Macroalgal palatability and the flux of ciguatera toxins through marine food webs

Harmful Algae

Volumn 5, Issue 5, 2006, Pages 497-525

  Cruz Rivera, Edwin ^a   Villareal, Tracy A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN   (United States)

Author keywords

Algal defenses; Bioaccumulation of toxins; Ciguatera; CTX; Gambierdiscus toxicus; Marine herbivores; Toxin flux through food webs

Indexed keywords

ALGAE; BACILLARIOPHYTA; CIGUATERA; CYANOBACTERIA; DINOPHYCEAE; GAMBIERDISCUS TOXICUS;

EID: 33748175007     PISSN: 15689883     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2005.09.003     Document Type: Article

References (313)

1. Abbott I.A. Hawaiian herbivorous fish; what algae are they eating, or what's left?. In: Hokama Y., Scheuer P.J., and Yasumoto T. (Eds). Proceedings of the International Symposium on Ciguatera and Marine Natural Products, Honolulu, Hawaii, 1994 (1995), Asian-Pacific Research Foundation, Honolulu, Hawaii 11-18
2. Abuso, Z., Marasigan, A.N., Tamse, A., 2000. Is the attachment of Gambierdiscus toxicus to algae in reefs in monsoon areas biologically or physically driven? In: Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Harmful Algal Blooms, poster abstracts http://www.utas.edu.au/docs/plant_science/HAB2000/poster_abstracts/docs/Abuso.html.
3. Adachi R., and Fukuyo Y. The thecal structure of a marine toxic dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus gen. et sp. nov. collected in a ciguatera-endemic area. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 45 1 (1979) 67-71
4. Afaqhusain S., Shameel M., Usmanghani K., Ahmad M., Perveen S., and Ahmad V.U. Brominated sesquiterpene metabolites of Hypnea pannosa (Gigartinales, Rhodophyta). J. Appl. Phycol. 3 (1991) 111-113
5. Agatsuma Y., Matsuyama K., Nakata A., Kawai T., and Nishikawa N. Marine algal succession on coralline flats after removal of sea urchins in Suttsu Bay on the Japan Sea coast of Hokkaido, Japan. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 63 (1997) 672-680
6. Aikins S., and Kikuchi E. Grazing pressure by amphipods on microalgae in Gamo Lagoon, Japan. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 245 (2002) 171-179
7. Almeida P.R. Feeding ecology of Liza ramada (Risso, 1810) (Pisces, Mugilidae) in a south-western estuary of Portugal. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 57 (2003) 313-323
8. Anderson D.M., and Lobel P.S. The continuing enigma of ciguatera. Biol. Bull. 172 (1987) 89-107
9. Anderson B.C., Smith A.J., and Bolton J.J. Differential grazing effects by isopods on Gracilaria gracilis and epiphytic Ceramium diaphanum in suspended raft culture. Aquaculture 169 1-2 (1998) 99-109
10. Andre J., Gyuris E., and Lawler I.R. Comparison of the diets of sympatric dugongs and green turtles on the Orman Reefs, Torres Strait, Australia. Wildl. Res. 32 1 (2005) 53-62
11. Andre J., and Lawler I.R. Near infrared spectroscopy as a rapid and inexpensive means of dietary analysis for a marine herbivore, dugong Dugong dugon. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 257 (2003) 259-266
12. Arnold T.M., and Targett N.M. Quantifying in situ rates of phlorotannin synthesis and polymerization in marine brown algae. J. Chem. Ecol. 24 (1998) 577-595
13. Arnold T.M., and Targett N.M. Evidence for metabolic turnover of polyphenolics in tropical brown algae. J. Chem. Ecol. 26 6 (2000) 1393-1410
14. Asari F., Kusumi T., and Kakisawa H. Turbinaric acid, a cytotoxic secosqualene carboxylic acid from the brown alga Turbinaria ornate. J. Nat. Prod. 52 5 (1989) 1167-1169
15. Asuncion D.A., Asahina A.Y., Muthiah P., Hokama Y., Higa T., and Tanaka J. The effects of monosaccharides and natural marine products on the growth of Gambierdiscus toxicus in vitro. In: Hokama Y., Scheuer P.J., and Yasumoto T. (Eds). Proceedings of the International Symposium on Ciguatera and Marine Natural Products, Honolulu, Hawaii, 1994 (1995), Asian-Pacific Research Foundation, Honolulu, Hawaii 99-107
16. Atsatt P.R., and O'dowd D.J. Plant defense guilds. Science 193 (1976) 24-29
17. AuriolesGamboa D., and PerezFlores R. Seasonal and bathymetric changes in feeding habits of the benthic red crab Pleuroncodes planipes (Decapoda, Anomura, Galatheidae) off the Pacific Coast of Baja California Sur, Mexico. Crustaceana 70 (1997) 272-287
18. Awad N.E. Bioactive brominated diterpenes from the marine red alga Jania rubens (L.) lamx. Phytother. Res. 18 (2004) 275-279
19. Bagnis R., Chanteau S., Chungue E., Hurtel J.M., Yasumoto T., and Inoue A. Origins of ciguatera fish poisoning: a new dinoflagellate, Gambierdiscus toxicus Adachi and Fukuyo, definitively involved as a causal agent. Toxicon 18 2 (1980) 199-208
20. Bagnis R., Bennett J., Prieur C., and Legrand A.M. The dynamics of three toxic benthic dinoflagellates and the toxicity of ciguateric surgeonfish in French Polynesia. In: Anderson D., White A., and Baden D. (Eds). Toxic Dinoflagellates (1985), Elsevier, New York 177-182
21. Bagnis R., Julvez J., Allaoui A., Dubray B., Conan H., Halidi M.A.A., Mieli L., and Galtier J. Le risque ciguaterique dans l'ile de Mayotte (Archipel des Comores). Rev. Int. Océanogr. Med. 91-92 (1988) 43-54
22. Bagnis R., Legrand A.M., and Inoue A. Follow-up of a bloom of the toxic dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus on a fringing reef of Tahiti. In: Granéli E., Sundström B., and Anderson D.M. (Eds). Toxic Marine Phytoplankton (1990), Elsevier, New York 98-103
23. Ballantine D.L., Bardales A.T., Tosteson T.R., and Dupont-Durst H. Seasonal abundance of Gambierdiscus toxicus and Ostreopsis sp. in coastal waters of southwest Puerto Rico. In: Gabrie C., and Marmelin V.M. (Eds). Proceedings of the Fifth International Coral Reef Congress, vol. 4. Tahiti (1985) 417-422
24. Barbosa J.P., Teixeira V.L., and Pereira R.C. A dolabellane diterpene from the brown alga Dictyota pfaffii as chemical defense against herbivores. Bot. Mar. 47 (2004) 147-151
25. Barry J.P., and Ehret M.J. Diet, food preference and algal availability for fishes and crabs on intertidal reef communities in Southern California. Environ. Biol. Fishes 37 (1993) 75-95
26. Becerro M.A., Goetz G., Paul V.J., and Scheuer P.J. Chemical defenses of the sacoglossan mollusk Elysia rufescens and its host alga Bryopsis sp. J. Chem. Ecol. 27 (2001) 2287-2299
27. Bergmann J.S., and Alam M. On the toxicity of the ciguatera producing dinoflagellate, Gambierdiscus toxicus, isolated from the Florida Keys, USA. J. Environ. Sci. Health, Part A: Environ. Sci. Eng. 16 5 (1981) 493-500
28. Bewley C.A., Holland N.D., and Faulkner D.J. Two classes of metabolites from Theonella swinhoei are localized in distinct populations of bacterial symbionts. Experientia 52 (1996) 716-722
29. Biggs, J.S., 2000. The role of secondary metabolite complexity in the red alga Laurencia palisada as a defense against diverse consumers. Masters thesis, University of Guam, Mangilao, Guam.
30. Bintz J.C., Nixon S.W., Buckley B.A., and Granger S.L. Impacts of temperature and nutrients on coastal lagoon plant communities. Estuaries 26 (2003) 765-776
31. Blackman A.J., Rogers G.I., and Volkman J.K. Phloroglucinol derivatives from three Australian marine algae of the genus Zonaria. J. Nat. Prod. 51 (1988) 158-160
32. Boaventura D., Alexander M., Della Santina P., Smith N.D., Re P., da Fonseca L.C., and Hawkins S.J. The effects of grazing on the distribution and composition of low-shore algal communities on the central coast of Portugal and on the southern coast of Britain. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 267 (2002) 185-206
33. Bolser R.C., and Hay M.E. Are tropical plants better defended? Palatability and defenses of temperate versus tropical seaweeds. Ecology 77 (1996) 2269-2286
34. Bomber J.W., Guillard R.R.L., and Nelson W.G. Roles of temperature, salinity, and light in seasonality, growth, and toxicity of ciguatera-causing Gambierdiscus toxicus Adachi Et Fukuyo (Dinophyceae). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 115 (1988) 53-65
35. Bomber J.W., Morton S.L., Babinchak J.A., Norris D.R., and Morton J.G. Epiphytic dinoflagellates of drift algae: another toxigenic community in the ciguatera food chain. Bull. Mar. Sci. 43 (1988) 204-214
36. Bomber J.W., Rubio M.G., and Norris D.R. Epiphytism of dinoflagellates associated with the disease ciguatera: substrate specificity and nutrition. Phycologia 28 3 (1989) 360-368
37. Bourdeau, P., Durand-Clement, M., 1991. Ichtyosarcotoxisme de type ciguatera: etude écotoxicologique et morphologique de Gambierdiscus toxicus aux Antilles Françaises (Saint-Barthélémy). In: Fremy, J.M. (Ed.), Actes du Colloque sur les Biotoxines Marines, Paris. Editions C.N.E.V.A., Maisons-Alfort, France, pp. 61-67.
38. Brand-Gardner S.J., Lanyon J.M., and Limpus C.J. Diet selection by immature green turtles, Chelonia mydas, in subtropical Moreton Bay, south-east Queensland. Aust. J. Zool. 47 2 (1999) 181-191
39. Bruneau Y., Codomier L., Combaut G., and Teste J. Comparative study of halogen compound of Falkenbergia rufolanosa (Harv) Schmitz and of Asparagopsis armata (Harv) Bonnemaisoniaceous Rhodophycae. C.R. Hebdomad. Seances Acad. Sci. Ser. D 286 8 (1978) 603-605
40. Bulleri F., Bertocci I., and Micheli F. Interplay of encrusting coralline algae and sea urchins in maintaining alternative habitats. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 243 (2002) 101-109
41. Campbell B., Nakagawa L.K., Kobayashi M.N., and Hokama Y. Gambierdiscus toxicus in gut content of the surgeonfish Ctenochaetus strigosus (herbivore) and its relationship to toxicity. Toxicon 25 10 (1987) 1125-1127
42. Campbell S. Ammonium requirements of fast-growing ephemeral macroalgae in a nutrient-enriched marine embayment (Port Phillip Bay, Australia). Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 209 (2001) 99-107
43. Carlson, R.D., 1984. Distribution, periodicity, and culture of benthic/epiphytic dinoflagellates in a ciguatera endemic region of the Caribbean. Ph.D. thesis, Southern Illinois University.
44. Carlson R.D., Morey-Gaines G., Tindall D.R., and Dickey R.W. Ecology of toxic dinoflagellates from the Caribbean Sea: effects of macroalgal extracts on growth in culture. In: Ragelis E.P. (Ed). Seafood Toxins (1984), American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C. 271-287
45. Carlson R.D., and Tindall D.R. Distribution and periodicity of toxic dinoflagellates in the Virgin Islands. In: Anderson D.M., White A.W., and Baden DG. (Eds). Toxic Dinoflagellates (1985), Elsevier, New York 171-176
46. Carpenter R.C. Partitioning herbivory and its effects on coral reef algal communities. Ecol. Monogr. 56 4 (1986) 345-363
47. Cebrian J., and Duarte C.M. Patterns in leaf herbivory on seagrasses. Aquat. Bot. 60 1 (1998) 67-82
48. Cetrulo G.L., and Hay M.E. Activated chemical defenses in tropical versus temperate seaweeds. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 207 (2000) 243-253
49. Chateau-Degat M.L., Chinain M., Cerf N., Gingras S., Hubert B., and Dewailly E. Seawater temperature, Gambierdiscus spp. variability and incidence of ciguatera poisoning in French Polynesia. Harmful Algae 4 6 (2005) 1053-1062
50. Chen J.L., Gerwick W.H., Schatzman R., and Laney M. Isorawsonol and related IMP-dehydrogenase inhibitors from the tropical green alga Avrainvillea rawsonii. J. Nat. Prod. 57 7 (1994) 947-952
51. Chinain M., Faust M.A., and Pauillac S. Morphology and molecular analyses of three toxic species of Gambierdiscus (Dinophyceae): G. pacificus, sp. nov., G. australes, sp. nov., and G. polynesiensis, sp. nov. J. Phycol. 35 6 (1999) 1282-1296
52. Chinain M., Germain M., Deparis X., Pauillac S., and Legrand A.M. Seasonal abundance and toxicity of the dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus spp. (Dinophyceae), the causative agent of ciguatera in Tahiti, French Polynesia. Mar. Biol. 135 2 (1999) 259-267
53. Chineah V., Chooramum V., Nallee M., Basant Rai Y., Hurbungs M., Paupiah C.N., Mosaheb J.I., Terashima H., and Jayabalan N. Status of the marine environment of the Albion Lagoon. In: Lalouette J.A., Bachraz D.Y., and Sukurdeep N. (Eds). Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Meeting of Agricultural Scientists, Réduit, Mauritius, 21-22, October 1999 (2000), Food and Agricultural Research Council, Réduit, Mauritius 195-210
54. Choat J.H., Robbins W.D., and Clements K.D. The trophic status of herbivorous fishes on coral reefs-II. Food processing modes and trophodynamics. Mar. Biol. 145 3 (2004) 445-454
55. Coen L.D., and Tanner C.E. Morphological variation and differential susceptibility to herbivory in the tropical brown alga Lobophora variegata. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 54 3 (1989) 287-298
56. Cohen R.A., and Fong P. Physiological responses of a bloom-forming green macroalga to short-term change in salinity, nutrients, and light help explain its ecological success. Estuaries 27 2 (2004) 209-216
57. Colon M., Guevara P., Gerwick W.H., and Ballantine D. 5′-Hydroxyisoavrainvilleol, a new diphenylmethane derivative from the tropical green alga Avrainvillea nigricans. J. Nat. Prod. 50 3 (1987) 368-374
58. Combaut G., Bruneau Y., Teste J., and Codomier L. Halogen compounds from a red alga, Falkenbergia rufolanosa, tetrasporophyte of Asparagopsis armata. Phytochemistry 17 9 (1978) 1661-1663
59. Cronin G., and Hay M.E. Susceptibility to herbivores depends on recent history of both the plant and animal. Ecology 77 5 (1996) 1531-1543
60. Cronin G., Lindquist N., Hay M.E., and Fenical W. Effects of storage and extraction procedures on yields of lipophilic metabolites from the brown seaweeds Dictyota ciliolata and D. menstrualis. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 119 1-3 (1995) 265-273
61. Cronin G., Paul V.J., Hay M.E., and Fenical W. Are tropical herbivores more resistant than temperate herbivores to seaweed chemical defenses? Diterpenoid metabolites from Dictyota acutiloba as feeding deterrents for tropical versus temperate fishes and urchins. J. Chem. Ecol. 23 2 (1997) 289-302
62. Cruz-Rivera E. Generality and specificity in the feeding and decoration preferences of three Mediterranean crabs. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 266 (2001) 17-31
63. Cruz-Rivera E., and Hay M.E. Can quantity replace quality? Food choice, compensatory feeding, and fitness of marine mesograzers. Ecology 81 (2000) 201-219
64. Cruz-Rivera E., and Hay M.E. The effects of diet mixing on consumer fitness: macroalgae, epiphytes, and animal matter as food for marine amphipods. Oecologia 123 (2000) 252-264
65. Cruz-Rivera E., and Hay M.E. Macroalgal traits and the feeding and fitness of an herbivorous amphipod: the roles of selectivity, mixing, and compensation. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 218 (2001) 249-266
66. Cruz-Rivera E., and Hay M.E. Prey nutritional quality interacts with chemical defenses to affect consumer feeding and fitness. Ecol. Monog. 73 (2003) 483-506
67. Cruz-Rivera, E., Paul, V.J., 2002. Coral reef benthic cyanobacteria as food and refuge: diversity, chemistry and complex interactions. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Coral Reef Symposium, vol. 1, Bali pp. 515-520.
68. De Lara-Isassi G., Alvarez-Hernandez S., and Collado-Vides L. Ichthyotoxic activity of extracts from Mexican marine macroalgae. J. Appl. Phycol. 12 (2000) 45-52
69. De Rosa S., Kamenarska Z., Bankova V., Stefanov K., Dimitrova-Konaklieva S., Najdenski H., Tzevtkova I., and Popov S. Chemical composition and biological activities of the Black Sea algae Polysiphonia denudata (Dillw.) Kutz. and Polysiphonia denudata f. fragilis (Sperk) Woronich. Z. Naturforsch. C 56 (2001) 1008-1014
70. De Ruyter van Steveninck E.D.D., and Breeman A.M. Deep water populations of Lobophora variegata (Phaeophyceae) on the coral reef of Curacao: influence of grazing and dispersal on distribution patterns. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 38 (1987) 241-250
71. de Nys R., Steinberg P.D., Rogers C.N., Charlton T.S., and Duncan M.W. Quantitative variation of secondary metabolites in the sea hare Aplysia parvula and its host plant, Delisea pulchra. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 130 (1996) 135-146
72. Diaz-Pulido G., and McCook L.J. The fate of bleached corals: patterns and dynamics of algal recruitment. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 232 (2002) 115-128
73. Diaz-Pulido G., and McCook L.J. Relative roles of herbivory and nutrients in the recruitment of coral-reef seaweeds. Ecology 84 8 (2003) 2026-2033
74. Dodds W.K., and Gudder D.A. The Ecology of Cladophora. J. Phycol. 28 4 (1992) 415-427
75. Duffy J.E., and Harvilicz A.M. Species-specific impacts of grazing, amphipods in an eelgrass-bed community. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 223 (2001) 201-211
76. Duffy J.E., and Hay M.E. Food and shelter as determinants of food choice by an herbivorous marine amphipod. Ecology 72 4 (1991) 1286-1298
77. Duffy J.E., and Hay M.E. Herbivore resistance to seaweed chemical defense: the roles of mobility and predation risk. Ecology 75 5 (1994) 1304-1319
78. Duffy J.E., and Paul V.J. Prey nutritional quality and the effectiveness of chemical defenses against tropical reef fishes. Oecologia 90 3 (1992) 333-339
79. Elfwing T., and Tedengren M. Effects of copper and reduced salinity on grazing activity and macroalgae production: a short-term study on a mollusc grazer, Trochus maculatus and two species of macroalgae in the inner Gulf of Thailand. Mar. Biol. 140 5 (2002) 913-919
80. Elsayed A.M. Feeding habits of rabbittfishes, Siganus canaliclatus and Siganus javus fingerlings from the Arabian Gulf waters off Qatar. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 23 (1994) 112-114
81. Faulkner D.J. Marine natural-products. Nat. Prod. Rep. 11 (1994) 355-395
82. Faust M.A. Observation of sand-dwelling toxic dinoflagellates (Dinophyceae) from widely differing sites, including two new species. J. Phycol. 31 6 (1995) 996-1003
83. Ferreira C.E.L., Goncalves J.E.A., Coutinho R., and Peret A.C. Herbivory by the dusky damselfish Stegastes fuscus (Cuvier, 1830) in a tropical rocky shore: effects on the benthic community. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 229 2 (1998) 241-264
84. Frantzis A., and Gremare A. Ingestion, absorption, and growth rates of Paracentrotus lividus (Echinodermata, Echinoidea) fed different macrophytes. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 95 1-2 (1993) 169-183
85. Frantzis A., Gremare A., and Vetion G. Growth rates and RNA-DNA ratios in Paracentrotus lividus (Echinodermata, Echinoidea) fed on benthic macrophytes. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 156 1 (1992) 125-138
86. Friedlander M., Weintraub N., Freedman A., Sheer J., Snovsky Z., Shapiro J., and Kissil G.W. Fish as potential biocontrollers of Gracilaria (Rhodophyta) culture. Aquaculture 145 1-4 (1996) 113-118
87. Gacia E., Littler M.M., and Littler D.S. An experimental test of the capacity of food web interactions (fish-epiphytes-seagrasses) to offset the negative consequences of eutrophication on seagrass communities. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 48 6 (1999) 757-766
88. Gavagnin M., Mollo E., Montanaro D., Ortea J., and Cimino G. Chemical studies of Caribbean sacoglossans: dietary relationships with green algae and ecological implications. J. Chem. Ecol. 26 7 (2000) 1563-1578
89. Gerwick W.H., and Fenical W. Ichthyotoxic and cytotoxic metabolites of the tropical brown alga Stypopodium zonale (Lamouroux) Papenfuss. J. Org. Chem. 46 1 (1981) 22-27
90. Gerwick W.H., Fenical W., and Norris J.N. Chemical variation in the tropical seaweed Stypopodium zonale (Dictyotaceae). Phytochemistry 24 6 (1985) 1279-1283
91. Gillespie N.C., Holmes M.J., Burke J.B., and Doley J. Distribution and periodicity of Gambierdiscus toxicus in Queensland, Australia. In: Anderson D.M., White A.W., and Baden D.G. (Eds). Toxic Dinoflagellates (1985), Elsevier, New York 183-188
92. Gillespie N., Lewis R., Burke J., and Holmes M. The significance of the absence of ciguatera in a wild population of Gambierdiscus toxicus. Proceedings of the Fifth International Coral Reef Congress, vol. 4. Tahiti (1985) 437-441
93. Ginsburg D.W., and Paul V.J. Chemical defenses in the sea hare Aplysia parvula: importance of diet and sequestration of algal secondary metabolites. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 215 (2001) 261-274
94. Govindan M., Abbas S.A., Schmitz F.J., Lee R.H., Papkoff J.S., and Slate D.L. New cycloartanol sulfates from the alga Tydemania expeditionis: inhibitors of the protein-tyrosine kinase Pp60(V-Src). J. Nat. Prod. 57 1 (1994) 74-78
95. Granado I., and Caballero P. Chemical defense in the seaweed Laurencia obtusa (Hudson) Lamouronx. Sci. Mar. 59 (1995) 31-39
96. Granado I., and Caballero P. Feeding rates of Littorina striata and Osilinus atratus in relation to nutritional quality and chemical defenses of seaweeds. Mar. Biol. 138 6 (2001) 1213-1224
97. Grzebyk D., Berland B., Thomassin B.A., Bosi C., and Arnoux A. Ecology of ciguateric dinoflagellates in the coral reef complex of Mayotte Island (S.W. Indian Ocean). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 178 1 (1994) 51-66
98. Guiry M.D., and Dawes C.J. Daylength, temperature and nutrient control of tetrasporogenesis in Asparagopsis armata (Rhodophyta). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 158 (1992) 197-217
99. Halstead B.W. Poisonous and Venomous Marine Animals of the World. Revised ed. (1978), Darwin Press, Princeton
100. Hamann M.T., Otto C.S., Scheuer P.J., and Dunbar D.C. Kahalalides: bioactive peptides from a marine mollusk, Elysia rufescens, and its algal diet Bryopsis sp. J. Org. Chem. 61 19 (1996) 6594-6600
101. Harper J.T., and Saunders G.W. A re-classification of the Acrochaetiales based on molecular and morphological data, and establishment of the Colaconematales ord. nov. (Florideophyceae, Rhodophyta). Eur. J. Phycol. 37 3 (2002) 463-476
102. Hata H., and Kato M. Demise of monocultural algal farms by exclusion of territorial damselfish. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 263 (2003) 159-167
103. Hatcher B.G. Proceedings of the Fourth International Coral Reef Symposium, vol. 2. The interaction between grazing organisms and the epilithic algal community of a coral reef: a quantitative assessment (1981) 515-524
104. Hauxwell J., McClelland J., Behr P.J., and Valiela I. Relative importance of grazing and nutrient controls of macroalgal biomass in three temperate shallow estuaries. Estuaries 21 2 (1998) 347-360
105. Hay M.E. Herbivory, algal distribution, and the maintenance of between-habitat diversity on a tropical fringing reef. Am. Nat. 118 (1981) 520-540
106. Hay M.E. Spatial patterns of grazing intensity on a Caribbean barrier reef: herbivory and algal distribution. Aquat. Bot. 11 (1981) 97-109
107. Hay M.E. Predictable spatial escapes from herbivory: how do these affect the evolution of herbivore resistance in tropical marine communities. Oecologia 64 3 (1984) 396-407
108. Hay M.E. Associational plant defenses and the maintenance of species diversity: turning competitors into accomplices. Am. Nat. 128 (1986) 617-641
109. Hay M.E. Marine-terrestrial contrasts in the ecology of plant chemical defenses against herbivores. Trends Ecol. Evol. 6 (1991) 362-365
110. Hay M.E. The role of seaweed chemical defenses in the evolution of feeding specialization and in the mediation of complex interactions. In: Paul V.J. (Ed). Ecological Roles of Marine Natural Products (1992), Comstock Publishing Assoc., Cornell University Press, Ithaca 93-118
111. Hay M.E. The ecology and evolution of seaweed-herbivore interactions on coral reefs. Coral Reefs 16 (1997) S67-S76
112. Hay M.E., Colburn T., and Downing D. Spatial and temporal patterns in herbivory on a Caribbean fringing reef: the effects on plant distribution. Oecologia 58 3 (1983) 299-308
113. Hay M.E., Duffy J.E., and Fenical W. Host-Plant specialization decreases predation on a marine amphipod: an herbivore in plants clothing. Ecology 71 (1990) 733-743
114. Hay M.E., Duffy J.E., Paul V.J., Renaud P.E., and Fenical W. Specialist herbivores reduce their susceptibility to predation by feeding on the chemically defended seaweed Avrainvillea longicaulis. Limnol. Oceanogr. 35 (1990) 1734-1743
115. Hay M.E., Duffy J.E., Pfister C.A., and Fenical W. Chemical defense against different marine herbivores: are amphipods insect equivalents?. Ecology 68 (1987) 1567-1580
116. Hay M.E., Fenical W., and Gustafson K. Chemical defense against diverse coral-reef herbivores. Ecology 68 (1987) 1581-1591
117. Hay M.E., and Fenical W. Marine plant-herbivore interactions: the ecology of chemical defense. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 19 (1988) 111-145
118. Hay M.E., Kappel Q.E., and Fenical W. Synergisms in plant defenses against herbivores: interactions of chemistry, calcification, and plant quality. Ecology 75 (1994) 1714-1726
119. Hay M.E., Lee R.R., Guieb R.A., and Bennett M.M. Food preference and chemotaxis in the sea urchin Arbacia punctulata (Lamarck) Philippi. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 96 2 (1986) 147-153
120. Hay M.E., Duffy J.E., Fenical W., and Gustafson K. Chemical defense in the seaweed Dictyopteris delicatula: differential effects against reef fishes and amphipods. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 48 (1988) 185-192
121. Hay M.E., Paul V.J., Lewis S.M., Gustafson K., Tucker J., and Trindell R.N. Can tropical seaweeds reduce herbivory by growing at night: diel patterns of growth, nitrogen content, herbivory, and chemical versus morphological defenses. Oecologia 75 (1988) 233-245
122. Hay M.E., Pawlik J.R., Duffy J.E., and Fenical W. Seaweed-herbivore-predator interactions: host-plant specialization reduces predation on small herbivores. Oecologia 81 (1989) 418-427
123. Hay M.E., Renaud P.E., and Fenical W. Large mobile versus small sedentary herbivores and their resistance to seaweed chemical defenses. Oecologia 75 (1988) 246-252
124. Hay M.E., Stachowicz J., Cruz-Rivera E., Bullard S., Deal M.S., and Lindquist N. Bioassays with marine and freshwater organisms. In: Haynes J.G., and Millar K.F. (Eds). Methods in Chemical Ecology, Bioassay Methods, vol. 2 (1998), Chapman and Hall, New York 39-141
125. Hay M.E., and Steinberg P.D. The chemical ecology of plant-herbivore interactions in marine versus terrestrial communities. In: Rosenthal G.A., and Berenbaum M.R. (Eds). Herbivores: Their Interactions with Secondary Plant Metabolites, Ecological and Evolutionary Processes, vol. II (1992), Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, California 372-408
126. Hayden H.S., Blomster J., Maggs C.A., Silva P.C., Stanhope M.J., and Waaland J.R. Linnaeus was right all along: Ulva and Enteromorpha are not distinct genera. Eur. J. Phycol. 38 (2003) 277-294
127. Heil C.A., Bird P., and Dennison W.C. Macroalgal habitat preference of ciguatera dinoflagellates at Heron Island, a coral cay in the southeastern Great Barrier Reef. In: Reguera B., Blanco J., Fernandez M.L., and Wyatt T. (Eds). Harmful Algae (1998), Xunta de Galicia and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, Santiago de Compostela 52-53
128. Hernández-Becerril D.U., and Almazán Becerril A. Especies de dinoflagelados del género Gambierdiscus (Dinophyceae) del Mar Caribe mexicano. Rev. Biol. Trop. 52 Suppl. 1 (2004) 77-87
129. Higa T., and Kuniyoshi M. Toxins associated with medicinal and edible seaweeds. J. Toxicol.: Toxin Rev. 19 2 (2000) 119-137
130. Hixon M.A., and Brostoff W.N. Succession and herbivory: Effects of differential fish grazing on Hawaiian coral-reef algae. Ecol. Monog. 66 1 (1996) 67-90
131. Hockelmann C., and Juttner F. Volatile organic compound (VOC) analysis and sources of limonene, cyclohexanone and straight chain aldehydes in axenic cultures of Calothrix and Plectonema. Water Sci. Technol. 49 9 (2004) 47-54
132. Hokama Y., Asahina A.Y., Titus E., Shirai J.L.R., Hong T.W.P., Chun S., Miyahara J.T., Takata D., Muranaka A., Pang E., Abbott I.A., and Ichinotsubo D. A survey of ciguatera: assessment of Puako, Hawaii, associated with ciguatera toxin epidemics in humans. J. Clin. Lab. Anal. 7 3 (1993) 147-154
133. Hokama Y., Ebesu J.S.M., Ascuncion D.A., and Nagai H. Growth and cyclic studies of Gambierdiscus toxicus in the natural environment and in culture. In: Yasumoto T., Oshima Y., and Fukuyo Y. (Eds). Harmful and Toxic Algal Blooms (1996), Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, Paris 313-315
134. Hokama Y., Nakagawa L.K., Kobayashi M.N., Shirai L.K., Shimabukuro D., Kurihara J., and Miyahara J.T. Similarity between cultured Gambierdiscus toxicus (T39) toxins and flesh extracts of Ctenochaetus strigosus (herbivores). Toxicon 26 1 (1988) 25
135. Holmes M.J., and Teo S.L.M. Toxic marine dinoflagellates in Singapore waters that cause seafood poisonings. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 29 (2002) 829-836
136. Holmes M.J., Lee F.C., Teo S.L.M., and Khoo H.W. A survey of benthic dinoflagellates on Singapore reefs. In: Reguera B., Blanco J., Fernandez M.L., and Wyatt T. (Eds). Harmful Algae (1998), Xunta de Galicia and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, Santiago de Compostela 50-51
137. Horgen F.D., de los Santos D.B., Goetz G., Sakamoto B., Kan Y., Nagai H., and Scheuer P.J. A new depsipeptide from the sacoglossan mollusk Elysia ornata and the green alga Bryopsis species. J. Nat. Prod. 63 1 (2000) 152-154
138. Horn M.H. Biology of marine herbivorous fishes. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. Rev. 27 (1989) 167-272
139. Hurbungs M.D., Jayabalan N., and Chineah V. Seasonal distribution of potentially toxic benthic dinoflagellates in the lagoon of Trou Aux Biches, Mauritius. In: Lalouette J.A., and Bachraz D.Y. (Eds). Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Meeting of Agricultural Scientists, Réduit, Mauritius, 3-4 May 2001 (2002), Food and Agricultural Research Council, Réduit, Mauritius 211-217
140. Ichinotsubo D., Asahina A.Y., Titus E., Chun S., Hong T.L.W.P., Shirai J.L., and Hokama Y. Survey for ciguatera fish poisoning in West Hawaii. Mem. Queensl. Mus. 34 3 (1994) 513-522
141. Inoue, A., Gawel, M., 1986. A toxic dinoflagellate, Gambierdiscus toxicus, in Pingelap Island and Truk Islands, FSM. Prompt Rep. 4th Sci. Surv. South Pacific 3, 39-42.
142. Inoue A., and Raj U. An ecological survey of a toxic dinoflagellate, Gambierdiscus toxicus, and two other related unicellular algae in the Fiji Islands. Kagoshima Univ. Res. Center S. Pac. Occasional Papers 5 (1985) 105-115
143. Ito K., Goshima S., and Nakao S. Growth and reproduction of the generalist opisthobranch Haloa japonica: effect of algal seasonality on growth rate. Mar. Biol. 126 (1996) 395-401
144. Jagtap T.G. Structure of major seagrass beds from three coral reef atolls of Lakshadweep, Arabian Sea, India. Aquat. Bot. 60 4 (1998) 397-408
145. Jensen G.C., and Asplen M.K. Omnivory in the diet of juvenile dungeness crab, Cancer magister Dana. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 226 (1998) 175-182
146. Jompa J., and McCook L.J. The effects of nutrients and herbivory on competition between a hard coral (Porites cylindrica) and a brown alga (Lobophora variegata). Limnol. Oceanogr. 47 (2002) 527-534
147. Jongaramruong J., Blackman A.J., Skelton B.W., and White A.H. Chemical relationships between the sea hare Aplysia parvula and the red seaweed Laurencia filiformis from Tasmania. Aust. J. Chem. 55 4 (2002) 275-280
148. Kaly U.L., and Jones G.P. Test of the effect of disturbance on ciguatera in Tuvalu. Mem. Queensl. Mus. 34 3 (1994) 523-532
149. Kaly U.L., Jones G.P., and Tricklebank K. Preliminary survey of a severe outbreak of ciguatera at Niutao. Tuvalu. S. Pac. J. Nat. Sci. 11 (1991) 62-81
150. Kamer K., Boyle K.A., and Fong P. Macroalgal bloom dynamics in a highly eutrophic southern California estuary. Estuaries 24 4 (2001) 623-635
151. Karez C.S., and Pereira R.C. Metal contents in polyphenolic fractions extracted from the brown alga Padina gymnospora. Bot. Mar. 38 (1995) 151-155
152. Kelly A.M., Kohler C.C., and Tindall D.R. Are crustaceans linked to the ciguatera food chain?. Environ. Biol. Fishes 33 3 (1992) 275-286
153. Kennelly S.J. Caging experiments to examine the effects of fishes on understorey species in a sublittoral kelp community. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 147 2 (1991) 207-230
154. Kennish R., and Williams G.A. Feeding preferences of the herbivorous crab Grapsus albolineatus: the differential influence of algal nutrient content and morphology. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 147 1-3 (1997) 87-95
155. Kerkar V. Mineralogical studies on calcareous algae. Curr. Sci. 66 5 (1994) 381-382
156. Kerr J.N.Q., and Paul V.J. Animal-plant defense association: the soft coral Sinularia sp. (Cnidaria, Alcyonacea) protects Halimeda spp. from herbivory. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 186 2 (1995) 183-205
157. Kingsley R.J., Van Gilder R., LeGeros R.Z., and Watabe N. Multimineral calcareous deposits in the marine alga Acetabularia acetabulum (Chlorophyta; Dasycladaceae). J. Phycol. 39 5 (2003) 937-947
158. Kirkup M.P., and Moore R.E. Indole alkaloids from the marine red alga Martensia fragilis. Tetrahedron Lett. 24 20 (1983) 2087-2090
159. Kirsch K.D., Valentine J.F., and Heck K.L. Parrotfish grazing on turtlegrass Thalassia testudinum: evidence for the importance of seagrass consumption in food web dynamics of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 227 (2002) 71-85
160. Klumpp D.W., Salitaespinosa J.S., and Fortes M.D. The role of epiphytic periphyton and macroinvertebrate grazers in the trophic flux of a tropical seagrass community. Aquat. Bot. 43 4 (1992) 327-349
161. Klumpp D.W., Salitaespinosa J.T., and Fortes M.D. Feeding ecology and trophic role of sea urchins in a tropical seagrass community. Aquat. Bot. 45 2-3 (1993) 205-229
162. Kohler S.T., and Kohler C.C. Dead bleached coral provides new surfaces for dinoflagellates implicated in ciguatera fish poisonings. Environ. Biol. Fishes 35 (1992) 413-416
163. Koike K., Ishimaru T., and Murano M. Distributions of benthic dinoflagellates in Akajima Island, Okinawa, Japan. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 57 12 (1991) 2261-2264
164. Kurata K., Taniguchi K., Agatsuma Y., and Suzuki M. Diterpenoid feeding deterrents from Laurencia saitoi. Phytochemistry 47 3 (1998) 363-369
165. Kyomo J. Feeding patterns, habits and food storage in Pilumnus vespertilio (Brachyura: Xanthidae). Bull. Mar. Sci. 65 (1999) 381-389
166. Lapointe B.E., Barile P.J., Yentsch C.S., Littler M.M., Littler D.S., and Kakuk B. The relative importance of nutrient enrichment and herbivory on macroalgal communities near Norman's Pond Cay, Exumas Cays, Bahamas: a "natural" enrichment experiment. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 298 (2004) 275-301
167. Lehane L. Ciguatera Fish Poisoning: A Review in a Risk-assessment Framework (1999), National Office of Animal and Plant Health, Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Australia, Canberra pp. 82
168. Lehane L., and Lewis R.J. Ciguatera: recent advances but the risk remains. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 61 2-3 (2000) 91-125
169. Lewis S.M. Herbivory on coral reefs: algal susceptibility to herbivorous fishes. Oecologia 65 3 (1985) 370-375
170. Lewis S.M., Norris J.N., and Searles R.B. The regulation of morphological plasticity in tropical reef algae by herbivory. Ecology 68 3 (1987) 636-641
171. Lewis R.J., and Holmes M.J. Origin and transfer of toxins involved in ciguatera. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., C 106 3 (1993) 615-628
172. Lewis R.J., Holmes M.J., and Sellin M. Invertebrates implicated in the transfer of gambiertoxins to the benthic carnivore Pomadasys maculatus. Mem. Queensl. Mus. 34 (1994) 561-564
173. Lewis R.J., Sellin M., Gillespie N.C., Holmes M.J., Keys A., Street R., Smythe H., Thaggard H., and Bryce S. Ciguatera and herbivores - uptake and accumulation of ciguatoxins in Ctenochaetus striatus on the Great Barrier Reef. Mem. Queensl. Mus. 34 (1994) 565-570
174. Lindquist N., and Hay M.E. Can small rare prey be chemically defended? The case for marine larvae. Ecology 76 4 (1995) 1347-1358
175. Lison de Loma T., and Ballesteros E. Microspatial variability inside epilithic algal communities within territories of the damselfish Stegastes nigricans at La Reunion (Indian Ocean). Bot. Mar. 45 (2002) 316-323
176. Lison de Loma T.L., Conand C., Harmelin-Vivien M., and Ballesteros E. Food selectivity of Tripneustes gratilla (L.) (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) in oligotrophic and nutrient-enriched coral reefs at La Reunion (Indian Ocean). Bull. Mar. Sci. 70 3 (2002) 927-938
177. Littler D.S., and Littler D.S. Caribbean Reef Plants (2000), OffShore Graphics, Inc., Washington, D.C. pp. 542
178. Littler M.M., and Arnold K.E. Primary productivity of marine macroalgal functional form groups from southwestern North America. J. Phycol. 18 (1982) 307-311
179. Littler M.M., and Littler D.S. Models of tropical reef biogenesis: the contribution of algae. Prog. Phycol. Res. 3 (1984) 323-364
180. Lopez D.A., Gonzalez M.L., and Perez M.C. Feeding and growth in the keyhole limpet, Fissurella picta (Gmelin, 1791). J. Shellfish Res. 22 1 (2003) 165-169
181. Macia S. The effects of sea urchin grazing and drift algal blooms on a subtropical seagrass bed community. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 246 1 (2000) 53-67
182. Marshall R.A., Harper D.B., McRoberts W.C., and Dring M.J. Volatile bromocarbons produced by Falkenbergia stages of Asparagopsis spp. (Rhodophyta). Limnol. Oceanogr. 44 (1999) 1348-1352
183. Mattson W.J. Herbivory in relation to plant nitrogen content. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 11 (1980) 119-161
184. McCaffrey E.J., Shimizu M.M.K., Scheuer P.J., and Miyahara J.T. Seasonal abundance and toxicity of Gambierdiscus toxicus Adachi et Fukuyo from O'ahu, Hawai'i. In: Tosteson T.R. (Ed). Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Ciguatera Fish Poisoning, 1990, La Parguera, Puerto Rico (1992), Polyscience Publications, Quebec 145-153
185. McClanahan T.R., Cokos B.A., and Sala E. Algal growth and species composition under experimental control of herbivory, phosphorus and coral abundance in Glovers Reef, Belize. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 44 6 (2002) 441-451
186. McConnell O., and Fenical W. Halogen chemistry of the red alga Asparagopsis. Phytochemistry 16 (1977) 367-374
187. Meyer K.D., and Paul V.J. Intraplant variation in secondary metabolite concentration in three species of Caulerpa (Chlorophyta, Caulerpales) and its effects on herbivorous fishes. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 82 3 (1992) 249-257
188. Meyer K.D., Paul V.J., Sanger H.R., and Nelson S.G. Effects of seaweed extracts and secondary metabolites on feeding by the herbivorous surgeonfish Naso lituratus. Coral Reefs 13 2 (1994) 105-112
189. Morrison D. Comparing fish and urchin grazing in shallow and deeper coral reef algal communities. Ecology 69 (1988) 1367-1382
190. Morton S.L., and Faust M.A. Survey of toxic epiphytic dinoflagellates from the Belizean barrier reef ecosystem. Bull. Mar. Sci. 61 (1997) 899-906
191. Morton S.L., Norris D.R., and Bomber J.W. Effect of temperature, salinity and light intensity on the growth and seasonality of toxic dinoflagellates associated with ciguatera. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 157 1 (1992) 79-90
192. Munoz R.C., and Motta P.J. Interspecific aggression between two parrotfishes (Sparisoma, Scaridae) in the Florida Keys. Copeia 3 (2000) 674-683
193. Murakami H., Kato T., Mimura A., and Takahara Y. New indole derivatives from Martensia denticulata seaweed. Biosci. Biotech. Biochem. 58 (1994) 535-538
194. Nagle D.G., Camacho F.T., and Paul V.J. Dietary preferences of the opisthobranch mollusc Stylocheilus longicauda for secondary metabolites produced by the tropical cyanobacterium Lyngbya majuscula. Mar. Biol. 132 (1998) 267-273
195. Nagle D.G., and Paul V.J. Production of secondary metabolites by filamentous tropical marine cyanobacteria: ecological functions of the compounds. J. Phycol. 35 (1999) 1412-1421
196. Nagle D.G., Paul V.J., and Roberts M.A. Ypaoamide, a new broadly acting feeding deterrent from the marine cyanobacterium Lyngbya majuscula. Tetrahedron Lett. 37 35 (1996) 6263-6266
197. Nakahara H., Sakami T., Chinain M., and Ishida Y. The role of macroalgae in epiphytism of the toxic dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus (Dinophyceae). Phycol. Res. 44 (1996) 113-117
198. Nelson S.G., and Tsutsui R.N. Browsing by herbivorous reef fish on Gracilaria edulis (Rhodophyta) on Guam. Am. Zool. 20 4 (1980) 921
199. Nelson T.A., Nelson A.V., and Tjoelker M. Seasonal and spatial patterns of "green tides" (Ulvoid algal blooms) and related water quality parameters in the coastal waters of Washington state, USA. Bot. Mar. 46 3 (2003) 263-275
200. Norderhaug K.M. Use of red algae as hosts by kelp-associated amphipods. Mar. Biol. 144 2 (2004) 225-230
201. Norris, J.N., Fenical, W., 1982. Chemical defenses in tropical marine algae. In: Rutzler, K., Macintyre, I.G. (Eds.), The Atlantic Barrier Reef Ecosystem at Carrie Bow Cay, Belize. Smithson. Contrib. Mar. Sci. 12, 417-431.
202. N'Yeurt A.D.R., and Payri C.E. A preliminary annotated checklist of the marine algae and seagrasses of the Wallis Islands (French Overseas Territory of Wallis and Futuna), South Pacific. Aust. Syst. Bot. 17 4 (2004) 367-397
203. Ojeda F.P., and Munoz A.A. Feeding selectivity of the herbivorous fish Scartichthys viridis: effects on macroalgal community structure in a temperate rocky intertidal coastal zone. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 184 (1999) 219-229
204. Okazaki M., Pentecost A., Tanaka Y., and Miyata M. A study of calcium carbonate deposition in the genus Padina (Phaeophyceae, Dictyotales). Br. Phycol. J. 21 2 (1986) 217-224
205. Overholtzer K.L., and Motta P.J. Comparative resource use by juvenile parrotfishes in the Florida Keys. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 177 (1999) 177-187
206. Parameswaran P.S., Bhat K.L., Das B., Kamat S.Y., and Harnos S. Halogenated terpenoids from the brown alga Padina tetrastromatica (Hauck). Indian J. Chem. Sect. B 33 10 (1994) 1006-1008
207. Paul V.J. Feeding deterrent effects of algal natural products. Bull. Mar. Sci. 41 2 (1987) 514-522
208. Paul V.J., Cruz-Rivera E., and Thacker R.W. Chemical mediation of macroalgal-herbivore interactions: ecological and evolutionary perspectives. In: McClintock J., and Baker W. (Eds). Marine Chemical Ecology (2001), CRC Press, Boca Raton 227-265
209. Paul V.J., and Fenical W. Toxic feeding deterrents from the tropical marine alga Caulerpa bikinensis (Chlorophyta). Tetrahedron Lett. 23 48 (1982) 5017-5020
210. Paul V.J., and Fenical W. Isolation of halimedatrial, chemical defense adaptation in the calcareous reef-building alga Halimeda. Science 221 4612 (1983) 747-749
211. Paul V.J., and Fenical W. Bioactive terpenoids from Caribbean marine algae of the genera Penicillus and Udotea (Chlorophyta). Tetrahedron 40 15 (1984) 2913-2918
212. Paul V.J., and Fenical W. Diterpenoid metabolites from Pacific marine algae of the order Caulerpales (Chlorophyta). Phytochemistry 24 10 (1985) 2239-2243
213. Paul V.J., and Fenical W. Chemical defense in tropical green algae, order Caulerpales. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 34 1-2 (1986) 157-169
214. Paul V.J., Fenical W., Raffii S., and Clardy J. The isolation of new norcycloartene triterpenoids from the tropical marine alga Tydemania expeditionitis (Chlorophyta). Tetrahedron Lett. 23 34 (1982) 3459-3462
215. Paul V.J., Sun H.H., and Fenical W. Udoteal, a linear diterpenoid feeding deterrent from the tropical green alga Udotea flabellum. Phytochemistry 21 2 (1982) 468-469
216. Paul V.J., and Hay M.E. Seaweed susceptibility to herbivory: chemical and morphological correlates. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 33 3 (1986) 255-264
217. Paul V.J., Hay M.E., Duffy J.E., Fenical W., and Gustafson K. Chemical defense in the seaweed Ochtodes secundiramea (Montagne) Howe (Rhodophyta): effects of its monoterpenoid components upon diverse coral reef herbivores. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 114 2-3 (1987) 249-260
218. Paul V.J., Littler M.M., Littler D.S., and Fenical W. Evidence for chemical defense in tropical green alga Caulerpa ashmeadii (Caulerpaceae, Chlorophyta): isolation of new bioactive sesquiterpenoids. J. Chem. Ecol. 13 5 (1987) 1171-1185
219. Paul V.J., Meyer K.D., Nelson S.G., and Sanger H.R. Deterrent effects of seaweed extracts and secondary metabolites on feeding by the rabbitfish Siganus spinus. Proceedings of the Seventh International Coral Reef Symposium, vol. 2 (1992) 867-874
220. Paul V.J., Nelson S.G., and Sanger H.R. Feeding preferences of adult and juvenile rabbitfish Siganus argenteus in relation to chemical defenses of tropical seaweeds. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 60 1-2 (1990) 23-34
221. Paul V.J., and Pennings S.C. Diet-derived chemical defenses in the sea hare Stylocheilus longicauda (Quoy Et Gaimard 1824). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 151 2 (1991) 227-243
222. Paul V.J., and Van Alstyne K.L. Chemical defense and chemical variation in some tropical Pacific species of Halimeda (Halimedaceae, Chlorophyta). Coral Reefs 6 3-4 (1988) 263-269
223. Paul V.J., and Van Alstyne K.L. Activation of chemical defenses in the tropical green algae Halimeda spp. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 160 2 (1992) 191-203
224. Payri C.E. Carbonate production of some calcifying algae in a French Polynesia coral reef. Bull. Soc. Geol. Fr. 166 1 (1995) 77-84
225. Peckol P., and Rivers J.S. Physiological responses of the opportunistic macroalgae Cladophora vagabunda (L) Vandenhoek and Gracilaria tikvahiae (Mclachlan) to environmental disturbances associated with eutrophication. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 190 1 (1995) 1-16
226. Pedersen M.F., and Borum J. Nutrient control of estuarine macroalgae: growth strategy and the balance between nitrogen requirements and uptake. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 161 (1997) 155-163
227. Pennings S.C., Nadeau M.T., and Paul V.J. Selectivity and growth of the generalist herbivore Dolabella auricularia feeding upon complementary resources. Ecology 74 3 (1993) 879-890
228. Pennings S.C., Pablo S.R., Paul V.J., and Duffy J.E. Effects of sponge secondary metabolites in different diets on feeding by three groups of consumers. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 180 1 (1994) 137-149
229. Pennings S.C., and Paul V.J. Effect of plant toughness, calcification, and chemistry on herbivory by Dolabella auricularia. Ecology 73 5 (1992) 1606-1619
230. Pennings S.C., Weiss A.M., and Paul V.J. Secondary metabolites of the cyanobacterium Microcoleus lyngbyaceus and the sea hare Stylocheilus longicauda: Palatability and toxicity. Mar. Biol. 126 4 (1996) 735-743
231. Pereira R.C., Soares A.R., Teixeira V.L., Villaca R., and da Gama B.A.P. Variation in chemical defenses against herbivory in southwestern Atlantic Stypopodium zonale (Phaeophyta). Bot. Mar. 47 3 (2004) 202-208
232. Pillans R.D., Franklin C.E., and Tibbetts I.R. Food choice in Siganus fuscescens: influence of macrophyte nutrient content and availability. J. Fish Biol. 64 2 (2004) 297-309
233. Pocsidio G.N., and Dimaano L.M. The population densities of potentially toxic epiphytic dinoflagellates in Lingsat Reef, La Union Province, Philippines. Philip. Agric. Scientist 87 2 (2004) 148-159
234. Polunin N.V.C., Harmelinvivien M., and Galzin R. Contrasts in algal food processing among five herbivorous coral reef fishes. J. Fish Biol. 47 3 (1995) 455-465
235. Poore A.G.B. Selective herbivory by amphipods inhabiting the brown alga Zonaria angustata. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 107 1-2 (1994) 113-123
236. Poore A.G.B., and Steinberg P.D. Preference-performance relationships and effects of host plant choice in an herbivorous marine amphipod. Ecol. Monog. 69 4 (1999) 443-464
237. Popowski G., Delgado G., Sánchez M., and Nodar R.E. Gambierdiscus toxicus Adachi y Fukuyo, en el litoral norte de Ciudad de la Habana. Rev. Invest. Mar. 22 1 (2001) 69-72
238. Ragan M.A., and Glombitza K.W. Phlorotannins, brown algal polyphenols. Prog. Phycol. Res. 4 (1986) 129-241
239. Rickards R.W., Rothschild J.M., Willis A.C., de Chazal N.M., Kirk J., Kirk K., Saliba K.J., and Smith G.D. Calothrixins A and B, novel pentacyclic metabolites from Calothrix cyanobacteria with potent activity against malaria parasites and human cancer cells. Tetrahedron 55 47 (1999) 13513-13520
240. Rogers C.N., de Nys R., and Steinberg P.D. Predation on juvenile Aplysia parvula and other small anaspidean, ascoglossan, and nudibranch gastropods by pycnogonids. Veliger 43 4 (2000) 330-337
241. Rogers C.N., de Nys R., and Steinberg P.D. Effects of algal diet on the performance and susceptibility to predation of the sea hare Aplysia parvula. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 236 (2002) 241-254
242. Rose C.D., Sharp W.C., Kenworthy W.J., Hunt J.H., Lyons W.G., Prager E.J., Valentine J.F., Hall M.O., Whitfield P.E., and Fourqurean J.W. Overgrazing of a large seagrass bed by the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus in outer Florida Bay. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 190 (1999) 211-222
243. Rubenstein D.R., and Wikelski M. Seasonal changes in food quality: A proximate cue for reproductive timing in marine iguanas. Ecology 84 11 (2003) 3013-3023
244. Russell D.J., and Balazs G.H. Colonization by the alien marine alga Hypnea musciformis (Wulfen) J Ag (Rhodophyta, Gigartinales) in the Hawaiian Islands and its utilization by the green turtle, Chelonia mydas L. Aquat. Bot. 47 1 (1994) 53-60
245. Sakamoto B., Hokama Y., Horgen F.D., Scheuer P.J., Kan Y., and Nagai H. Isolation of a sulfoquinovosyl monoacylglycerol from Bryopsis sp. (chlorophyta): Identification of a factor causing a possible species-specific ecdysis response in Gambierdiscus toxicus (dinophyceae). J. Phycol. 36 5 (2000) 924-931
246. Sanson M., Reyes J., Afonso-Carrillo J., and Munoz E. Sublittoral and deep-water red and brown algae new from the Canary Islands. Bot. Mar. 45 1 (2002) 35-49
247. Sasaki H., Kataoka H., Murakami A., and Kawai H. Inorganic ion compositions in brown algae, with special reference to sulfuric acid ion accumulations. Hydrobiologia 512 1-3 (2004) 255-262
248. Sato M., and Wada K. Resource utilization for decorating in three intertidal majid crabs (Brachyura: Majidae). Mar. Biol. 137 4 (2000) 705-714
249. Sawai Y., Fujita Y., Sakata K., and Tamashiro E. Chemical studies of feeding inhibitors for marine herbivores 3. 20-Hydroxy-4,8,13,17-tetramethyl-4,8,12,16-eicosatetraenoic acid, a new feeding deterrent against herbivorous gastropods, from the subtropical brown alga Turbinaria ornata. Fish. Sci. 60 2 (1994) 199-201
250. Schaffelke B. Short-term nutrient pulses as tools to assess responses of coral reef macroalgae to enhanced nutrient availability. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 182 (1999) 305-310
251. Schnitzler I., Pohnert G., Hay M.E., and Boland W. Chemical defense of brown algae (Dictyopteris spp.) against the herbivorous amphipod Ampithoe longimana. Oecologia 126 4 (2001) 515-521
252. Schupp P.J., and Paul V.J. Calcium carbonate and secondary metabolites in tropical seaweeds: variable effects on herbivorous fishes. Ecology 75 4 (1994) 1172-1185
253. Seminoff J.A., Resendiz A., and Nichols W.J. Diet of East Pacific green turtles (Chelonia mydas) in the central Gulf of California, Mexico. J. Herpetol. 36 3 (2002) 447-453
254. Sheu J.H., Huang S.Y., and Duh C.Y. Cytotoxic oxygenated desmosterols of the red alga Galaxaura marginata. J. Nat. Prod. 59 1 (1996) 23-26
255. Sheu J.H., Huang S.Y., Wang G.H., and Duh C.Y. A study on cytotoxic oxygenated desmosterols isolated from the red alga Galaxaura marginata. J. Nat. Prod. 60 9 (1997) 900-903
256. Sheu J.H., Wang G.H., Sung P.J., Chiu Y.H., and Duh C.Y. Cytotoxic sterols from the Formosan brown alga Turbinaria ornata. Planta Med. 63 6 (1997) 571-572
257. Sheu J.H., Wang G.H., Sung P.J., and Duh C.Y. New cytotoxic oxygenated fucosterols from the brown alga Turbinaria conoides. J. Nat. Prod. 62 2 (1999) 224-227
258. Shimizu Y., Shimizu H., Scheuer P.J., Hokama Y., Oyama M., and Miyahara J.T. Gambierdiscus toxicus, a ciguatera-causing dinoflagellate from Hawaii. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 48 6 (1982) 811-813
259. Shoeib N.A., Bibby M.C., Blunden G., Linley P.A., Swaine D.J., Swaine D.J., Wheelhouse R.T., and Wright C.W. In-vitro cytotoxic activities of the major bromophenols of the red alga Polysiphonia lanosa and some novel synthetic isomers. J. Nat. Prod. 67 9 (2004) 1445-1449
260. Sluka R.D., and Miller M.W. Herbivorous fish assemblages and herbivory pressure on Laamu Atoll, Republic of Maldives. Coral Reefs 20 3 (2001) 255-262
261. Soares A.R., Teixeira V.L., Pereira R.C., and Villaca R. Variation on diterpene production by the Brazilian alga Stypopodium zonale (Dictyotales, Phaeophyta). Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 31 11 (2003) 1347-1350
262. Solandt J.L., and Campbell A.C. Macroalgal feeding characteristics of the sea urchin Diadema antillarum Philippi at Discovery Bay, Jamaica. Caribb. J. Sci. 37 3-4 (2001) 227-238
263. Sommer U. Periphyton architecture and susceptibility to grazing by periwinkles (Littorina littorea, Gastropoda). Int. Rev. Hydrobiol. 84 2 (1999) 197-204
264. Sotka E.E., and Hay M.E. Geographic variation among herbivore populations in tolerance for a chemically rich seaweed. Ecology 83 10 (2002) 2721-2735
265. Sotka E.E., Taylor R.B., and Hay M.E. Tissue-specific induction of resistance to herbivores in a brown seaweed: the importance of direct grazing versus waterborne signals from grazed neighbors. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 277 1 (2002) 1-12
266. Stachowicz J.J., and Hay M.E. Facultative mutualism between an herbivorous crab and a coralline alga: advantages of eating noxious seaweeds. Oecologia 105 3 (1996) 377-387
267. Stachowicz J.J., and Hay M.E. Reducing predation through chemically mediated camouflage: indirect effects of plant defenses on herbivores. Ecology 80 2 (1999) 495-509
268. Stimson J., Larned S.T., and Conklin E. Effects of herbivory, nutrient levels, and introduced algae on the distribution and abundance of the invasive macroalga Dictyosphaeria cavernosa in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii. Coral Reefs 19 4 (2001) 343-357
269. Sturm E.A., and Horn M.H. Food habits, gut morphology and pH, and assimilation efficiency of the zebraperch Hermosilla azurea, an herbivorous kyphosid fish of temperate marine waters. Mar. Biol. 132 3 (1998) 515-522
270. Sun H.H., Paul V.J., and Fenical W. Avrainvilleol, a brominated diphenylmethane derivative with feeding deterrent properties from the tropical green alga Avrainvillea longicaulis. Phytochemistry 22 3 (1983) 743-745
271. Tahil A.S., and Juinio-Menez M.A. Natural diet, feeding periodicity and functional response to food density of the abalone, Haliotis asinina L., (Gastropoda). Aquacul. Res. 30 2 (1999) 95-107
272. Takahashi S., Matsunaga T., Hasegawa C., Saito H., Fujita D., Kiuchi F., and Tsuda Y. Martefragin A, a novel indole alkaloid isolated from red alga, inhibits lipid peroxidation. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 46 10 (1998) 1527-1529
273. Taniguchi K., Yamada J., Kurata K., and Suzuki M. Feeding deterrents from the brown alga Dictyopteris undulata against the abalone Haliotis discus Hannai. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 59 2 (1993) 339-343
274. Targett N.M., Boettcher A.A., Targett T.E., and Vrolijk N.H. Tropical marine herbivore assimilation of phenolic-rich plants. Oecologia 103 2 (1995) 170-179
275. Taylor F.J.R. The distribution of the dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus in the eastern Caribbean. Proceedings of the Fifth International Coral Reef Congress, vol. 4. Tahiti (1985) 423-428
276. Taylor F.J.R., and Gustavson M.S. An underwater survey of the organism chiefly responsible for "ciguatera" fish poisoning in the eastern Caribbean region: the benthic dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus. In: Stefanon A., and Flemming N.J. (Eds). Proceedings of the Seventh International Diving Science Symposium. Padova, Italy, 1983 (1985) 95-111
277. Taylor R.B., Lindquist N., Kubanek J., and Hay M.E. Intraspecific variation in palatability and defensive chemistry of brown seaweeds: effects on herbivore fitness. Oecologia 136 3 (2003) 412-423
278. Taylor R.B., Sotka E., and Hay M.E. Tissue-specific induction of herbivore resistance: seaweed response to amphipod grazing. Oecologia 132 1 (2002) 68-76
279. Thacker R.W., Ginsburg D.W., and Paul V.J. Effects of herbivore exclusion and nutrient enrichment on coral reef macroalgae and cyanobacteria. Coral Reefs 19 4 (2001) 318-329
280. Thacker R.W., Nagle D.G., and Paul V.J. Effects of repeated exposures to marine cyanobacterial secondary metabolites on feeding by juvenile rabbitfish and parrotfish. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 147 1-3 (1997) 21-29
281. Thomassin B.A., Mohammed E., Ali Halidi A., Quod J.P., Maggiorani J.M., Berland B., Grzebyk D., and Coqueugniot J. Evolution of Gambierdiscus toxicus populations in the coral reef complex of Mayotte Island (SW Indian Ocean) during the 1985-1991 period. Bull. Soc. Path. Ex. 85 (1992) 449-452
282. Tindall, D.R., Dickey, R.W., Carlson, R.D., Morey-Gaines, G., 1984. Ciguatoxigenic dinoflagellates from the Caribbean Sea. In: Ragelis, E.P. (Ed.), Seafood Toxins, American Chemical Society Symposium Series, no. 262, pp. 225-240.
283. Tindall, D.R., Morton, S.L., 1998. Community dynamics and physiology of epiphytic/benthic dinoflagellates associated with ciguatera. In: Anderson, D.M., Cembella, A.D., Hallegraeff, G.M. (Eds.), Physiological Ecology of Harmful Algal Blooms, NATO ASI Series, vol G 41. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 293-314.
284. Tsuda R.T., and Bryan P.G. Food preferences of juvenile Siganus rostratus and S. spinus in Guam. Copeia 1973 (1973) 604-606
285. Turquet J., Quod J.P., Ten-Hage L., Dahalani Y., and Wendling B. Example of a Gambierdiscus toxicus flare-up following the 1998 coral bleaching event in Mayotte Island (Comoros, south-west Indian Ocean). In: Hallegraeff G.M., Blackburn S.I., Bolch C.J., and Lewis R.J. (Eds). Harmful Algal Blooms 2000 (2001), Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO 50-53
286. Turquet J., Quod J.P., Couté A., and Faust M.A. Assemblage of benthic dinoflagellates and monitoring of harmful species in Reunion Island, SW Indian Ocean, 1993-1996. In: Reguera B., Blanco J., Fernández M.A., and Wyatt T. (Eds). Harmful Algae (1998), Xunta de Galicia and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO 44-47
287. Tuya F., Martin J.A., Reuss G.M., and Luque A. Food preferences of the sea urchin Diadema antillarum in Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, central-east Atlantic Ocean). J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 81 5 (2001) 845-849
288. Unson M.D., and Faulkner D.J. Cyanobacterial symbiont biosynthesis of chlorinated metabolites from Dysidea herbacea (Porifera). Experientia 49 4 (1993) 349-353
289. Unson M.D., Holland N.D., and Faulkner D.J. A brominated secondary metabolite synthesized by the cyanobacterial symbiont of a marine sponge and accumulation of the crystalline metabolite in the sponge tissue. Mar. Biol. 119 1 (1994) 1-11
290. Upatham E.S., Sawatpeera S., Kruatrachue M., Chitramvong Y.P., Singhagraiwan T., Pumthong T., and Jarayabhand P. Food utilization by Haliotis asinina Linnaeus. J. Shellfish Res. 17 3 (1998) 771-776
291. Valentine J.F., and Heck K.L. Seagrass herbivory: evidence for the continued grazing of marine grasses. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 176 (1999) 291-302
292. Valentine J.F., Heck K.L., Kirsch K.D., and Webb D. Role of sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus grazing in regulating subtropical turtlegrass Thalassia testudinum meadows in the Florida Keys (USA). Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 200 (2000) 213-228
293. Van Alstyne K.L., and Houser L.T. Dimethylsulfide release during macroinvertebrate grazing and its role as an activated chemical defense. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 250 (2003) 175-181
294. Van Alstyne K.L., Wolfe G.V., Freidenburg T.L., Neill A., and Hicken C. Activated defense systems in marine macroalgae: evidence for an ecological role for DMSP cleavage. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 213 (2001) 53-65
295. Villareal T.A., and Morton S.L. Use of cell-specific PAM-fluorometry to characterize host shading in the epiphytic dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus. P.S.Z.N.: Marine Ecology 23 2 (2002) 127-140
296. Wahl M., and Hay M.E. Associational resistance and shared doom: effects of epibiosis on herbivory. Oecologia 102 3 (1995) 329-340
297. Wakefield R.L., and Murray S.N. Factors influencing food choice by the seaweed-eating marine snail Norrisia norrisi (Trochidae). Mar. Biol. 130 4 (1998) 631-642
298. Wear D.J., Sullivan M.J., Moore A.D., and Millie D.F. Effects of water-column enrichment on the production dynamics of three seagrass species and their epiphytic algae. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 179 (1999) 201-213
299. Wefer G. Carbonate production by algae Halimeda, Penicillus and Padina. Nature 285 (1980) 323-324
300. Wessels M., Konig G.M., and Wright A.D. A new tyrosine kinase inhibitor from the marine brown alga Stypopodium zonale. J. Nat. Prod. 62 6 (1999) 927-930
301. White T.C.R. The inadequate environment: nitrogen and the abundance of animals (1993), Springer-Verlag, New York pp. 425
302. Williamson J.E., Carson D.G., de Nys R., and Steinberg P.D. Demographic consequences of an ontogenetic shift by a sea urchin in response to host plant chemistry. Ecology 85 5 (2004) 1355-1371
303. Wisespongpand P., and Kuniyoshi M. Bioactive phloroglucinols from the brown alga Zonaria diesingiana. J. Appl. Phycol. 15 2-3 (2003) 225-228
304. Withers N. Toxin production, nutrition and distribution of Gambierdiscus toxicus (Hawaiian strain). Proceedings of the Fourth International Coral Reef Symposium, vol. 2. Manila (1981) 449-451
305. Woelkerling W.J. The Audouinella (Acrochaetium-Rhodochorton) complex (Rhodophyta): present perspectives. Phycologia 22 1 (1983) 59-92
306. Wood A.D., and Buxton C.D. Aspects of the biology of the abalone Haliotis midae (Linne, 1758) on the east coast of South Africa. 1. Feeding biology. S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci. 17 (1996) 61-68
307. Wright J.T., de Nys R., Poore A.G.B., and Steinberg P.D. Chemical defense in a marine alga: heritability and the potential for selection by herbivores. Ecology 85 11 (2004) 2946-2959
308. Yasumoto, T., 1979. Implication of Dinoflagellates in Marine Food Poisoning in the Tropical Pacific. Report No. UNIHI-SEAGRANTCR8201.
309. Yasumoto T., Inoue A., Bagnis R., and Garcon M. Ecological survey on a dinoflagellate possibly responsible for the induction of ciguatera. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 45 3 (1979) 395-399
310. Yasumoto T. Chemistry, etiology, and food chain dynamics of marine toxins. Proc. Jpn. Acad. Ser. B 81 2 (2005) 43-51
311. Yasumoto T., Inoue A., Ochi T., Fujimoto K., Oshima Y., Fukuyo Y., Adachi R., Bagnis R., and Fujimoto K. Environmental studies on a toxic dinoflagellate responsible for ciguatera. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish 46 11 (1980) 1397-1404
312. Yotsu-Yamashita M., Yasumoto T., Yamada S., Bajarias F.F.A., Formeloza M.A., Romero M.L., and Fukuyo Y. Identification of polycavernoside A as the causative agent of the fatal food poisoning resulting from ingestion of the red alga Gracilaria edulis in the Philippines. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 17 9 (2004) 1265-1271
313. Zapata O., and McMillan C. Phenolic acids in seagrasses. Aquat. Bot. 7 4 (1979) 307-317