Non-traditional vectors for paralytic shellfish poisoning

Marine Drugs

Volumn 6, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 308-348

  Deeds, Jonathan R ^a   Landsberg, Jan H ^b   Etheridge, Stacey M ^a   Pitcher, Grant C ^c   Longan, Sara Watt ^d  

^a CENTER FOR DRUG EVALUATION AND RESEARCH   (United States)

^b FISH AND WILDLIFE RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

^c MARINE AND COASTAL MANAGEMENT   (South Africa)

^d Alaska Department Environmental Conservation   (United States)

Author keywords

Crustaceans; Gastropods; Non traditional vectors; Paralytic shellfish poisoning; PSP; Public health; Puffer fish; Saxitoxin puffer fish poisoning; Saxitoxins; SPFP; STXs

Indexed keywords

CARBAMATE TOXIN; FRESH WATER; GONYAUTOXIN; NEOSAXITOXIN; SAXITOXIN;

ABALONE; CRAB; CRUSTACEA; CYANOBACTERIUM; DINOFLAGELLATE; FISH; GASTROPOD; HUMAN; LD 50; MACROALGA; NONHUMAN; PARALYTIC SHELLFISH POISONING; PUFFER FISH; REVIEW; SHELLFISH; SHELLFISH POISONING; SNAIL;

CRUSTACEA; CYANOBACTERIA; DINOPHYCEAE; GASTROPODA; TETRAODONTIDAE;

EID: 46349101163     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16603397     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/md6020308     Document Type: Review

References (218)

1. Oshima, Y. Chemical and enzymatic transformation of paralytic shellfish toxins in marine organisms. In Harmful Marine Algal Blooms; Lassus, P., Arzul, G., Erard-Le-Denn, E., Gentien, P., Marcaillou-Le-Baut, C., Eds.; Technique et Documentation, Lavoisier: Paris, 1995; pp. 475-480.
2. Cembella, A. D.; Shumway, S. E.; Lewis, N.I. Anatomical distribution and spatio-temporal variation in paralytic shellfish toxin composition in two bivalve species from the Gulf of Maine. J. Shellfish Res. 1993, 12, 389-403.
3. Onodera, H. Y.; Oshima, Y.; Watanabe, M. F.; Watanabe, M.; Bolch, C. J.; Blackburn, S.; Yasumoto, T. Screening of paralytic shellfish toxins in freshwater cyanobacteria and chemical confirmation of the toxins in cultured Anabaena circinalis from Australia. In Harmful and Toxin Algal Blooms; Yasumoto, T., Oshima, Y., Fukuyo, Y., Eds.; Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO: Paris, 1996; pp. 563-566.
4. Sullivan, J. J. Methods of analysis for algal toxins: dinoflagellate and diatom toxins. In Algal Toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water; Falconer, I. R., Ed.; Academic Press: London, 1993; pp. 29-48.
5. Onoue, Y.; Nozawa, K. Zinc-bound PSP toxins separated from Cochlodinium red tides. In Mycotoxins and Phycotoxins '88; Natori, S., Hashimoto, K., Ueno, Y., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, 1989; pp. 359-366.
6. Reyes-Vasquez, G.; Ferraz-Reyes, E.; Vasquez, E. Toxic dinoflagellate blooms in northeastern Venezuela during 1977. In Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms; Taylor, D. L., Seliger, H. H., Eds.; Elsevier: New York, 1979; pp. 191-194.
7. Prakash, A.; Taylor, F. J. R. A red water bloom of Gonyaulax acatenella in the Straight of Georgia and its relation to paralytic shellfish toxicity. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 1966, 23, 1625-1270.
8. Schmidt, R. J.; Loeblich III, A. R. Distribution of paralytic shellfish poisoning among Pyrrhophyta. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 1979, 59, 479-487.
9. Cembella, A. D.; Sullivan, J. J.; Boyer, G. L.; Taylor, F. J. R.; Anderson, R. J. Variation in paralytic shellfish toxin composition within the Protogonyaulax tamarensis/catenella species complex; red tide dinoflagellates. Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 1987, 15, 171-186.
10. Ciminiello, P. E.; Fatturoso, E.; Fornio, M.; Montresor, M. A new PSP-like toxin in Alexandrium andersoni (Dinophyceae). Harmful Algae News 1999, 18, 1-3.
11. Ciminiello, P. E.; Fatturoso, E.; Fornio, M.; Montresor, M. Saxitoxin and neosaxitoxin as toxic principles of Alexandrium andersoni (Dinophyceae) from the Gulf of Naples, Italy. Toxicon 2000, 38, 1871-1877.
12. Taylor, F. J. R.; Fukuyo, Y.; Larsen, J. Taxonomy of harmful dinoflagellates. In Manual on Harmful Marine Microalgae; Hallegraeff, G. M., Anderson, D. M., Cembella, A. D., Eds.; UNESCO: Paris, 1995; pp. 283-317.
13. Schantz, E. J.; Lynch, J. M.; Vayvada, G.; Matsumoto, K.; Rapoport, H. The purification and characterization of the poison produced by Gonaulax catenella in axenic culture. Biochemistry 1966, 5, 1191-1195.
14. Proctor, N. H.; Chan, S. L.; Trevor, A. J. Production of saxitoxin by cultures of Gonyaulax catenella. Toxicon 1975, 13, 1-9.
15. Onone, Y.; Noguchi, T.; Hashimoto, K. Studies on paralytic shellfish poison from the oyster cultured in Senzaki Bay, Yamaguchi Prefecture. Nippon Suis. Gakk. 1980, 46, 1031-1034.
16. Onone, Y.; Noguchi, T.; Maruyama, J.; Hashimoto, K.; Ikeda, T. New toxins separated from oysters and Protogonyaulax catenella from Senzaki Bay, Yamaguchi Prefecture. Nippon Suis. Gakk. 1981, 47, 1643.
17. Onone, Y.; Noguchi, T.; Maruyama, J.; Uneda, Y.; Hashimoto, K.; Ikeda, T. Comparison of PSP compositions between toxic oysters and Protogonyaulax catenella from Senzaki Bat, Yamaguchi Prefecture. Nippon Suis. Gakk. 1981, 47, 1347-1350.
18. Boyer, G. L.; Sullivan, J. J.; Anderson, R. J.; Harrison, P. J.; Taylor, F. R. J. Toxin production in three isolates of Protogonyaulax sp. In Toxic Dinoflagellates; Anderson, D. M., White, A. W., Baden, D. G., Eds.; Elsevier: New York, 1985; pp. 281-286.
19. Ogata, T.; Kodama, M. Ichthyotoxicity found in cultured media of Protogonyaulax spp. Mar. Biol. 1986, 92, 31-34.
20. Hallegraeff, G. M.; Bolch, C. J.; Blackburn, S. I.; Oshima, Y. Species of the toxigenic dinoflagellate genus Alexandrium in southeastern Australian waters. Bot. Mar. 1991, 34, 575-587.
21. Kim, C. -H.; Sako, Y.; Ishida, Y. Comparison of toxin composition between populations of Alexandrium spp. from geographically distinct areas. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi. 1993, 59, 641-646.
22. Kodama, M.; Ogata, T.; Fukuyo, Y.; Ishimaru, T.; Pholpunthin, P.; Wisessang, S.; Saitanu, K.; Panickyakarn, V.; Piyankarnchana, T. Protogonyaulax cohorticula, a toxic dinoflagellate found in the Gulf of Thailand. Toxicon 1988, 26, 709-712.
23. Fukuyo, Y.; Yoshida, K.; Ogata, T.; Ishimaru, T.; Kodama, M.; Pholpunthin, P.; Wisessang, S.; Phanichyakarn, V.; Piyakarnchana, T. Suspected causative dinoflagellates of paralytic shellfish poisoning in the Gulf of Thailand. In Red Tides, Biology, Environmental Science, and Toxicology; Okaichi, T., Anderson, D. M., Nemoto, T., Eds.; Elsevier: New York, 1989; pp. 403-406.
24. White, A.W.; Maranda, L. Paralytic shellfish toxins in the dinoflagellate Gonyaulax excavate and in shellfish. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 1978, 35, 397-402.
25. Anderson, D. M.; Kulis, D. M.; Sullivan, J. J.; Hall, S. Toxin composition in one isolate of the dinoflagellate Alexandrium fundyense. Toxicon 1990, 28, 885-893.
26. Hallegreaff, G. M.; Steffensen, D. A.; Wetherbee, R. Three estuarine Australian dinoflagellates that can produce paralytic shellfish toxins. J. Plankton. Res. 1988, 10, 533-541.
27. Oshima, Y.; Hirota, M.; Yasumoto, T; Hallegraeff, G. M.; Blackburn, S. I; Steffensen, D. A. Production of paralytic shellfish toxins by the dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum Halim from Australia. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. 1989, 55, 925.
28. Franco, J. M.; Fernandez, P.; Reguera, B. Toxin profiles of natural populations and cultures of Alexandrium minutum Halim and Galician (Spain) coastal waters. J. Appl. Phycol. 1994, 6, 275-279.
29. Mascarenhas, I.; Alvito, P.; Franca, S.; Sousa, I.; Martinez, A. G.; Rodriguez Vasquez, J. A. The dinoflagellate Alexandrium lusitanicum isolated from the coast of Portugal: observations on toxicity and ultrastructure during growth phases. In Harmful Marine Algal Blooms; Lassus, P., Arzul, G., Erard-Le-Dean, E., Gentein, P., Marcaillou- Le-Baut, C., Eds.; Lavoisier: Paris 1995; pp. 71-76.
30. Lush, G. J.; Halegraeff, G. M. High toxicity of the red tide dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum to the brine shrimp Artemia salina. In Harmful and Toxic Algal Blooms; Yasumoto, T., Oshima, Y., Fukuyo, Y., Eds.; International Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO: Paris, 1996; pp. 389-392.
31. Hansen, P. J.; Cembella, A. D.; Moestrup, Ø. The marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium ostenfeldii: paralytic shellfish toxin concentration, composition, and toxicity to a tintinnid ciliate. J. Phycol. 1992, 28, 597-603.
32. Mackenzie, L.; White, D.; Oshima, Y.; Kapa, J. The resting cyst and toxicity of Alexandrium ostenfeldii. Phycologia 1996, 35, 1348-155.
33. Cembella, A. D.; Quilliam, M. A.; Lewis, N. I.; Bauder, A. G.; Wright, J. L. C. Identifying the planktonic origin and distribution of spirolodes in coastal Nova Scotian waters. In Harmful Algae; Reguera, B., Blanco, J., Fernández, M. I., Wyatt, T., Eds.; Xunta de Galicia and IOC: Galicia and Paris, 1998; pp. 481-484.
34. Cembella, A. D.; Lewis, N. I.; Quilliam, M. A. The marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium ostenfeldii (Dinophyceae) as the causative organism of spirolide shellfish toxins. Phycologia 2000, 39, 67-74.
35. Prakash, A. Growth and toxicity of a marine dinoflagellate, Gonyaulax tamarensis. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 1967, 24, 1589-1606.
36. Oshima, Y.; Yasumoto, T. Analysis of toxins in cultured Gonyaulax excavata. In Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms; Taylor, D. L., Seliger, Eds.; Elsevier: New York, 1979; pp. 377-380.
37. Schantz, E. J. Historical perspective on paralytical shellfish poisoning In Seafood Toxins; Ragelis, E. P., Ed.; American Chemical Society Symposium Series: Washington D.C., 1984; pp. 99-111.
38. Ogata, T.; Kodama, M.; Ishimaru, T. Toxin production in the dinoflagellate Protogonyaulax tamarensis. Toxicon, 1987, 25, 923-928.
39. Cembella, A. D.; Therriault, J.-C.; Beland, P. Toxicity of cultured isolates and natural populations of Protogonyaulax tamarensis from the St. Lawrence Estuary. J. Shellfish Res. 1988, 7, 611-621.
40. Lee, J. S.; Jeon, J.-K.; Han, M.-S.; Oshima, Y.; Yasumoto, T. Paralytic shellfish toxins in the mussel Mytilus edulis and dinoflagellate Alexandrium tamarense from Jinhae Bay, Korea. Bull. Korean Fish. Soc., 1992, 25, 144-150.
41. Oshima, Y.; Sugino, K.; Itakura, H.; Hirota, M; Yasumoto, T. Comparative studies on paralytic shellfish toxin profile of dinoflagellates and bivalves. In Toxic Marine Phytoplankton; Graneli, E., Sundstroem, B., Edler, L., Anderson, D.M., Eds.; Elsevier Press: New York, 1990; pp. 391-396.
42. Wisessang, S.; Ogata, T.; Kodama, M.; Fukuyo, Y.; Ishimaru, T.; Saitanu, K.; Yongvanich, T.; Piyakarnchana. Accumulation of paralytic shellfish toxins by green mussel Perna viridis by feeding on cultured cells of Alexandrium cohorticula isolated from the Gulf of Thailand. Nippon Suis. Gakk. 1991, 57,127-131.
43. Oshima, Y.; Yasumoto, T.; Hallegraeff, G.; Blackburn, S. Paralytic shellfish toxins and causative organisms in the tropical Pacific and Tasmanian waters. In Progress in Venom and Toxin Research; Gopalakrishnakone, P., Tans, C. K., Eds; National University of Singapore: Singapore, 1987; pp. 423-428.
44. Oshima, Y.; Blackburn, S. I.; Hallegraeff, G.M. Comparative study on paralytic shellfish toxin profiles of the dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum from three different countries. Mar. Biol. 1993, 116, 471-476.
45. Oshima, Y.; Itakura, H.; Lee, K.-C.; Yasumoto, T.; Blackburn, S.; Hallegraeff, G. Toxin production by the dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum. In Toxic Phytoplankton Blooms in the Sea; Smadya, T. J., Shimizu, Y., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, 1993; pp. 907-912.
46. Anderson, D. M.; Sullivan, J. J.; Reguera, B. Paralytic shellfish poisoning in north-west Spain: the toxicity of the dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catanatum. Toxicon 1989, 27, 665-674.
47. Maclean, J. L. Red tide and paralytic shellfish poisoning in Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea Agric. J. 1973, 24, 131-138.
48. Maclean, J. L. Indo-Pacific red tides. In Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms; Taylor, D. L., Seliger, S. S., Eds.; Elsevier: New York, 1979; pp. 173-178.
49. Steidinger, K.A.; Tester, L.S.; Taylor, F.J.R. A redescription of Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressa (Böhm) stat. nov. from Pacific red tides. Phycologia 1980, 19, 329-334.
50. Harada, T.; Oshima, Y.; Kamiya, H.; Yasumoto, T. Confirmation of paralytic shellfish toxins in the dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressa and bivalves in Palau. Nippon Suis. Gakk. 1982, 48, 821-825.
51. Harada, T.; Oshima, Y.; Yasumoto, T. Structures of two paralytic shellfish toxins, gonyautoxins V and VI, isolated from a tropical dinoflagellate, Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressa, Agric. Biol. Chem. 1983, 46, 1861-1864.
52. Oshima, Y.; Kotaki, Y.; Harada, T.; Yasumoto, T. Paralytic shellfish toxins in tropical waters. In Seafood Toxins; Ragelis, E. P., Eds.; American Chemical Society Symposium Series: Washington D.C., 1984; pp. 161-170.
53. Rosales-Loessener, F.; de Porras, E.; Dix, M. W. Toxic shellfish poisoning in Guatemala. In Red Tides, Biology, Environmental Science and Toxicology; Okaichi, T., Anderson, D. M., Nemoto, T., Eds.; Elsevier: New York, 1989; pp. 113-116.
54. Usup, G.; Kulis, D. M.; Anderson, D. M. Growth and toxin production of the toxic dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum in laboratory cultures. Nat. Toxins 1994, 2, 35-43.
55. Usup, G.; Kulis, D. M.; Anderson, D. M. Toxin production in a Malaysian isolate of the toxic dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum. In Harmful Marine Algal Blooms; Lassus, P., Arzul, G., Erard-Le-Denn, E., Gentein, P., Marciallou-Le-Baut, C., Eds.; Lavoisier: Paris, 1995; pp. 519-524.
56. Orellana-Capeda, E.; Martinez-Romero, E.; Munoz-Cabrera, L.; Lopez-Ramirez, P.; Cabrera-Mancilla, E.; Ramirez-Camarena, C. 1998. Toxicity associated with blooms of Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum in southwestern Mexico. In Harmful Algae; Reguera, B., Blanco, J., Fernandez, M. L., Wyatt, T., Eds.; Xunta de Galicia and IOC: Galicia and Paris, 1988; p. 60.
57. Badylak, S.; Kelley, K.; Phlips, E. J. A description of Pyrodinium bahamense (Dinophyceae) from the Indian River Lagoon, Florida, USA. Phycologia 2004, 43, 653-657.
58. Landsberg, J. H.; Hall, S.; Johannessen, J. N.; White, K. D.; Conrad, S. M.; Abbott, J. P.; Flewelling, L. J.; Richardson, R. W.; Dickey, R. W.; Jester, E. L. E.; Etheridge, S. M.; Deeds, J. R.; Van Dolah, F. M.; Leighfield, T. A.; Zou, Y.; Beaudry, C. G.; Benner, R. A.; Rogers, P. L.; Scott, P. S.; Kawabata, K.; Wolny, J. L.; Steidinger, K. A. Saxitoxin puffer fish poisoning in the United States, with the first report of Pyrodinium bahamense as the putative toxin source. Environ. Health Perspect. 2006, 114, 1502-1507.
59. May, V.; McBarron, E. J. Occurrence of the blue-green alga, Anabaena circinalis Rabenh, in New South Wales and toxicity to mice and honey bees. J. Aust. Inst. Agric. Sci. 1973, 39, 264-266.
60. McBarron, E. J.; Walker, R. I.; Gardner, I.; Walker, K. H. Toxicity of livestock to the blue-green alga Anabaena circinalis. Aust. Vet. J. 1975, 51, 587-588.
61. Sivonen, K.; Himberg, K.; Luukkainen, R.; Niemela, S. I.; Poon, G. K.; Codd, G. A. Preliminary characterization of neurotoxic cyanobacterial blooms and strains from Finland. Tox. Assess. Int. J. 1989, 4, 339-352.
62. Kiviranta, J.; Sivonen, K.; Niemala, S. I.; Huovinen, K. Detection of toxicity of cyanobacteria by Artenia salina bioassay. Environ. Toxicol. Water Qual. 1991, 6, 423-436.
63. Humpage, A. R.; Rositano, J.; Breitag, A. H.; Brown, R.; Baler, P. D.; Nicholson, B. C.; Steffensen, D. A. Paralytic shellfish poisons from Australian cyanobacterial blooms. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwat. Res. 1994, 45, 476-471.
64. Negri, A. P.; Jones, G. J. Bioaccumulation of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins from the cyanobacterium Anabaena circinalis by the freshwater mussel Alathyria condola. Toxicon 1995, 33, 667-668.
65. Negri, A. P.; Jones, G. J.; Blackburn, S Paralytic shellfish toxins in Australian strains of the freshwater cyanobacteria Anabaena circinalis. In Harmful Algae; Reguera, B., Blanco, J., Fernandez, M. L., Wyatt, T., Eds.; Xunta de Galicia and IOC: Galicia and Paris, 1998; pp. 345-348.
66. Negri, A. P.; Jones, G. J.; Hindmarch, M. Sheep mortality associated with paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins from the cyanobacterial Anabaena circinalis. Toxicon 1995, 33, 1321-1329.
67. Rapala, J.; Robertson , A.; Negri , A.P.; Berg, K.A.; Tuomi, P.; Lyra, C.; Erkomaa, K.; Lahti, K.; Hoppu, K.; Lepistö, L. First report of saxitoxin in Finnish lakes and possible associated effects on human health. Environ. Toxicol. 2005, 20, 331-340.
68. Pereira, P.; Li, R. H.; Carmichael, W. W.; Dias, E.; Franca, S. Taxonomy and production of paralytic shellfish toxins by the freshwater cyanobacterium Aphanizomenon gracile LMECYA40. Eur. J. Phycol. 2004, 39, 361-368.
69. Jackim, E.; and Gentile, J. Toxins of a blue-green alga: similarity to saxitoxin. Science 1968, 162, 915-916.
70. Sawyer, P. J.; Gentile, J. H.; Sasner Jr., J. J. Demonstration of a toxin from Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (L.). Ralfs. Can. J. Microbiol. 1968, 14, 1199-1204.
71. Gentile, J. H.; Maloney, T. E. Toxicity and environmental requirements of a strain of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (L.) Ralfs. Can J. Microbiol. 1969, 15, 165-173.
72. Alam, M.; Shimidzu, Y.; Iwaka, M.; Sasner, J. J. Reinvestigation of the toxins from the bluegreen algae, Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, by a high performance chromatographic method. J. Environ. Sci. Hlth. A 1978, 13, 493-499.
73. Ikawa, M.; Wegener, K.; Foxall, T. L.; Sasner Jr., J. J. 1982. Comparison of the toxins of the blue-green alga Aphanizomenon flos-aquae with the Gonyaulax toxins. Toxicon 1982, 20, 747-752.
74. Ikawa, M.; Auger, K.; Mosley, S.; Sasner, J.; Noguchi, T.; Hashimoto, K. Toxin profiles of the blue-green alga Aphanizomenon flos-aquae: In Toxic Dinoflagellates; Anderson, D. M., White, A. W., Baden, D. G., Eds.; Elsevier: New York, 1985; pp. 299-304.
75. Mahmood, N. A.; Carmichael, W.W. Paralytic shellfish poisons produced by the freshwater cyanobacterium Aphanizomenon flos-aquae NH-5. Toxicon 1986, 24, 175-186.
76. Pereira, P.; Onodera, H.; Andrinolo, D.; Franca, S.; Araújo, F.; Lagos, N.; and Oshima, Y. Paralytic shellfish toxins in the freshwater cyanobacterium Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, isolated from Montargil Reservoir, Portugal. Toxicon 2000, 38, 1689-1702.
77. Li, R. H.; Carmichael, W. W.; Pereira, P. Morphological and 16S rRNA gene evidence for reclassification of the paralytic shellfish toxin producing Aphanizomenon flos-aquae LMECYA 31 as Aphanizomenon issatschenkoi (Cyanophyceae). J. Phycol. 2003, 39, 814-818.
78. Lagos, N.; Onodera, H.; Zagatto, P.A.; Azevedo, S.M.; Oshima, Y. The first evidence of paralytic shellfish toxins in the freshwater cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, isolated from Brazil. Toxicon 1999, 37, 1359-1373.
79. Molica, R.; Onodera, H.; Garcia, C.; Rivas, M.; Andrinolo, D.; Nascimento, S.; Meguro, H.; Oshima, Y.; Azevedo, S.; Lagos, N. Toxins in the freshwater cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Cyanophyceae) isolated from Tabocas reservoir in Caruaru, Brazil, including demonstration of a new saxitoxin analogue. Phycologia 2002, 41, 606-611.
80. Carmichael, W. W.; Evans, W. R.; Yin, Q. Q.; Bell, P.; Moczydlowski, E. Evidence for paralytic shellfish poisons in the freshwater cyanobacterium Lyngbya wollei (Farlow ex Gomont) comb. Nov. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1997, 63, 3104-3110.
81. Onodera, H.; Satake, M.; Oshima, Y.; Yasumoto, T.; Carmichael, W. W. New saxitoxin analogues from the freshwater filamentous cyanobacterium Lyngbya wollei. Nat. Tox. 1997, 5, 146-151.
82. Pomati, F.; Sacchi, S.; Rossetti, C.; Giovannardi, S.; Onodera, H.; Oshima, Y.; Neilan, B.A. The freshwater cyanobacterium Planktothrix sp. FP1: molecular identification and detection of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins. J. Phycol. 2000, 36, 553-562.
83. Bravo, I.; Cacho, E.; Franco, J. M.; Miguez, A.; Reyero, M .I.; Martinez, A. Study of PSP toxicity in Haliotis tuberculata from the Galician coast. In Harmful and Toxic Algal Blooms; Yasumoto, T., Oshima, Y., Fukuyo, Y., Eds.; Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO: Paris, 1996; pp. 421-424.
84. Shumway, S. E. A review of the effects of algal blooms on shellfish and aquaculture. J. World Aquacult. Soc. 1990, 21, 65-104.
85. Shumway, S. E. Phycotoxin-related shellfish poisoning: bivalve molluscs are not the only vectors. Rev. Fish. Sci. 1995, 3, 1-31.
86. Pereira, P.; Dias, E.; Franca, S.; Pereira, E.; Carolino, M.; Vasconcelos, V. Accumulation and depuration of cyanobacterial paralytic shellfish toxins by the freshwater mussel Anodonata cygnea. Aquatic Toxicol. 2004, 68, 339-350.
87. Anderson, D. M. Toxin variability in Alexandrium species. In Toxic marine phytoplankton. Graneli, E., Sundstroem, B., Edler, L., Anderson, D. M., Eds.; Elsevier Press: New York, 1990; pp. 41-51.
88. Anderson, D. M.; Kulis, D. M.; Doucette, G. J.; Gallagher, J.C.; Balech, E. Biogeography of toxic dinoflagellates in the genus Alexandrium from the northeastern United States and Canada. Mar. Biol. 1994, 120, 467-478.
89. Landsberg, J. H. Neoplasia and biotoxins in bivalves: is there a connection? J. Shellfish. Res. 1996, 15, 205-233.
90. . Landsberg, J. H. The effects of harmful algal blooms on aquatic organisms. Rev. Fish. Sci. 2002, 10, 113-390.
91. Sakamoto, S.; Ogata, T.; Sato, S.; Kodama, M.; Takeuchi, T. Causative organism of paralytic shellfish toxins other than toxic dinoflagellates. Mar. Ecol .Prog. Ser. 1992, 89, 229-235.
92. Doucette, G. J.; Kodama, M.; Franca, S.; Gallacher, S. Bacterial interactions with harmful algal bloom species: bloom ecology, toxigenesis, and cytology. In Physiological Ecology of Harmful Algal Blooms; Anderson, D. M., Cembella, A. D., Hallegraeff, G. M., Eds.; Springer-Verlag: Heidelberg, 1998; pp. 619-647.
93. Kodama, M.; Ogata, T.; Sakamoto, S.; Sato, S.; Honda, T.; Miwatani, T. Production of paralytic shellfish toxins by a bacterium Moraxella sp. isolated from Protogonyaulax tamarensis. Toxicon 1990, 28, 707-714.
94. Kodama, M.; Ogata, T.; Sato, S.; Sakamoto, S. Possible association of marine bacteria with paralytic shellfish toxicity in bivalves. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser, 1990, 61, 203-206.
95. Kodama, M.; Doucette, G. J.; Green, D. H. Relationships between bacteria and harmful algae In Ecology of Harmful Algae; Springer-Verlag: Berlin, 2006; pp. 243-255.
96. Ogata, T.; Pholpunthin, P.; Kukuyo, Y.; Kodama, M. Occurrence of Alexandrium cohorticula in Japanese coastal water. J. Appl. Phycol. 1990, 2, 351-356.
97. Silva, E. S. Intracellular bacteria: the origin of dinoflagellate toxicity. J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. Oncol. 1990, 10, 124-128.
98. Catterall, W.A. The voltage-sensitive sodium channel: a receptor for multiple toxins. In Toxic Dinoflagellates; Anderson, D. M., White, A.W., Baden, D.G., Eds.; Elsevier: New York, 1985; pp 329-342.
99. Kao, C. Y. Paralytic shellfish poisoning. In Algal Toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water; Falconer, I. R., Ed.; Academic Press: London, 1993; pp 75-86.
100. Adnan, Q. Distribution of dinoflagellates at Jakarta Bay, Taman Jaya, Banten, and Benoa Bay, Bali: A report of an incident of fish poisoning at eastern Nusa Tenggara. In Consult. Meet. on Toxic Red Tides and Shellfish Toxicity in Southeast Asia; White, A.W., Anraku, M., Hooi, K-K., Eds.; Singapore, 11-14 September, 1984; pp. 25-27.
101. Shumway, S. E.; Barter, J.; Sherman-Caswell, S. Auditing the impact of toxic algal blooms on oysters. Environ. Audit. 1990, 2, 41-56.
102. Shumway, S. E.; Cembella, A. D. The impact of toxic algae on scallop culture and fisheries. Rev. Fish. Sci. 1993, 1, 121-150.
103. Bricelj, V. M.; Shumway, S. E. An overview of the occurrence and transfer kinetics of paralytic shellfish toxins in bivalve molluscs. In Harmful and Toxic Algal Blooms. Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Toxic Phytoplankton, Sendai, Japan, 12-16 July, 1995; Yasumoto, T., Oshima, Y., Fukuyo, Y., Eds.; IOC of UNESCO: Paris, 1998; pp. 431-436.
104. Bricelj, V. M.; Shumway, S. E. Paralytic shellfish toxins in bivalve molluscs: occurrence, transfer kinetics, and biotransformation. Rev. Fish. Sci. 1998, 6, 315-383.
105. Schantz, E. J.; Mold, J. D.; Stanger, D. W.; Shavel, J.; Riel, J.; Bowden, J. P.; Lynch, R. S.; Whyler, B.; Reigel, B.; Sommer, H. Paralytic shellfish poison. VI. A procedure for the isolation and purification of the poison from toxic clams and mussel tissues. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1957, 78, 5230-5235.
106. Schantz, E. J. Biochemical studies of paralytic shellfish poisons. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1960, 89, 843-855.
107. Twarog, B. M.; Yamaguchi, H. Resistance to paralytic shellfish toxins in bivalve molluscs. In Proc. First Int. Conf. Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms; LoCicero, V. R., Ed.; Massachusetts Science and Technology Foundation: Wakefield, MA. 1975; pp. 381-393.
108. Hartwell, A. D. Hydrographic factors affecting the distribution and movement of toxic dinoflagellates in the western Gulf of Maine. In Proc. First Int. Conf. Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms; LoCicero V. R., Ed.; Massachusetts Science and Technology Foundation: Wakefield, MA, 1975; pp. 47-68.
109. Shumway, S. E.; Sherman, S. A.; Cembella A. D.; Selvin, R. Accumulation of paralytic shellfish toxins by surfclams, Spisula solidissima (Dillwyn, 1897) in the Gulf of Maine: seasonal changes, distribution between tissues, and notes on feeding habits. Nat. Toxins 1994, 2, 236-251.
110. Bricelj, V. M.; Cembella, A.D. Fate of gonyautoxins in surfclams, Spisula solidissima, grazing upon toxigenic Alexandrium. In Harmful Marine Algal Blooms; Lassus, P., Arzul, G., Erard-Le-Denn, E., Gentien, P., Marcaillou-Le-Baut, C., Eds.; Technique et Documentation, Lavoisier: Paris, 1995; pp. 413-418.
111. Cembella, A. D.; Shumway, S.E. Anatomical and spatio-temporal variation in PSP toxin composition in natural populations of the surf clam Spisula solidissima in the Gulf of Maine. In Harmful Marine Algal Blooms. Lassus, P., Arzul, G., Erard-Le-Denn, E., Gentien, P., Marcaillou-Le-Baut, C., Eds.; Technique et Documentation, Lavoisier: Paris, 1995; pp. 421-426.
112. Lassus, P.; Wildish, D. J.; Bardouil, M.; Martin, J. L.; Bohec, M.; Bougrier, S. Ecophysiological study of toxic Alexandrium spp. effects on the oyster Crassostrea gigas. In Harmful and Toxic Algal Blooms. Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Toxic Phytoplankton, Sendai, Japan, 12-16 July, 1995; Yasumoto, T., Oshima, Y., Fukuyo, Y., Eds.; IOC of UNESCO: Paris, 1996; pp. 409-412.
113. Curtis, K. M.; Trainer, V.L.; Shumway, S.E. Paralytic shellfish toxins in geoduck clams (Panope abrupta): variability, anatomical distribution, and comparison of two toxin detection methods. J. Shellfish Res. 2000, 19, 313-319.
114. Smith, E. A.; Grant, F.; Ferguson, C. M.; Gallacher, S. Biotransformations of paralytic shellfish toxins by bacteria isolated from bivalve mollusks. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2001, 67, 2345-2353.
115. Li, A. M.Y.; Yu, P. K.N.; Hsieh, D.P.H.; Wang, W.-X.; Wu, R. S. S.; Lam, P. K. S. Uptake and depuration of paralytic shellfish toxins in the greenlipped mussel, Perna viridis: a dynamic model. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2005, 24, 129-135.
116. Twarog, B.; Hidaka, T.; Yamaguchi, H. Resistance to tetrodotoxin and saxitoxin in nerves of bivalve mollusks. Toxicon 1972, 10, 273-278.
117. Bricelj, V. M.; Cembella, A.D.; Laby, D.; Shumway, S.E.; Cucci, C.L. Comparative physiological and behavioral responses to PSP toxins in two bivalve molluscs, the softshell clam, Mya arenaria, and surfclam, Spisula solidissima. In Harmful and Toxic Algal Blooms. Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Toxic Phytoplankton, Sendai, Japan, 12-16 July, 1995; Yasumoto, T., Oshima, Y., Fukuyo, Y., Eds.; IOC of UNESCO: Paris, 1996; pp. 405-404.
118. Bricelj, V. M.; Greene, M.; Cembella, A. D. Growth of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis on toxic Alexandrium fundyense and effects of gut passage on dinoflagellate cells. In Toxic Phytoplankton Blooms in the Sea; Smayda, T. J., Shimuzu, Y., Eds.; Elsevier Press: Amsterdam, 1993; pp. 371-376
119. Bricelj, V. M.; Connell, L.; Konoki, K.; Macquarrie, S. P.; Scheuer, T.; Catterall, W. A.; Trainer, V. L. Sodium channel mutation leading to saxitoxin resistance in clams increases risk of PSP. Nature 2005, 434(7034), 763-767.
120. Beitler, M. K.; Liston, J. Uptake and distribution of PSP toxins in butter clams. In Toxic Marine Phytoplankton; Graneli, E., Sundstrom, B., Edler, L., Anderson, D. M., Eds.; Elsevier Press: New York, 1990; pp. 257-262.
121. Martin, J. L.; White, A. W.; Sullivan, J. J. Anatomical distribution of paralytic shellfish toxins in softshell clams. In Toxic Marine Phytoplankton; Graneli, E., Sundstroem, B., Edler, L., Anderson, D. M., Eds.; Elsevier Press: New York, 1990; pp. 379-384.
122. Cembella, A. D.; Shumway, S.E.; Larocque, R. Sequestering and putative biotransformation of paralytic shellfish toxins by the sea scallop Placopecten magellanicus: Seasonal and spatial scales in natural populations. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 1994, 180, 1-22.
123. Jamieson, G. S.; Chandler, R. A. Paralytic shellfish poison in sea scallops (Placopecten magellanicus) in the west Atlantic. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1983, 40, 313-318.
124. Sullivan, J. J.; Iwaoka, W.T.; Liston, J. Enzymatic transformation of PSP toxins in the littleneck clam (Protothaca staminaea). Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1983, 114, 465-472.
125. Robertson, A.; Stirling, D.; Robillot, C.; Llewellyn, L.; Negri, A. First report of saxitoxin in octopi. Toxicon 2004, 44, 765-771.
126. Daigo, K.; Noguchi, T.; Miwa, A.; Kawai, N.; Hashimoto, K. Resistance of nerves from certain toxic crabs to paralytic shellfish poison and tetrodotoxin. Toxicon 1988, 26, 485-490.
127. Nagashima, Y.; Ohgoe, H.; Yamamoto, K.; Shimakura, K.; Shomi, K. Resistance of non-toxic crabs to paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins. In Harmful Algae; Reguera, B., Blanco, J., Fernandez, M. L., Wyatt, T., Eds.; Xunta de Galicia and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO: Grafisant, Santiago de Compostela, Spain, 1998; pp. 604-606.
128. Choi, M.-C.; Yu, P.K.N.; Hsieh, D.P.H., Lam, P.K.S. Trophic transfer of paralytic shellfish toxins from clams (Ruditapes philippinarum) to gastropods (Nassarius festivus). Chemosphere, 2006, 64, 1642-1649.
129. Quayle, D. B. Paralytic shellfish poisoning in eastern Canada. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 168. Fisheries Research Board of Canada: Ottawa, Canada. 1971.
130. Tufts, N. R. Molluscan transvectors of paralytic shellfish poisoning In Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms; Taylor, D. L., Seliger, H.H., Eds.; Elsevier: New York, 1979; pp. 403-408.
131. Prakash, A.; Medcof, J. C.; Tennant, A. D. Paralytic shellfish poisoning in Eastern Canada. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 1971, Bull. No. 177, 87.
132. White, A.W.; Nassif, J.; Shumway, S. E.; Whitaker, D. K. Recent occurrence of paralytic shellfish toxins in offshore shellfish in the northeastern United States. In Toxic Phytoplankton Blooms in the Sea; Smayda, T. J., Shimuzu, Y., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, 1993; pp. 435-440.
133. Worms, J.; Bouchard, N.; Cormier, R.; Pauley, K. E.; Smith, J. C. New occurrences of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada. In Toxic Phytoplankton Blooms in the Sea; Smayda, T. J., Shimizu, Y., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, 1993; pp. 353-358.
134. Carreto, J. I.; Elbusto, C.; Sancho, H.; Carignan, M.; Yasumoto, T.; Oshima, Y. Comparative studies on paralytic shellfish toxin profiles of marine snails, mussels and an Alexandrium tamarense isolate from the Mar del Plata coast (Argentina). Rev. Invest, Des. Pesq. 1996, 10, 101-107.
135. Ito, K.; Asakawa, M.; Beppu, R.; Takayama, H.; Miyazawa, K. PSP-toxicification of the carnivorous gastropod Rapana venosa inhabiting the estuary of Nikoh River, Hiroshima Bay, Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan. Mar. Poll. Bull. 2004, 48, 1116-1121.
136. Sang, J. W. T.; Ming, T. T. Red tide and paralytic shellfish poisoning in Sabah, Malaysia. In Consult. Meet. on Toxic Red Tides and Shellfish Toxicity in Southeast Asia, White, A. W., Anraku, M., Hooi, K.-K., Eds.; Singapore, 11-14 September, 1984, pp. 35-42.
137. Ming, T. T.; Wong T-S. J. Summary of red tide and paralytic shellfish poisoning in Sabah. In Biology, Epidemiology and Management of Pyrodinium red tides; Hallegraeff, G. M., MacLean, J. L., Eds., Bandar Seri Begawan: Darussalam, Brunei, 1989; pp. 19-26.
138. Kan, S. K.; Singh, N.; Chan, M. K. Oliva vidua fulminans, a marine mollusc, responsible for five fatal cases of neurotoxic food poisoning in Sabah, Malaysia. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1986, 80, 64-65.
139. Jaafar, M. H.; Subramaniam, S. Occurrences of red tide in Brunei Darussalam and methods of monitoring and surveillance. In Toxic Red Tides and Shellfish Toxicity in Southeast Asia; White, A.W., Anraku, M., Hooi, K-K., Eds.; Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center and the International Development Research Center: Singapore, 1984; pp. 17-24.
140. Jaafar, M. H.; de Silva, M. W. R. N.; Sharifuddin, P. H. Y. Pyrodinium red tide occurrences in Brunei Darussalam. In Biology, Epidemiology and Management of Pyrodinium Red Tides; Hallegraeff, G.M.; MacLean, J.L., Eds.; Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei: Darussalam, 1989; pp. 9-17.
141. Li, Y.; Jia, X. ; Yang, M.; Zhong, Y.; Quan, G.; Fan, P. Paralytic shellfish poison in contaminated shellfish along coast of China. Trop. Oceanol. 1999, 19, 90-96.
142. Li, Y.; Chen, S. Report of 8 incidents of intoxication due to Nassarius (Zeuxis) succinctus. Chin. J. Surg. 1981, 20, 231-232.
143. Nagashima, Y.; Arakawa, O.; Shiomi, K.; Noguchi, T. Paralytic shellfish toxins in a trumpet shell, Charonia lampas, from Spain In Harmful and Toxic Algal Blooms; Yasumoto, T., Oshima, Y., Fukuyo, Y., Eds.; Intergovernmental Oceanic Commission of UNESCO, Japan: Sendai, 1996; pp. 425-427.
144. Liao, H. J.; Hwang, D.F. Survey of paralytic toxins in shellfish in southern Taiwan between 1995 and 1997. J. Nat. Toxins 2000, 9, 63-71.
145. Hwang, D. F.; Cheng, C. A.; Jeng, S. S. Gonyautoxin-3 as a minor toxin in the gastropod Niotha clathrata in Taiwan. Toxicon 1994, 32, 1573-1579.
146. Sato, S.; Ogata, T.; Kodama, M. Wide distribution of toxins with sodium channel blocking activity similar to tetrodotoxin and paralytic shellfish toxins in marine animals. In Toxic Phytoplankton Blooms in the Sea; Smayda, T.
147. Negri, A.; Llewellyn, L. Comparative analyses by HPLC and the sodium channel and saxiphilin 3H-saxitoxin receptor assays for paralytic shellfish toxins in crustaceans and molluscs from tropical North West Australia. Toxicon 1998, 36, 283-298.
148. Martinez, A.; Franco, J. M.; Bravo, I.; Mazoy, M.; Cacho, E. PSP toxicity in Haliotis tuberculata from NW Spain. In Toxic Phytoplankton Blooms in the Sea; Smayda, T. J., Shimizu, Y., Eds., Elsevier: Amsterdam, 1993; pp. 419-423.
149. Bravo, I.; Reyero, M. I.; Cacho, E.; Franco, J. M. Paralytic shellfish poisoning in Haliotis tuberculata from the Galician coast: geographical distribution, toxicity by lengths and parts of the mollusc. Aquat. Toxicol. 1999, 46, 79-85.
150. Pitcher, G. C.; Franco, J. M.; Doucette, G. J.; Powell, C. L.; Mouton, A. Paralytic shellfish poisoning in the abalone Haliotis midae on the west coast of South Africa. J. Shellfish Res. 2001, 20, 895-904.
151. Bravo, I.; Franco, J.M.; Alonso, A.; Dietrich, R.; Molist, P. Cytological study and immunohistochemical location of PSP toxins in foot skin of the ormer, Haliotis tuberculata, from the Galician coast (NW Spain). Mar. Biol. 2001, 138, 709-715.
152. Huchette, S. M. H.; Clavier, J. Status of the ormer (Haliotis tuberculata L.) industry in Europe. J. Shellfish Res. 2004, 23(4), 951-955.
153. Ruiz Sebastián, C.; Etheridge, S.M.; Cook, P.A.; O'Ryan, C.; Pitcher, G. C. Phylogenetic analysis of toxic Alexandrium (Dinophyceae) isolates from South Africa: Implications for the global phylogeography of the Alexandrium tamarense species complex. Phycologia 2005, 44, 49-60.
154. Etheridge, S. M.; Pitcher, G.C.; Roesler, C.S. Depuration and transformation of PSP toxins in the South African abalone Haliotis midae. In Harmful Algae 2002; Steidinger, K. A., Landsberg, J. H., Thomas, C.R., Vargo, G.A., Eds.; Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Florida Institute of Oceanography, and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, 2004; pp. 175-177.
155. Anderson, D. M.; Kaefer, B. A.; McGillicuddy Jr., D. J.; Mickelson, M. J.; Keay, K. E.; Libby, P. S.; Manning, J. P.; Mayo, C. A.; Wittaker, D. K.; Hickey, J. M.; He, R.; Lynch, D. R., Smith, K. W. 2005. Initial observations of the 2005 Alexandrium fundyense bloom in southern New England: General patterns and mechanisms. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies on Oceanography. 2005, 52, 2856-2879.
156. Yasumoto, T.; Oshima, Y.; Konta, T. Analysis of paralytic shellfish toxins of xanthid crabs in Okinawa. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. 1981, 47, 957-959.
157. Arakawa, O.; Noguchi, T.; Shida, Y.; Onoue, Y. 1994. Occurrence of carbamoyl-N-hydroxy derivatives of saxitoxin and neosaxitoxin in a xanthid crab Zosimus aeneus. Toxicon 1994, 32, 175-183.
158. Arakawa, O.; Nishio, S.; Noguchi, T.; Shida, Y.; Onoue, Y. A new saxitoxin analogue from a Xanthid crab Atergatis floridus. Toxicon 1995, 33, 1577-1584.
159. Arakawa, O.; Noguchi, T.; Onoue, Y. Paralytic shellfish toxin profiles of xanthid crabs Zosimus aeneus and Atergatis floridus collected on reefs of Ishigaki Island. Fish. Sci. 1995, 61, 659-662.
160. Kotaki, Y.; Tajiri, Y.; Oshima, Y.; Yasumoto, T. Identification of a calcareous red alga as the primary source of paralytic shellfish toxins in coral reef crabs and gastropods. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. 1983, 49, 283-286.
161. Jonas-Davies, J. and Liston, J. The occurrence of PSP toxins in intertidal organisms. In Toxic dinoflagellates; Anderson, D.M., White, A. W., Baden, D. G., Eds.; Elsevier: New York, 1985; pp. 467-472.
162. Desbiens, M.; Cembella, A. D. Occurrence and elimination kinetics of PSP toxins in the American lobster (Homarus americanus). In Harmful Marine Algal Blooms, Lassus, P., Arzul, G., Erard-Le-Denn, E., Gentien, P., Marcaillou-Le-Baut, C., Eds.; Technique et Documentation, Lavoisier: Paris, 1995; pp. 433-438.
163. Oikawa, H.; Fujita, T.; Satomi, M.; Suzuki, T.; Kotana, Y.; Yano, Y. Accumulation of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in the edible shore crab Telmessus acutidens. Toxicon 2002, 40, 1593-1599.
164. Oikawa, H.; Fujita, T.; Saito, K.; Satomi, M.; Yano, Y. Difference in the level of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin accumulation between the crabs Telmessus acutidens and Charydbis japonica collected in Onahama, Fukushima Prefecture. Fish. Sci. 2007, 73, 395-403.
165. Raj, U.; Haq, U.; Oshima, T.; Yasumoto, T. The occurrence of paralytic shellfish toxins in two species of xanthid crab from Suva Barrier Reef, Fiji Islands. Toxicon 1983, 21, 547-551.
166. Tsai, Y. H.; Hwang, D. F.; Chai, T. J.; Jeng, S.S. Toxicity and toxic components of two xanthid crabs, Atergatis floridus and Demania reynaudi. Toxicon 1997, 35, 1327-1335.
167. Tsai, Y. H.; Hwang, D. F.; Chai, T.J.; Jeng, S. S. Occurrence of paralytic toxin in Taiwanese crab Atergatopsis germaini. Toxicon 1996, 34, 467-474.
168. Llewellyn, L.E.; Endean, R. Toxins extracted from Australian specimens of the crab, Eriphia sebana (Xanthidae). Toxicon 1989, 27, 579-586.
169. Llewellyn, L. E.; Endean, R. Toxicity and paralytic shellfish toxin profiles of the xanthid crabs, Lophozozymus pictor and Zosimus aeneus, collected from some Australian coral reefs. Toxicon 1989, 27, 596-600.
170. Tsai Y. H.; Hwang, D. F.; Chai, T. J.; Jeng S. S. Occurrence of tetrodotoxin and paralytic shellfish poison in the Taiwanese crab Lophozozymus pictor. Toxicon 1995, 33, 1669-1673.
171. Ho, P. H.; Tsai, Y. -H.; Hwang, C. -C.; Hwang, P. -A.; Hwang, J. -H.; Hwang, D. -F. Paralytic toxins in four species of coral reef crabs from Kenting National Park in southern Taiwan. Food Control 2006, 17, 439-445.
172. Llewellyn, L. E.; Dodd, M. J.; Robertson, A.; Ericson, G.; de Koning, C.; Negri, A.P. Postmortem analysis of samples from a human victim of a fatal poisoning caused by the xanthid crab, Zosimus aenus. Toxicon 2002, 40, 1463-1469.
173. Yasumura, D.; Oshima, Y.; Yasumoto, T.; Alcala, A.C.; Alcala, L.C. Tetrodotoxin and paralytic shellfish toxins in Philippine crabs. Agric. Biol. Chem. 1986, 50, 593-598.
174. Fusetani, N.; Endo, H.; Hashimoto, K.; Takahashi, K. Occurrence of potent toxins in the horseshoe crab Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda. Toxicon 1982, 20, 662-664.
175. Jiang, T. J.; Niu, T.; Xu, Y.X. Transfer and metabolism of paralytic shellfish poisoning from scallop (Chlamys nobilis) to spiny lobster (Panulirus stimpsoni). Toxicon 2006, 48, 988-994.
176. Koyama, K.; Noguchi, T.; Ueda, Y.; Hashimoto, K. Occurrence of neosaxitoxin and other paralytic shellfish poisons in toxic crabs belonging to the family Xanthidae. Nippon. Suis. Gakk. 1981, 47, 965.
177. Llewellyn, L. E. Haemolymph protein in xanthid crabs: its selective binding of saxitoxin and possible role in toxin bioaccumulation. Mar. Biol. 1997, 128, 599-606.
178. Koyama, K.; Noguchi, T.; Uzu, A.; and Hashimoto; K. Individual, local, and size-dependent variations in toxicity of the xanthid crab Zosimus aeneus. Nippon Suis. Gakk. 1983, 49, 1273-1279.
179. Arakawa, O.; Noguchi, T.; Onoue, Y. Transformation of gonyautoxins in the xanthid crab Atergatis floridus. Fish. Sci. 1998, 64, 334-337.
180. Alacala, A.; Alacala, L.; Garth, J.; Yasumura, D.; Yasumoto, T. Human fatality due to ingestion of the crab Demania reynaudii that contained a palytoxin-like toxin. Toxicon 1988, 26, 105-107.
181. Lau, C.; Tan, C.; Li, Q.; Ng, F.; Tuen, R.; Khoo, H. Bioactivity and mechanism of action of Lophozozymus pictor toxin. Toxicon 1995, 33, 901-908.
182. Nocuchi, T.; Uzu, A.; Koyama, K.; Maruyama, J.; Nagashima, Y.; Hashimyo, K. Occurrence of tetrodotoxin as the major toxin in a xanthid crab Atergatis floridus. Nippon Suis. Gakk. 1983, 49, 1887-1892.
183. Oikawa, H.; Fujita, T.; Saito, K.; Watabe, S.; Yano, Y. Comparison of paralytic shellfish toxin between carnivorous crabs (Telmessus acutidens and Charybdis japonica) and their prey mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) in an inshore food chain. Toxicon 2004, 43, 713-719.
184. Oikawa, H.; Satomi, M.; Watabe, S.; Yano, Y. Accumulation and depuration rates of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in the shore crab Telmessus acutidens by feeding toxic mussels under laboratory controlled conditions. Toxicon 2005, 45, 163-169.
185. Gessner, B. D.; Middaugh, J. P. Paralytic shellfish poisoning in Alaska: A 20-year retrospective analysis. Am. J. Epidem. 1995, 141, 766-770.
186. Asakawa, M.; Nishimura, F.; Miyazawa, K.; Noguchi, T. 1997. Occurrence of paralytic shellfish poisons in the starfish, Asterias amurensis in Kure Bay, Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan. Toxicon 1997, 35, 1081-1087.
187. Lin, S. -J.; Tsai, Y. -H.; Lin, H. P.; Hwang, D. -F. Paralytic toxins in Taiwanese starfish Astropecten scoparius. Toxicon 1998, 36, 799-803.
188. White, A.W. Dinoflagellate toxins in phytoplankton and zooplankton fractions during a bloom of Gonyaulax excavata. In Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms; Taylor, D. L., Seliger, H. H., Eds.; Elsevier: New York, 1979; pp. 381-384.
189. White, A.W. Marine zooplankton can accumulate and retain dinoflagellate toxins and cause fish kills. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1981, 26, 103-109.
190. Turiff, N.; Runge, J. A.; Cembella, A. D. Toxin accumulation and feeding behavior of the planktonic copepod Calanus finmarchicus exposed to the red-tide dinoflagellate Alexandrium excavatum. Mar. Biol. 1995, 123, 55-64.
191. Teegarden, G. J.; Cembella, A. D. Grazing of toxic dinoflagellates, Alexandrium spp., by adult copepods of coastal Maine: implications for the fate of paralytic shellfish toxins in marine food webs. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 1996, 196, 145-176.
192. Teegarden, G. J; Cembella, A. D. Grazing of toxic dinoflagellates, (Alexandrium spp.) by estuarine copepods: particle selection of PSP toxins in marine food webs. In Harmful and Toxic Algal Blooms. Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Toxic Phytoplankton, Sendai, Japan, 12-16 July, 1995, Yasumoto, T., Oshima, Y., Fukuyo, Y., Eds.; IOC of UNESCO: Paris, 1996; pp. 393-396.
193. Turner, J. Y.; Doucette, G. J.; Powell, C.L.; Kulis, D.M.; Keafer, B.A.; Anderson, D. M. Accumulation of red tide toxins in larger size fractions of zooplankton assemblages from Massachusetts Bay, USA. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2000, 203, 95-107.
194. Haya, K.; Martin, J. L.; Waiwood, B. A.; Burridge, L. E.; Hungerford, J. M.; Zitko, V. Identification of paralytic shellfish toxins in mackerel from southwest Bay of Fundy, Canada. In Toxic Marine Phytoplankton; Graneli, E., Sundstrom, B., Edler, L., Anderson, D. M., Eds.; Elsevier Press: New York, 1990; pp. 350-355.
195. Castonguay, M.; Levasseur, M.; Beaulieu, J.- L.; Gregoire, F.; Michaud, S.; Bonneau, E.; Bates, S. S. Accumulation of PSP toxins in Atlantic mackerel: seasonal and ontogenetic variations. J. Fish. Biol., 1997, 50, 1203-1213.
196. Montoya, N. G.; Akselman, R.; Pajaro, M.; Perrotta, R. G.; Franco, J.; Carreto, J.I. Mortandad de caballa (Scomber japonicus) en la plataforma bonarense (Mar Argentino) asociada a un florecimento del dinoflagelado toxico Alexandrium tamarense. Rev. Invest. Des. Pesq. 1997, 11, 145-152.
197. Nakashima, K.; Arakawa, O.; Taniyama, S.; Nonaka, M.; Takatani, T.; Yamamori, K.; Fuchi, Y.; Noguchi, T. 2004. Occurrence of saxitoxins as a major toxin in the ovary of a marine puffer Arothron firmamentum. Toxicon 2004, 43, 207-212.
198. Sato, S.; Ogata, T.; Borja, V.; Gonzales, C.; Fukuyo, Y.; Kodama, M. Frequent occurrence of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins as dominant toxins in marine puffer from tropical water. Toxicon 2000, 38, 1101-1109.
199. Zaman, L.; Arakawa, O.; Shimosu, A.; Onoue, Y. Occurrence of paralytic shellfish poison in Bangladeshi freshwater puffers. Toxicon 1997, 235, 423-431.
200. Oliveira, J. S.; Fernandes, S. C. R.; Schwartz, J. A. T.; Pires Jr., O. R.; de Freitas, J.C. Toxicity and toxin identification in Colomesus asellus, an Amazonian (Brazil) freshwater puffer fish. Toxicon 2006, 48, 55-63.
201. Kodama, M.; Ogata, T.; Kawamukai, K.; Oshima, Y.; Yasumoto, T. Occurrence of saxitoxin and other toxins in the liver of pufferfish Takifugu pardalis. Toxicon 1983, 21, 897-900.
202. Nakamura, M.; Oshima, Y.; Yasumoto, T. Occurrence of saxitoxin in puffer fish. Toxicon 1984, 22, 381-385.
203. Ahmed, M. S.; Jaime, E.; Reichelt, M.; Luckas, B. Paralytic shellfish poisoning in freshwater puffer fish (Tetraodon cutcutia) from the River Burigonga, Bangladesh. In Harmful Algal Blooms 2000; Hallegraeff, G.M., Blackburn, S.I., Bolch, C.J., Lewis, R. J., Eds., Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO: Paris, France, 2001; pp. 19-21.
204. Sato, S.; Kodama, M.; Ogata, T.; Saitanu, K.; Furuya, M.; Hirayama, K.; Kakinuma, K. Saxitoxin as a toxic principle of a freshwater puffer, Tetraodon fangi, in Thailand. Toxicon 1997, 35, 137-140.
205. Kungsuwan, A.; Arakawa, O.; Promset, M.; Onoue, Y. Occurrence of paralytic shellfish poisons in Thai freshwater puffers. Toxicon 1997, 35, 1341-1346.
206. Ngy, L.; Tada, K.; Yu, C.-F.; Takatani, T.; Arakawa, O. Occurrence of paralytic shellfish toxins in Cambodian Mekong pufferfish Tetraodon turgidus: Selective toxin accumulation in the skin. Toxicon 2008, 51, 280-288.
207. White, A.W. Recurrence of kills of Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus harengus) caused by dinoflagellate toxins transferred through herbivorous zooplankton. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1980, 37, 2262-2265.
208. White, A.W. Paralytic shellfish toxins and finfish. In Seafood Toxins; Ragelis, E. P., Ed.; ACS Symposium Series 262, 1984; pp. 171-180.
209. Kwong, R. W. M.; Wang, W. X.; Lam, P. K. S.; Yu, P. K. N.. The uptake, distribution and elimination of paralytic shellfish toxins in mussels and fish exposed to toxic dinoflagellates. Aquat. Toxicol. 2006, 80, 82-91.
210. Jiang, T. -J.; Wang, D. -Z.; Niu, T; Xu, Y. X. Trophic transfer of paralytic shellfish toxins from the cladoceran (Moina mongolica) to larvae of the fish (Sciaenops ocellatus). Toxicon 2007, 50, 639-645.
211. Maclean, J. L.; White, A.W. Toxic dinoflagellate blooms in Asia: A growing concern. In Toxic dinoflagellates; Anderson, D. M., White, A. W., Baden, D. G., Eds.; Elsevier: New York, 1985; pp. 517-520.
212. Gonzalez, C. L.; Ordonez, J. A.; Maala, A. M. Red tide: the Philippine experience. In Red Tides, Biology, Environmental Science and Toxicology; Okaichi, T., Anderson, D.M., Nemoto, T., Eds.; Elsevier: New York, 1989; pp. 97-100.
213. Sibunka, J. D.; Pacheco, A. L. Biological and fisheries data on northern puffer, Sphoeroides maculatus (Bloch and Schneider). National Marine Fisheries Service Technical Series Report No. 26, Highlands, New Jersey, 1981.
214. CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). Neurologic illness associated with eating Florida puffer-fish. Morbid. Mort. Weekly Rep. 2002, 51, 321-323.
215. Quilliam, M.; Wechsler, D.; Marcus, S.; Ruck, B.; Wekell, M.; Hawryluk, T. Detection and identification of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in Florida pufferfish responsible for incidents of neurologic illness. In Harmful Algae 2002. Proceedings of the Xth International Conference on Harmful Algae; Steidinger, K. A., Landsberg, J. H., Tomas, C. R., Vargo, G. A., Eds; Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, 2004; pp. 116-118.
216. Etheridge, S.; Deeds, J.; Hall, S.; White, K.; Flewelling, L.; Abbott, J.; Landsberg, J.; Conrad, S.; Bodager, D.; Jackow, G. Detection methods and their limitations: PSP toxins in Florida puffer fish responsible for human poisoning events in 2004. African J. Mar. Sci. 2006, 28, 383-387.
217. Abbott, J.; Landsberg, J.H.; Flewelling, L.J.; Baird, L.; Fisk, S. Transfer of saxitoxins within the Indian River Lagoon, Florida food web. In Proc. Second Symposium on Harmful Algae in the U.S., 9-13 December, 2003; Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution: Woods Hole, MA, 2003; pp. 1-2. Available online: http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/2ndsymposium/SEGoMx_-abstracts.pdf [accessed 3 March 2008].
218. Deeds, J. R.; White, K. D.; Etheridge, S. M.; Landsberg, J. H. Concentrations of saxitoxin and tetrodotoxin in three species of puffer fish from the Indian River Lagoon, Florida, USA - the location for multiple cases of saxitoxin puffer fish poisoning from 2002-2004. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. (in press).