taxonomy of C. tropicalis based on light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and LSU rDNA. J. Phycol. 49: 536-545.
161. Moldowan JM, Talyzina NM (1998) Biogeochemical evidence for dinoflagellate ancestors in the early Cambrian. Nature 281: 1168-1170.
162. Moore RE, Scheuer PJ (1971) Palytoxin-New marine toxin from a coelenterate. Science 172: 495-498.
163. Morohashi A, Satake M, Murata K, Naoki H, Kaspar HF, Yasumoto T (1995) Brevetoxin B3, a new brevetoxin analog isolated from the Greenshell mussel Perna canaliculus involved in Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning in New Zealand. Tetrahedron Lett. 36: 8995-8998.
164. Morton SL (1998) Morphology and toxicity of Prorocentrum faustiae sp. nov., a toxic species of non-planktonic dinoflagellate from Heron Island, Australia. Bot. Mar. 41: 565-569.
165. Morton SL, Moeller PDR, Young KA, Lanoue B (1998) Okadaic acid production from the marine dinoflagellate Prorocentrum belizeanum Faust isolated from the Belizean coral reef ecosystem. Toxicon 36: 201-206.
166. Morton SL, Petitpain DL, Busman M, Moeller PDR (2000) Production of okadaic acid and Dinophysis toxins by different species of Prorocentrum. In: Hallegraeff G (convener) Conference Abstracts and Participants, 9th International Conference on Harmful Algal Blooms, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia, p. 183.
167. Munday R (2006) Toxicological requirements for risk assessment of shellfish contaminants: A review. Afr. J. Mar. Sci. 28: 447-449.
168. Munday R (2008a) Occurrence and toxicology of palytoxins. In: Botana LM (ed.) Seafood and Freshwater Toxins, Pharmacology, Physiology, and Detection. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 693-713.
169. Munday R (2008b) Toxicology of pectenotoxins. In: Botana LM (ed.) Seafood and Freshwater Toxins, Pharmacology, Physiology, and Detection. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 371-380.
170. Munday R, Quilliam MA, LeBlanc P, Lewis N, Gallant P, Sperker SA, Ewart HS, MacKinnon SL (2012) Investigations into the toxicology of spirolides, a group of marine phycotoxins. Toxins 4: 1-14.
171. Munday R, Towers NR, MacKenzie L, Beuzenberg V, Holland PT, Miles CO (2004) Acute toxicity of gymnodimine to mice. Toxicon 44: 173-178.
172. Murakami M, Makabe K, Yanaguchi K, Konosu S, Walchli MR (1988) Goniodomin A, a novel polyether macrolide from the dinoflagellate Goniodoma pseudogoniaulax. Tetrahedron Lett. 29: 1149-1152.
173. Murakami Y, Oshima Y, Yasumoto T (1982) Identification of okadaic acid as a toxic component of a marine dinoflagellate Prorocentrum lima. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 48: 69-72.
174. Murata M, Kumagai M, Lee JS, Yasumoto T (1987) Isolation and structure of yessotoxin, a novel polyether compound implicated in diarrhetic shellfish poisoning. Tetrahedron Lett. 28: 5869-5872.
175. Murata M, Legrand AM, Ishibashi Y, Fukui M, Yasumoto T (1990) Structures and configurations of ciguatoxin from the moray eel Gymnothorax javanicus and its likely precursor from the dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 112: 4380-4386.
176. Murata M, Legrand AM, Ishibashi Y, Yasumoto T (1989) Structures of ciguatoxin and its congener. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 111: 8929-8931.
177. Murata M, Naoki H, Iwashita T, Matsunaga S, Sasaki M, Yokoyama A, Yasumoto T (1993) Structure of maitotoxin. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 115: 2060-2062.
178. Murata K, Satake M, Naoki H, Kaspar HF, Yasumoto T (1998) Isolation and structure of a new brevetoxin analog, brevetoxin B2, from Greenshell Mussels from New Zealand. Tetrahedron 54: 735-742.
179. Murata M, Shimatani M, Sugitani H, Oshima Y, Yasumoto T (1982) Isolation and structural elucidation of the causative toxin of the diarrhetic shellfish poisoning. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 48: 549-552.
180. Naar JP, Flewelling LJ, Lenz A, Abbott JP, Granholm A et al. (2007) Brevetoxins, like ciguatoxins, are potent ichthyotoxic neurotoxins that accumulate in fish. Toxicon 50: 707-723.
181. Nagai S, Nishitani G, Tomaru Y, Sakiyama S, Kamiyama T (2008) Predation by the toxic dinoflagellate Dinophysis fortii on the ciliate Myrionecta rubra and observation of sequestration of ciliate chloroplasts. J. Phycol. 44: 909-922.
182. Nagai S, Suzuki T, Nishikawa T, Kamiyama T (2011) Differences in the production and excretion kinetics of okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin-1, and pectenotoxin-2 between cultures of Dinophysis acuminata and Dinophysis fortii isolated from western Japan. J. Phycol. 47: 1326-1337.
183. Nakajima I, Oshima Y, Yasumoto T (1981) Toxicity of benthic dinoflagellates in Okinawa. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 47: 1029-1033.
184. Negri A, Bolch CJS, Blackburn S, Dickman M, Llewewellyn LE, Méndez S (2001) Paralytic shellfish toxins in Gymnodinium catenatum strains from six countries. In: Hallegraeff GM, Blackburn SI, Bolch CJ, Lewis RJ (eds.) Harmful Algal Blooms 2000. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, Paris, France, pp. 210-213.
185. Negri A, Bolch CJS, Geier S, Green DH, Park T-G, Blackburn SI (2007) Widespread presence of hydrophobic paralytic shellfish toxins in Gymnodinium catenatum. Harmful Algae 6: 774-780.
186. Negri A, Stirling D, Quilliam M, Blackburn S, Bolch C, Burton I, Eaglesham G, Thomas K, Walter J, Willis R (2003) Three novel hydroxybenzoate saxitoxin analogues isolated from the dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 16: 1029-1033.
187. Nguyen-Ngoc L (2004) An autecological study of the potentially toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium affine isolated from Vietnamese waters. Harmful Algae 3: 117-129.
188. Nishitani G, Nagai S, Sakiyama S, Kamiyama T (2008a) Successful cultivation of the toxic dinoflagellate Dinophysis caudata (Dinophyceae). Plankton Benthos Res. 3: 78-85.
189. Nishitani G, Nagai S, Takano Y, Sakiyama S, Baba K, Kamiyama (2008b) Growth characteristics and phylogenetic analysis of the marine dinoflagellate Dinophysis infundibulus (Dinophyceae). Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 52: 209-221.
190. Nishiwaki S, Fujiki H, Suganumi M, Furuya-Suguri H, Matsushima R et al. (1990) Structure-activity relationship within a series of okadaic acid derivatives. Carcinogenesis 11: 1837-1841.
191. Noguchi T, Hwang DF, Arakawa O, Daigo K, Sato S, Ozari H, Kawai N, Ito M, Hashimoto K (1987) Palytoxin as the causative agent in the parrotfish poisoning. In: Gopalakrishnakone P, Tan CK (eds.) Progress in Venom and Toxin Research. National University of Singapore, Singapore, pp. 325-335.
192. Norris DR, Bomber JW, Balech E (1985) Benthic dinoflagellates associated with ciguatera from the Florida Keys. I. Ostreopsis heptagona sp. nov. In: Anderson DM, White AW, Baden DG (eds.) Toxic Dinoflagellates. Elsevier, New York, pp. 39-44.
193. Ofuji K, Satake M, McMahon T, Silke J, James KJ, Naoki H, Oshima Y, Yasumoto T (1999) Two analogs of azaspiracid isolated from mussels Mytilus edulis, involved in human intoxication in Ireland. Nat. Toxins 7: 99-102.
194. Ogino H, Kumagi M, Yasumoto T (1997) Toxicologic evaluation of yessotoxin. Nat. Toxins 5: 255-259.
195. Onuma Y, Satake M, Ukena T, Roux J, Chanteau S, Rasolofornirna N, Ratsimaloto M, Naoki H, Yasumoto T (1999) Identification of palytoxin as the cause of clupeotoxism. Toxicon 37: 66-65.
196. O’Shea TJ, Rathbun GB, Bonde RK, Buergelt CD, Odell DK (1991) An epizootic of Florida manatees associated with a dinoflagellate bloom. Mar. Mammal Sci. 7: 165-179.
197. Oshima Y (1989) Toxins in Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum and infested marine organisms. In: Hallegraeff GM, Maclean JL (eds.) ICLARM Conference Proceedings 21 on Biology, Epidemiology and Management of Pyrodinium Red Tides. Fisheries Department, Ministry of Development, Brunei Darussalam, and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manila, Philippines, pp. 73-79.
198. Oshima Y, Hirota M, Yasumoto T, Hallegraeff GM, Blackburn SI, Steffensen DA (1989) Production of paralytic shellfish toxins by the dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum Halim from Australia. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 55: 925.
199. Otero P, Alfonso A, Rodríguez P, Rubiolo JA, Cifuentes JM, Bermúdez R, Vieytes MR, Boatan LM (2012) Pharmacokinetic and toxicological data of spirolides after oral and intraperitoneal administration. Food Chem. Toxicol. 50: 232-237.
200. Pagliara P, Caroppo C (2012) Toxicity assessment of Amphidinium carterae, Coolia cfr. monotis and Ostreopsis cfr. ovata (Dinophyta) isolated from the northern Ionian Sea (Mediterranean Sea). Toxicon 60: 1203-1214.
201. Park MG, Kim S, Kim HS, Myung G, Kang YG, Yih W (2006) First successful culture of the marine dinoflagellate Dinophysis acuminata. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 45: 101-106.
202. Parsons ML, Aligizaki K, Bottein M-YD, Fraga S, Morton SL, Penna A, Rhodes L (2012) Gambierdiscus and Ostreopsis: Reassessment of the state of knowledge of their taxonomy, geography, ecophysiology, and toxicology. Harmful Algae 14: 107-129.
203. Paz B, Daranas AH, Norte M, Riobó P, Franco JM, Fernández JM (2008) Yessotoxins, a group of marine polyether toxins: An overview. Mar. Drugs 6: 73-102.
204. Peng J, Place AR, Yoshida W, Clemens A, Hamann MT (2010) Structure and absolute configuration of karlotoxin-2, an ichthyotoxin from the marine dinoflagellate Karlodinium veneficum. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 132: 3277-3279.
205. Penna A, Fraga S, Battocchi C, Casabianca S, Riobó P, Giacobbe MG, Vernesi C (2010) A phylogeography study of the toxic benthic genus Ostreopsis Schmidt. J. Biogeogr. 37: 830-841.
206. Pillet S, Houvenaghel G (1995) Influence of experimental toxification by DSP producing microalgae, Prorocentrum lima, on clearance rate in blue mussels Mytilus edulis. In: Lassus P, Arzul G, Erard E, Gentien P, Marcaillou C (eds.) Harmful Marine Algal Blooms. Lavoisier-Intercept Ltd., Paris, France, pp. 481-486.
207. Pizarro G, Escalera L, González-Gil S, Franco JM, Reguera B (2008) Growth, behaviour and cell toxin quota of Dinophysis acuta during a daily cycle. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 353: 89-105.
208. Place AR, Bowers HA, Bachvaroff TR, Adolf JE, Deeds JR, Sheng J (2012) Karlodinium veneficum-The little dinoflagellate with a big bite. Harmful Algae 14: 179-195.
209. Prakash A, Taylor FJR (1966) A “red water” bloom of Gonyaulax acatenella in the Strait of Georgia and its relation to paralytic shellfish toxicity. J. Fish. Bd. Can. 23: 1265-1270.
210. Quilliam M, Wechsler D, Marcus S, Ruck B, Wekell M, Hawryluk T (2004) Detection and identification of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in Florida pufferfish responsible for incidents of neurologic illness. In: Steidinger KA, Landsberg JH, Tomas CR, Vargo GA (eds.) Harmful Algae 2002. Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission, Florida Institute of Oceanography, and International Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO. St. Petersburg, pp. 116-118.
211. Quod JP, Turquet J, Diogene G, Fessard V (1995) Screening of extracts of dinoflagellates from coral reefs (Reunion Island, SW Indian Ocean), and their biological activities. In: Lassus P, Arzul G, Erard E, Gentien P, Marcaillou C (eds.) Harmful Marine Algal Blooms. Lavoisier, New York, pp. 815-820.
212. Raho N, Pizarro G, Escalera L, Reguera B, Marín I (2008) Morphology, toxin composition and molecular analysis of Dinophysis ovum Schütt, a dinoflagellate of the “Dinophysis acuminata” complex. Harmful Algae 7: 839-848.
213. Randall JE (1958) A review of ciguatera, tropical fish poisoning, with a tentative explanation of its cause. Bull. Mar. Sci. 8: 236-267.
214. Rehmann N, Hess P, Quilliam MA (2008) Discovery of new analogs of the marine biotoxin azaspiracid in blue mussels Mytilus edulis by ultra-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 22: 549-558.
215. Reguera B, Velo-Suárez L, Raine R, Park MG (2012) Harmful Dinophysis species: A review. Harmful Algae 14: 87-106.
216. Rhodes L, McNabb P, de Salas M, Briggs L, Beuzenberg V, Gladstone M (2006) Yessotoxin production by Gonyaulax spinifera. Harmful Algae 5: 148-155.
217. Rhodes L, Smith K, Selwood A, McNabb P, Munday R, Suda S, Molenaar S, Hallegraeff GM (2011) Dinoflagellate Vulcanodinium rugosum identified as the causative organism of pinnatoxins in Australia, New Zealand and Japan. Phycologia 50: 624-628.
218. Rhodes LL, Thomas A (1997) Coolia monotis (Dinophyceae): A toxic epiphytic microalgal species found in New Zealand. New Zealand J. Mar. Freshwater Res. 31: 139-141.
219. Riobó P, Paz B, Franco JM, Vazquez JA, Murado MA, Cacho E (2008) Mouse bioassay for palytoxin. Specific symptoms and dose-response against dose-death time relationships. Food Chem. Toxicol. 46: 2639-2647.
220. Roeder K, Erler K, Kibler S, Tester P, The HV, Nguyen-Ngoc L, Gerdts G, Luckas B (2010) Characteristic profiles of ciguatera toxins in different strains of Gambierdiscus spp. Toxicon 56: 731-738.
221. Rossi R, Castellano V, Scalo E, Serpe L, Zingone A, Soprano V (2010) New palytoxin-like molecules in Mediterranean Ostreopsis cf. ovata (Dinoflagellates) and in Palythoa tuberculosa detected by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Toxicon 56: 1382-1387.
222. Rossini GP, Hess P (2010) Phycotoxins: Chemistry, mechanisms of action and shellfish poisoning. EXS 100: 65-122.
223. Rundberget T, Bunaes Aasen JA, Selwood AI, Miles CO (2011) Pinnatoxins and spirolides in Norwegian blue mussels and seawater. Toxicon 58: 700-711.
224. de Salas MF, Bolch CJS, Botes L, Nash G, Wright SW, Hallegraeff GM (2003) Takayama gen. nov. (Gymnodiniales, Dinophyceae), a new genus of unarmoured dinoflagellates with sigmoid apical grooves, including the description of two new species. J. Phycol. 39: 1233-1246.
225. Sasaki K, Murata M, Yasumoto T, Mieskes G, Takai A (1994) Affinity of okadaic acid to type-1 and type-2A protein phosphatases is markedly reduced by oxidation of its 27-hydroxyl group. Biochem. J. 298: 259-262.
226. Satake M, Fukui M, Legrand AM, Cruchet P, Yasumoto T (1998a) Isolation and structures of new ciguatoxin analogs, 2, 3-DihydroxyCTX3C and 51-HydroxyCTX3C, accumulated in tropical reef fish. Tetrahedron Lett. 39: 1197-1198.
227. Satake M, Ishibashi Y, Legrand A-M, Yasumoto T (1997a) Isolation and structure of ciguatoxin-4a, a new ciguatoxin precursor, from cultures of dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus and Parrotfish Scarus gibbus. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 60: 2103-2105.
228. Satake M, MacKenzie L, Yasumoto T (1997b) Identification of Protoceratium reticulatum as the biogenic origin of yessotoxin. Nat. Toxins 5: 164-167.
229. Satake M, Murata M, Yasumoto T (1993) The structure of CTX-3C, a ciguatoxin congener isolated from cultured Gambierdiscus toxicus. Tetrahedron Lett. 34: 1975-1978.
230. Satake M, Ofugi K, James KJ, Furey A, Yasumoto T (1998b) New toxic event caused by Irish mussels. In: Reguera B et al. (eds.) Proceedings of the VIII International Conference on Harmful Algae, (June 1999, Vigo, Spain), pp. 468-469. Xunta de Galacia and IOC of UNESCO.
231. Satake M, Ofuji K, Naoki H, James KJ, Furey A, McMahon T, Silke J, Yasumoto T (1998c) Azaspiracid, a new marine toxin having unique spiro ring assemblies, isolated from Irish mussels, Mytilus edulis. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 120: 9967-9968.
232. Satake M, Shoji M, Oshima Y, Naoki H, Fujita T, Yasumoto T (2002) Gymnocin-A, a cytotoxic polyether from the notorious red tide dinoflagellate, Gymnodinium mikimotoi. Tetrahedron Lett. 43: 5829-5832.
233. Satake M, Tanaka Y, Ishikura Y, Oshima Y, Naoki H, Yasumoto T (2005) Gymnocin-B with the largest contiguous polyether rinds from the red tide dinoflagellate, Karenia (formerly Gymnodinium) mikimotoi. Tetrahedron Lett. 46: 3537-3540.
234. Scholin CA (1998) Morphological, genetic, and biogeographical relationships of the toxic dinoflagellates Alexandrium tamarense, A. catenella and A. fundyense. In Anderson DM, Cembella AM, Hallegraeff GM (eds.) Physiological Ecology of Harmful Algal Blooms. Springer, Berlin, Germany, pp. 13-27.
235. Schrader A (2010) Responding to Pfiesteria piscicida (the fish killer): Phantomatic ontologies, indeterminacy, and responsibility in toxic microbiology. Soc. Studies Sci. 40: 275-306.
236. Seki T, Satake M, MacKenzie L, Kaspar H, Yasumoto T (1995) Gymnodimine, a new marine toxin of unprecedented structure isolated from New Zealand oysters and the dinoflagellate, Gymnodinium sp. Tetrahedron Lett. 36: 7093-7096.
237. Selwood AI, Miles CO, Wilkins Al, van Ginkel R, Munday R, Rise F, McNabb P (2010) Isolation and structural determination, and acute toxicity of novel pinnatoxins E, F and G. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58: 6532-6542.
238. Shimizu Y, Alam M, Oshima Y, Fallon WE (1975) Presence of four toxins in red tide infested clams and Gonyaulax tamarensis cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 66: 731-737.
239. Smith KF, Rhodes LL, Suda S, Selwwod AI (2011) A dinoflagellate producer of pinnatoxin G, isolated from sub-tropical Japanese waters. Harmful Algae 10: 702-705.
240. Sournia A (1995) Red tide and toxic marine phytoplankton of the world ocean: An inquiry into biodiversity. In: Lassus P, Arzul G, Erard E, Gentien P, Marcaillou C (eds.) Harmful Marine Algal Blooms. Lavoisier, New York, pp. 103-112.
241. Sparmann SF, Leander BS, Hoppenrath M (2008) Comparative morphology and molecular phylogeny of Apicoporus n. gen: A new genus of marine benthic dinoflagellate formerly classified with Amphidinium. Protist 159: 383-399.
242. Sperr AE, Doucette GJ (1996) Variation in growth rate and ciguatera toxin production among geographically distinct clones of Gambierdiscus toxicus. In: Yasumoto T, Oshima Y, Fukuyo Y (eds.) Harmful and Toxic Algal Blooms. UNESCO, Paris, France, pp. 309-312.
243. Steidinger KA, Burkholder JM, Glasgow HB, Hobbs CW, Truby E, Garrett J, Noga EJ, Smith SA (1996) Pfiesteria piscicida gen. et sp. nov. (Pfiesteriaceae, fam. nov.), a new toxic dinoflagellate with a complex life cycle and behavior. J. Phycol. 32: 157-164.
244. Steidinger KA, Landsberg JH, Mason PL, Vogelbein WK, Tester PA, Litaker RW (2006) Crytoperidiniopsis brodyi gen. et sp. nov. (Dinophyceae), a small lightly armored dinoflagellate in the Pfiesteriaceae. J. Phycol. 42: 951-961.
245. Steidinger KA, Landsberh JH, Truby EW, Roberts BS (1998) First report of Gymnodinium pulchellum (Dinophyceae) in North America and associated fish kills in the Indian River, Florida. J. Phycol. 34: 431-437.
246. Steidinger KA, Tangen K (1997) Dinoflagellates. In: Tomas C (ed.) Identifying Marine Phytoplankton. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, pp. 387-584.
247. Suganuma M, Fujiki H, Suguri H, Yoshizawa S, Hirota M, Ojika M, Wakamatsu K, Yamada K, Sugimura T (1988) Okadaic acid: An additional non-phorbol-12-tetradecanoate-13-acetate-type tumor promoter. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 85: 1768-1771.
248. Suzuki T (2008) Chemistry, metabolism, and chemical detection methods of pectenotoxins. In: Botana LM (ed.) Seafood and Freshwater Toxins, Pharmacology, Physiology, and Detection. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 343-359.
249. Suzuki T, Miyazono A, Baba K, Sugawara R, Kamiyama T (2009) LC-MS/MS analysis of okadaic acid analogues and other lipophilic toxins in single-cell isolates of several Dinophysis species collected in Hokkaido Japan. Harmful Algae 8: 233-238.
250. Suzuki T, Quilliam MA (2011) LC-MS/MS analysis of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins, okadaic acid and dinophysistoxin analogues, and other lipophilic toxins. Anal. Sci. 27: 571-584.
251. Swinker M, Tester P, Attix DK, Schmechel D (2002) Humman health effects of exposure to Pfiesteria piscicida: A review. Microbes Infection 4: 751-762.
252. Tachibana K, Scheuer PJ, Tsukitani Y, Kikuchi H, Van Engen D, Clardy J, Gopichand Y, Schmitz FJ (1981). Okadaic acid, a cytotoxic polyether from two marine sponges of the genus Halichondria. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 103: 2469-2471.
253. Takada N, Umemura N, Suenaga K, Uemura D (2001) Structural determination of pteriatoxins A, B and C, extremely potent toxins from the bivalve Pteria penguin. Tetrahedron Lett. 42: 3495-3497.
254. Takagi T, Hayashi K, Itabashi Y (1984) Toxic effect of free unsaturated fatty acids in the mouse assay of diarrhetic shellfish toxin by intraperitoneal injection. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 50: 1413-1418.
255. Tang YZ, Gobler CJ (2009) Characterization of the toxicity of Cochlodinium polykrikoides isolates from northeast US estuaries to finfish and shellfish. Harmful Algae 8: 454-462.
256. Tang YZ, Kong L, Holmes MJ (2007) Dinoflagellate Alexandrium leei (Dinophyceae) from Singapore coastal waters produces a water-soluble ichthyotoxin. Mar. Biol. 150: 541-549.
257. Taniyama S, Arakawa O, Terada M, Nishio S, Takatani T, Mahmud Y, Noguchi T (2003) Ostreopsis sp., a possible origin of palytoxin (PTX) in parrotfish Scarus ovifrons. Toxicon 42: 29-33.
258. Taylor FJR (1985) The taxonomy and relationships of red tide dinoflagellate. In: Anderson DM, White AW, Baden DG (eds.) Toxic Dinoflagellates. Elsevier, New York, pp. 11-26.
259. Taylor FJR, Fukuto Y, Larsen J (1995) Taxonomy of harmful dinoflagellates. In: Hallegraeff GM, Anderson DM, Cembella A (eds.) Manual on Harmful Marine Microalgae. IOC Manuals and Guides No. 33, UNESCO, Paris, France, pp. 283-317.
260. Taylor FJR, Hoppenrath M, Saldarriaga JF (2008) Dinoflagellate diversity and distribution. Biodivers. Conserv. 17: 407-418.
261. Ten-Hage L, Delaunay N, Pichon V, Couté A, Puiseux-Dao S, Turquet J (2000a) Okadaic acid production from the marine dinoflagellate Prorocentrum arenarium Faust (Dinophyceae) isolated from the Europa Island coral reef ecosystem. Toxicon 38: 1043-1054.
262. Ten-Hage L, Robillot C, Turquet J, Le Gall F, Le Caer J-P, Bultel V, Guyot M, Mogó J (2002) Effects of toxic extracts and purified borbotoxins from Prorocentrum borbonicum (Dinophyceae) on vertebrate neuromuscular junctions. Toxicon 40: 137-148.
263. Ten-Hage L, Turquet J, Quod J-P, Puiseux-Dao S, Coute A (2000b) Prorocentrum borbonicum sp. nov. (Dinophyceae), a new toxic benthic dinoflagellate from the southwestern Indian Ocean. Phycologia 39: 296-301.
264. Terao K, Ito E, Yanagi T, Yasumoto T (1986) Histopathological studies on experimental marine toxin poisoning. I. Ultrastructural changes in the small intestine and liver of suckling mice induced by dinophysistoxin-1 and pectenotoxin-1. Toxicon 24: 1141-1151.
265. Tillmann U, Elbrächter M, John U, Krock B, Cembella A (2010) Azadinium obesum (Dinophyceae), a new nontoxic species in the genus that can produce azaspiracid toxins. Phycologia 49: 169-182.
266. Tillmann U, Elbrächter M, Krock B, John U, Cembella A. (2009) Azadinium spinosum gen. et sp. nov. (Dinophyceae) identified as a primary producer of azaspiracid toxins. Eur. J. Phycol. 44: 63-79.
267. Tillmann U, Salas R, Gottschling M, Krock B, O’Driscoll D, Elbrächter M (2012) Amphidoma languida sp. nov. (Dinophyceae) reveals a close relationship between Amphidoma and Azadinium. Protist 163: 701-719.
268. Tindall DR, Dickey RW, Carlson RD, Morey-Gaines G (1984) Ciguatoxigenic dinoflagellates from the Caribbean Sea. In: Ragelis EP (ed.) Seafood Toxins. ACS Symposium Series No. 262, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, pp. 225-240.
269. Tindall DR, Miller DM, Bomber JW (1989) Culture and toxicity of dinoflagellates from ciguatera endemic regions of the worlds. Toxicon 27: 83.
270. Tindall DR, Miller DM, Tindall PM (1990) Toxicity of Ostreopsis lenticularis from the British and United States Virgin Islands. In: Granéli E, Sundström L, Edler L, Anderson DM (eds.) Toxic Marine Phytoplankton. Elsevier, New York, pp. 424-429.
271. Tomas CR, van Wagoner R, Tatters AO, White KD, Hall S, Wright JLC (2012) Alexandrium peruvianum (Balech and Mendiola) Balech and Tangen a new toxic species for coastal North Carolina. Harmful Algae 17: 54-63.
272. Torgersen T, Aasen J, Aune T (2005) Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning by okadaic acid esters from brown crabs (Cancer pagurus) in Norway. Toxicon 46: 572-578.
273. Tosteson TR, Ballantine DL, Tosteson CG, Bardales AT, Durst HD, Higerd TB (1986) Comparative toxicity of Gambierdiscus toxicus, Ostreopsis cf. lenticularis, and associated microflora. Mar. Fish. Rev. 48: 57-59.
274. 2+-dependent mechanism. In: Botana LM (ed.) Seafood and Freshwater Toxins, Pharmacology, Physiology and Detection. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 503-616.
275. Tubaro A, Dell’Ovo V, Florio C (2010) Yessotoxins: A toxicological review. Toxicon 56: 163-172.
276. Tubaro A, Sidari L, Della Loggia R, Yasumoto T (1998) Occurrence of homoyessotoxin in phytoplankton and mussels from Northern Adriatic Sea. In: Reguera B, Blanco J, Fernábdez ML, Wyatt T (eds.) Harmful Algae. Xunta de Galacia and International Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, Santiago de Compstela, Spain, pp. 470-472.
277. Tubaro A, Sosa S, Bornancin A, Hungerford J (2008) Pharmacology and toxicology of diarrhetic shellfish toxins. In: Botana LM (ed.) Seafood and Freshwater Toxins Pharmacology, Physiology, and Detection. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 229-253.
278. Tubaro A, Sosa S, Carbonatto M, Altinier G, Vita F, Melato M, Satake M, Yasumoto T (2003) Oral and intraperitoneal acute toxicity studies of yessotoxin and homoyessotoxins in mice. Toxicon 41: 783-792.
279. Twiner MJ, Hess P, Dechraoui MY, McMahon T, Samons MS, Satake M, Yasumoto T, Ramsdell JS, Doucette GJ (2005) Cytotoxic and cytoskeletal effects of azaspiracid-1 on mammalian cell lines. Toxicon 45: 891-900.
280. Uemura D, Chou T, Haino T, Nagatsu A, Fukuzawa S, Zheng SZ, Chen HS (1995) Pinnatoxin A: A toxic amphoteric macrocycle from the Okinawan bivalve Pinna muricata. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117: 1155-1156.
281. Ueoka R, Ito A, Izumikawa M, Maeda S, Takagi M, Shin-ya K, Yoshida M, van Soest RWM, Matsunaga S (2009) Isolation of azaspiracids-2 from a marine sponge Echinoclathria sp. as a potent cytotoxin. Toxicon 53: 680-684.
282. Usami M, Satake M, Ishida S, Inoue A, Kan Y (1995) Palytoxin analogs from the dinoflagellate Ostreopsis siamensis. J. Am Chem. Soc. 117: 5389-5390.
283. Usup G, Ahmad A, Matsuoka K, Lim PT, Leaw CP (2012) Biology, ecology and bloom dynamics of the toxic marine dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense. Harmful Algae 14: 301-312.
284. Usup G, Kulis DM, Anderson DM (1994) Growth and toxin production of the toxic dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum in laboratory cultures. Nat. Toxins 2: 254-262.
285. Vale C (2008) Palytoxins: Pharmacology and biological detection methods. In: Botana LM (ed.) Seafood and Freshwater Toxins, Pharmacology, Physiology, and Detection. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 675-691.
286. Vale P (2010) New saxitoxin analogues in the marine environment: Developments in toxin chemistry, detection and transformation during the 2000s. Phytochem. Rev. 9: 525-535.
287. Vandersea MW, Kibler SR, Holland WC, Tester PA, Schultz TF, Faust MA, Holmes MJ, Chinain M, Litaker RW (2012) Development of semi-quantitative PCR assays for the detection and enumeration of Gambierdiscus species (Gonyaulacales, Dinophyceae). J. Phycol. 48: 902-915.
288. Van Dolah FM, Fire SE, Leighfield TA, Mikulski CM, Doucette GJ (2012) Determination of paralytic shellfish toxins in shellfish receptor binding assay: Collaborative study. J. AOAC 95: 795-812.
289. Van Wagoner RM, Deeds JR, Satake M, Ribeiro AA, Place AR, Wright JLC (2008) Isolation and characterization of karlotoxin 1, a new amphipathic toxin from Karlodinium veneficum. Tetrahedron Lett. 49: 6457-6461.
290. Van Wagoner RM, Deeds JR, Tatters AO, Place AR, Tomas CR, Wright JLC (2010) Structure and relative potency of several karlotoxins from Karlodinium veneficum. J. Nat. Prod. 73: 1360-1365.
291. Van Wagoner RM, Misner I, Tomas CR, Wright JLC (2011) Occurrence of 12 methylgymnodimine in a spirolide producing dinoflagellate Alexandrium peruvianum and the biogenic implications. Tetrahedron Lett. 52: 4243-4246.
292. Vetter I, Touska F, Hess A, Hinsbey R, Sattler S et al. (2012) Ciguatoxins activate specific cold pain pathways to elicit burning pain from cooling. EMBO J. 31: 3795-3808.
293. Vilariño N, Espiña B (2008) Pharmacology of pectenotoxins. In: Botana LM (ed.) Seafood and Freshwater Toxins Pharmacology, Physiology and Detection. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 361-369.
294. Wiese M, D’Agostino PM, Mihali TK, Moffitt MC, Neilan BA (2010) Neurotoxic alkaloids: Saxitoxin and its analogs. Mar. Drugs 8: 2185-2211.
295. Yanagi T, Murata M, Torigoe K, Yasumoto T (1989) Biological activities of semisynthetic analogs of dinophysistoxin-3, the major diarrhetic shellfish toxin. Agric. Biol. Chem. 53: 525-529.
296. Yasumoto T, Bagnis R, Thevenin S, Garcon M (1977a) A survey of comparative toxicity in the food chain of ciguatera. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 43: 1015-1019.
297. Yasumoto T, Bagnis R, Vernoux JP (1976) Toxicity of the surgeonfishes-II. Properties of the principal water soluble toxin. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 42: 359-365.
298. Yasumoto T, Murata M, Oshima Y, Sano M, Matsumoto GK, Clardy J (1985) Diarrhetic shellfish toxins. Tetrahedron 41: 1019-1025.
299. Yasumoto T, Nakajima I, Bagnis R, Adachi R (1977b) Finding of a dinoflagellate as a likely culprit for ciguatera. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 43: 1021-1026.
300. Yasumoto T, Oshima Y, Sugawara W, Fukuyo Y, Oguri H, Igarashi T, Fujita N (1980) Identification of Dinophysis fortii as the causative organism of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 46: 1405-1411.
301. Yasumoto T, Oshima Y, Yamaguchi M (1978) Occurrence of a new type of shellfish poisoning in the Tohoku district. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 44: 1249-1255.
302. Yogi K, Oshiro N, Inafuku Y, Hirama M, Yasumoto T (2011) Detailed LC-MS/MS analysis of ciguatoxins revealing distinct regional and species characteristics in fish and causative alga from the Pacific. Anal. Chem. 83: 8886-8891.
303. Zhou J, Fritz L (1993) Ultrastructure of two toxic marine dinoflagellates, Prorocentrum lima and Prorocentrum maculosum. Phycologia 32: 444-450.