Nanostructured coatings for improved charge delivery to neurons

Nanotechnology and Neuroscience: Nano-Electronic, Photonic and Mechanical Neuronal Interfacing

Volumn , Issue , 2014, Pages 71-134

  Kozai, Takashi D Y ^a   Alba, Nicolas A ^a   Zhang, Huanan ^b   Kotov, Nicolas A ^b   Gaunt, Robert A ^c   Cui, Xinyan Tracy ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ELECTRODES; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; MICROELECTRODES;

ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL; ELECTROCHEMICAL MECHANISMS; ELECTRODE MATERIAL; ELECTRODE/ELECTROLYTE INTERFACES; NANOSTRUCTURED COATINGS; NEURAL STIMULATIONS; STIMULATION ELECTRODES;

ELECTROCHEMICAL ELECTRODES;

EID: 84906786258     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4899-8038-0_4     Document Type: Chapter

References (330)

1. McWilliam, J.A.: Electrical stimulation of the heart in man. BMJ 1, 348–350 (1889). doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348
2. House, W.F.: Cochlear implants. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 85 suppl 27, 1–93 (1976)
3. Vidailhet, M. et al.: Bilateral Deep-Brain Stimulation of the Globus Pallidus in Primary Generalized Dystonia. New England Journal of Medicine 352, 459–467 (2005). doi:10.1056/NEJMoa042187
4. Benabid, A.L. et al.: Long-term suppression of tremor by chronic stimulation of the ventral intermediate thalamic nucleus. The Lancet 337, 403–406 (1991). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0140-6736(91)91175-T
5. Deuschl, G. et al.: A Randomized Trial of Deep-Brain Stimulation for Parkinson’s Disease. New England Journal of Medicine 355, 896–908 (2006). doi:10.1056/NEJMoa060281
6. Halpern, C.H. et al.: Deep brain stimulation in the treatment of obesity. J. Neurosurg. 109, 625–634 (2008). doi:10.3171/JNS/2008/109/10/0625
7. Sani, S., Jobe, K., Smith, A., Kordower, J.H. and Bakay, R.A. Deep brain stimulation for treatment of obesity in rats. J. Neurosurg. 107, 809–813 (2007). doi:10.3171/JNS-07/10/0809
8. Mayberg, H.S., et al.: Deep Brain Stimulation for Treatment-Resistant Depression. Neuron 45, 651–660 (2005). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2005.02.014
9. Richardson, D.E. and Akil, H.: Pain reduction by electrical brain stimulation in man. Part 1: Acute administration in periaqueductal and periventricular sites. J. Neurosurg. 47, 178–183 (1977). doi:10.3171/jns.1977.47.2.0178
10. Richardson, D.E. and Akil, H.: Pain reduction by electrical brain stimulation in man. Part 2: Chronic self-administration in the periventricular gray matter. J. Neurosurg. 47, 184–194 (1977). doi:10.3171/jns.1977.47.2.0184
11. Penry, J. K. and Dean, J.C.: Prevention of intractable partial seizures by intermittent vagal stimulation in humans: preliminary results. Epilepsia 31 Suppl 2, S40–43 (1990).
12. Rutecki, P.: Anatomical, physiological, and theoretical basis for the antiepileptic effect of vagus nerve stimulation. Epilepsia 31 Suppl 2, S1–6 (1990).
13. Peckham, P.H. and Knutson, J.S.: Functional electrical stimulation for neuromuscular applications. Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 7, 327–360 (2005). doi:10.1146/annurev.bioeng.6.040803.140103
14. Durand, D.M.: Electric Stimulation of Excitable Tissue, Ch. 17. In: Bronzino, J.D. (ed.), The Biomedical Engineering Handbook. 2nd edn., CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, FL (2000).
15. Gaunt, R.A. and Prochazka, A.: Control of urinary bladder function with devices: successes and failures. Prog. Brain. Res. 152, 163–194 (2006) doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(05)52011-9
16. Dobelle, W.H., Mladejovsky, M.G. and Girvin, J.P.: Artificial vision for the blind: electrical stimulation of visual cortex offers hope for a functional prosthesis. Science 183, 440–444 (1974)
17. Abell, T. et al. Gastric electrical stimulation for medically refractory gastroparesis. Gastroenterology 125, 421–428 (2003). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0016-5085(03)00878-3
18. O’Doherty, J. E. et al. Active tactile exploration using a brain-machine-brain interface. Nature 479, 228–231 (2011). doi:10.1038/nature10489, nature10489 [pii]
19. Van den Brand, R., et al.: Restoring voluntary control of locomotion after paralyzing spinal cord injury. Science 336, 1182–1185 (2012) doi:10.1126/science.1217416, 336/6085/1182 [pii]
20. Hirst, G.D. and Edwards, F.R.: Sympathetic neuroeffector transmission in arteries and arterioles. Physiol. Rev. 69, 546–604 (1989)
21. Hodgkin, A.L., Huxley, A.F. and Katz, B.: Measurement of current-voltage relations in the membrane of the giant axon of Loligo. J. Physiol. 116, 424–448 (1952)
22. Kuffler, S.W. and Vaughan Williams, E.M.: Small-nerve junctional potentials; the distribution of small motor nerves to frog skeletal muscle, and the membrane characteristics of the fibres they innervate. J. Physiol. 121, 289–317 (1953)
23. Hodgkin, A.L. and Huxley, A.F.: A quantitative description of membrane current and its application to conduction and excitation in nerve. J. Physiol. 117, 500–544 (1952) Physiol. Rev. 45, 596–617 (1965)
24. Skou, J.C.: The influence of some cations on an adenosine triphosphatase from peripheral nerves. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 23, 394–401 (1957). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0006-3002(57)90343-8
25. Fonnum, F.: Glutamate: a neurotransmitter in mammalian brain. J. Neurochem. 42, 1–11 (1984)
26. Spehlmann, R.: Acetylcholine and the synaptic transmission of non-specific impulses to the visual cortex. Brain 94, 139–150 (1971).
27. Foote, S.L., Freedman, R. and Oliver, A.P.: Effects of putative neurotransmitters on neuronal activity in monkey auditory cortex. Brain. Res. 86, 229–242 (1975). 10006-8993(75)90699-X [pii]
28. Loewi, O.: Über humorale Übertragbarkeit der Herznervenwirkung. Pflügers Arch. 204, 629–640 (1924). doi:10.1007/bf01731235
29. Agnew, W.S., Moore, A.C., Levinson, S.R. and Raftery, M.A.: Identification of a large molecular weight peptide associated with a tetrodotoxin binding protein from the electroplax of Electrophorus electricus. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 92, 860–866 (1980). 10006-291X(80)90782-2 [pii]
30. Beneski, D.A. and Catterall, W.A.: Covalent labeling of protein components of the sodium channel with a photoactivable derivative of scorpion toxin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 77, 639–643 (1980)
31. Bendahhou, S., Cummins, T.R., Tawil, R., Waxman, S.G. and Ptacek, L.J.: Activation and inactivation of the voltage-gated sodium channel: role of segment S5 revealed by a novel hyperkalaemic periodic paralysis mutation. The Journal of neuroscience: the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience 19, 4762–4771 (1999)
32. Lin, W.H., Wright, D.E., Muraro, N.I. and Baines, R.A.: Alternative splicing in the voltage-gated sodium channel DmNav regulates activation, inactivation, and persistent current. J. Neurophysiol. 102, 1994–2006 (2009).
33. Keynes, R.D. and Elinder, F.: Modelling the activation, opening, inactivation and reopening of the voltage-gated sodium channel. Proc. Biol. Sci. 265, 263–270 (1998). doi:10.1098/rspb.1998.0291
34. Eyzaguirre, C. and Kuffler, S.W.: Further study of soma, dendrite, and axon excitation in single neurons. The Journal of General Physiology 39, 121–153 (1955). doi:10.1085/jgp.39.1.121
35. Cannon, W.: Biographical Memoir: Henry Pickering Bowdich. National Academy of Sciences 17, 181–196 (1922)
36. Theunissen, F. and Miller, J.P.: Temporal encoding in nervous systems: a rigorous definition. J Comput. Neurosci. 2, 149–162 (1995)
37. Optican, L.M. and Richmond, B.J.: Temporal encoding of two-dimensional patterns by single units in primate inferior temporal cortex. III. Information theoretic analysis. J. Neurophysiol. 57, 162–178 (1987)
38. Buonomano, D.V. and Merzenich, M.M.: Temporal Information Transformed into Spatial Code by Neural Network with Realistic Properties. Science 267, 17 (1995)
39. Andersen, R.A., Essick, G.K. and Siegel, R.M.: Encoding of spatial location by posterior parietal neurons. Science 230, 456–458 (1985)
40. Hubel, D.H. and Wiesel, T.N.: Receptive fields of single neurones in the cat’s striate cortex. The Journal of Physiology 148, 574–591 (1959)
41. Henneman, E., Somjen, G. and Carpenter, D.O.: Functional Significance of Cell Size in Spinal Motoneurons. J. Neurophysiol. 28, 560–580 (1965)
42. Cope, T.C., Sokoloff, A.J., Dacko, S.M., Huot, R. and Feingold, E.: Stability of motor-unit force thresholds in the decerebrate cat. J. Neurophysiol. 78, 3077–3082 (1997)
43. Burke, R.E., et al: A HRP study of the relation between cell size and motor unit type in cat ankle extensor motoneurons. The Journal of comparative neurology 209, 17–28 (1982) doi:10.1002/cne.902090103
44. Ulfhake, B. and Kellerth, J.O.: Does alpha-motoneurone size correlate with motor unit type in cat triceps surae? Brain Res. 251, 201–209 (1982). 10006-8993(82)90738-7 [pii]
45. Milner-Brown, H.S., Stein, R.B. and Yemm, R.: The orderly recruitment of human motor units during voluntary isometric contractions. J. Physiol. 230, 359–370 (1973)
46. Binder, M.C., Bawa, P., Ruenzel, P. and Henneman, E. Does orderly recruitment of motoneurons depend on the existence of different types of motor units? Neurosci. Lett. 36, 55–58 (1983)
47. Shoham, S., O’Connor, D.H. and Segev, R. How silent is the brain: is there a “dark matter” problem in neuroscience? Journal of Comparative Physiology a-Neuroethology Sensory Neural and Behavioral Physiology 192, 777–784 (2006). doi:10.1007/s00359-006-0117-6
48. Carrascal, L., Nieto-Gonzalez, J.L., Torres, B. and Nunez-Abades, P.: Diminution of voltage threshold plays a key role in determining recruitment of oculomotor nucleus motoneurons during postnatal development. PLoS ONE 6, e28748 (2011) doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0028748. PONE-D-11-20770 [pii]
49. Henneman, E., Somjen, G. and Carpenter, D.O.: Excitability and inhibitability of motoneurons of different sizes. J. Neurophysiol. 28, 599–620 (1965)
50. Burke, R.E., Walmsley, B. and Hodgson, J.A.: HRP anatomy of group Ia afferent contacts on alpha motoneurones. Brain Res 160, 347–352 (1979)
51. Burke, R.E. and Rymer, W.Z.: Relative strength of synaptic input from short-latency pathways to motor units of defined type in cat medial gastrocnemius. J. Neurophysiol. 39, 447–458 (1976)
52. Calancie, B. and Bawa, P.: Voluntary and reflexive recruitment of flexor carpi radialis motor units in humans. J. Neurophysiol. 53, 1194–1200 (1985)
53. Schmied, A., Morin, D., Vedel, J.P. and Pagni, S.: The “size principle” and synaptic effectiveness of muscle afferent projections to human extensor carpi radialis motoneurones during wrist extension. Experimental brain research. Experimentelle Hirnforschung. Experimentation cerebrale 113, 214–229 (1997)
54. Muniak, M.A., Ray, S., Hsiao, S.S., Dammann, J.F. and Bensmaia, S.J.: The neural coding of stimulus intensity: linking the population response of mechanoreceptive afferents with psychophysical behavior. The Journal of neuroscience: the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience 27, 11687–11699 (2007). doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1486-07.2007.27/43/11687 [pii]
55. Henneman, E.: The size-principle: a deterministic output emerges from a set of probabilistic connections. The Journal of experimental biology 115, 105–112 (1985)
56. McNeal, D. R.: Analysis of a model for excitation of myelinated nerve. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 23, 329–337 (1976)
57. Llewellyn, M.E., Thompson, K.R., Deisseroth, K. and Delp, S.L.: Orderly recruitment of motor units under optical control in vivo. Nat. Med. 16, 1161–1165 (2010). doi:10.1038/nm.2228. nm.2228 [pii]
58. Gregory, C.M. and Bickel, C.S.: Recruitment patterns in human skeletal muscle during electrical stimulation. Phys. Ther. 85, 358–364 (2005)
59. Bourbeau, D.J., Hokanson, J.A., Rubin, J.E. and Weber, D.J.: A computational model for estimating recruitment of primary afferent fibers by intraneural stimulation in the dorsal root ganglia. J. Neural. Eng. 8, 056009 (2011). doi:10.1088/1741-2560/8/5/056009.S1741-2560(11)80621-X [pii]
60. Histed, M.H., Bonin, V. and Reid, R.C.: Direct activation of sparse, distributed populations of cortical neurons by electrical microstimulation. Neuron 63, 508–522 (2009). doi:10.1016/j. neuron.2009.07.016
61. Gaunt, R.A., Prochazka, A., Mushahwar, V.K., Guevremont, L. and Ellaway, P.H.: Intraspinal microstimulation excites multisegmental sensory afferents at lower stimulus levels than local alpha-motoneuron responses. Journal of Neurophysiology 96, 2995–3005 (2006) doi:10.1152/jn.00061.2006
62. Jankowska, E. and Roberts, W.J.: An electrophysiological demonstration of the axonal projections of single spinal interneurones in the cat. The Journal of Physiology 222, 597–622 (1972)
63. Roberts, W.J. and Smith, D.O.: Analysis of threshold currents during microstimulation of fibres in the spinal cord. Acta Physiol Scand 89, 384–394 (1973). doi:10.1111/j.1748-716.1973. tb05533.x
64. Nowak, L.G. and Bullier, J.: Axons, but not cell bodies, are activated by electrical stimulation in cortical gray matter. II. Evidence from selective inactivation of cell bodies and axon initial segments. Experimental brain research. Experimentelle Hirnforschung. Experimentation cerebrale 118, 489–500 (1998)
65. Nowak, L.G. and Bullier, J.: Axons, but not cell bodies, are activated by electrical stimulation in cortical gray matter. I. Evidence from chronaxie measurements. Experimental brain research. Experimentelle Hirnforschung. Experimentation cerebrale 118, 477–488 (1998)
66. Tehovnik, E. J. and Slocum, W. M. Two-photon imaging and the activation of cortical neurons. Neuroscience (2013). doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.04.022
67. Eccles, J.C.: The central action of antidromic impulses in motor nerve fibres. Pflugers Arch 260, 385–415 (1955)
68. Malmivuo, J. and Plonsey, R.: Bioelectromagnetism: Principles and Applications of Bioelectric and Biomagnetic Fields. Oxford University Press, New York, NY (1995)
69. Basser, P.J. and Roth, B.J.: New currents in electrical stimulation of excitable tissues. Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 2, 377–397 (2000). doi:10.1146/annurev.bioeng.2.1.377
70. Mortimer, J. and Bhadra, N.: Peripheral nerve and muscle stimulation. In: Horch, K., Dhillon, G.S. (eds.) Neuroprosthetics: theory and practice. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. (2004)
71. Al-Majed, A.A., Neumann, C.M., Brushart, T.M. and Gordon, T.: Brief electrical stimulation promotes the speed and accuracy of motor axonal regeneration. The Journal of neuroscience: the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience 20, 2602–2608 (2000)
72. Protas, E.J., et al.: Supported treadmill ambulation training after spinal cord injury: a pilot study. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 82, 825–831 (2001). doi:10.1053/apmr.2001.23198.S0003-9993(01)33942-4 [pii]
73. Colombo, G., Joerg, M., Schreier, R. and Dietz, V.: Treadmill training of paraplegic patients using a robotic orthosis. J. Rehabil. Res. Dev. 37(6), 693–700 (2000)
74. Field-Fote, E.C.: Combined use of body weight support, functional electric stimulation, and treadmill training to improve walking ability in individuals with chronic incomplete spinal cord injury. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 82, 818–824 (2001)
75. Ming, G., Henley, J., Tessier-Lavigne, M., Song, H. and Poo, M.: Electrical activity modulates growth cone guidance by diffusible factors. Neuron 29, 441–452 (2001). S0896-6273(01)00217-3 [pii]
76. Lindholm, D.: Role of neurotrophins in preventing glutamate induced neuronal cell death. J. Neurol. 242, S16–18 (1994)
77. Morrison, M.E. and Mason, C.A. Granule neuron regulation of Purkinje cell development: striking a balance between neurotrophin and glutamate signaling. The Journal of neuroscience: the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience 18, 3563–3573 (1998)
78. Al-Majed, A.A., Brushart, T.M. and Gordon, T: Electrical stimulation accelerates and increases expression of BDNF and trkB mRNA in regenerating rat femoral motoneurons. Eur. J. Neurosci. 12, 4381–4390 (2000). ejn1341 [pii]
79. Muir, G.D. and Steeves, J.D.: Sensorimotor stimulation to improve locomotor recovery after spinal cord injury. Trends Neurosci. 20, 72–77 (1997). S0166-2236(96)10068-0 [pii]
80. McCaig, C.D., Rajnicek, A.M., Song, B. and Zhao, M.: Has electrical growth cone guidance found its potential? Trends Neurosci. 25, 354–359 (2002). S0166-2236(02)02174-4 [pii]
81. Shi, R. and Borgens, R.B.: Three-dimensional gradients of voltage during development of the nervous system as invisible coordinates for the establishment of embryonic pattern. Dev. Dyn. 202, 101–114 (1995). doi:10.1002/aja.1002020202.
82. Cogan, S. F.: Neural Stimulation and Recording Electrodes. Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 10, 275–309 (2008). doi:10.1146/annurev.bioeng.10.061807.160518
83. Venugopalan, S.: Kinetics of Hydrogen-Evolution Reaction on Lead and Lead-Alloy Electrodes in Sulfuric-Acid Electrolyte with Phosphoric-Acid and Antimony Additives. J. Power Sources 48, 371–384 (1994)
84. Merrill, D. R., Bikson, M. and Jefferys, J. G.: Electrical stimulation of excitable tissue: design of efficacious and safe protocols. J. Neurosci. Methods 141, 171–198 (2005). doi:10.1016/j. jneumeth.2004.10.020, S0165-0270(04)00382-6 [pii]
85. Bard, A.J., and Faulkner, L.R.: Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications. 2nd. edn. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY (1980)
86. Rand, D.A.J., and Woods, R.: The nature of adsorbed oxygen on rhodium, palladium and gold electrodes. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry 31, 29–38 (1971). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-0728(71)80039-6
87. Conway, B.E., and Mozota, J.: Surface and bulk processes at oxidized iridium electrodes—II. Conductivity-switched behaviour of thick oxide films. Electrochim. Acta 28, 9–16 (1983). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0013-4686(83)85080-4
88. Gileadi, E., Kirowa-Eisner, E. and Penciner, J. Interfacial Electrochemistry - An Experimental Approach. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Inc., Reading, MA (1975)
89. Grupioni, A.A.F., Arashiro, E. and Lassali, T.A.F.: Voltammetric characterization of an iridium oxide-based system: the pseudocapacitive nature of the Ir0.3Mn0.7O2 electrode. Electrochim. Acta. 48, 407–418 (2002). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0013-4686(02)00686-2
90. Rose, T.L. and Robblee, L.S.: Electrical stimulation with Pt electrodes. VIII. Electrochemically safe charge injection limits with 0.2 ms pulses (neuronal application). Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on 37, 1118–1120 (1990). doi:10.1109/10.61038
91. McCreery, D., Pikov, V. and Troyk, P.R.: Neuronal loss due to prolonged controlled-current stimulation with chronically implanted microelectrodes in the cat cerebral cortex. Journal of Neural Engineering 7, 036005 (2010). doi:10.1088/1741-2560/7/3/036005
92. Cogan, S.F., Guzelian, A.A., Agnew, W.F., Yuen, T.G. and McCreery, D.B.: Over-pulsing degrades activated iridium oxide films used for intracortical neural stimulation. Journal of Neuroscience Methods 137, 141–150 (2004). doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2004.02.019
93. Brummer, S.B. and Turner, M.J.: Electrochemical Considerations for Safe Electrical Stimulation of the Nervous System with Platinum Electrodes. Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on BME-24, 59–63 (1977). doi:10.1109/tbme.1977.326218
94. Short, G.D. and Bishop, E.: Concentration Overpotentials on Antimony Electrodes in Differential Electrolytic Potentiometry. Analytical Chemistry 37, 962–967 (1965). doi:10.1021/ac60227a003
95. Wang, Q., Millard, D.C., Zheng, H.J. and Stanley, G.B.: Voltage-sensitive dye imaging reveals improved topographic activation of cortex in response to manipulation of thalamic microstimulation parameters. Journal of Neural Engineering 9, 026008 (2012). doi:10.1088/1741-2560/9/2/026008
96. McIntyre, C.C. and Grill, W.M.: Selective microstimulation of central nervous system neurons. Ann Biomed Eng 28, 219–233 (2000)
97. Elwassif, M.M., Datta, A., Rahman, A. and Bikson, M.: Temperature control at DBS electrodes using a heat sink: experimentally validated FEM model of DBS lead architecture. J. Neural Eng. 9, 046009 (2012)
98. Mortimer, J.T., Shealy, C.N. and Wheeler, C.: Experimental nondestructive electrical stimulation of the brain and spinal cord. J. Neurosurg. 32, 553–559 (1970). doi:10.3171/jns.1970.32.5.0553
99. Pudenz, R.H., Bullara, L.A., Jacques, S. and Hambrecht, F.T.: Electrical stimulation of the brain. III. The neural damage model. Surg. Neurol. 4, 389–400 (1975)
100. Pudenz, R.H., Bullara, L.A., Dru, D. and Talalla, A.: Electrical stimulation of the brain. II. Effects on the blood-brain barrier. Surg. Neurol. 4, 265–270 (1975)
101. Yuen, T.G., Agnew, W.F., Bullara, L.A., Jacques, S. and McCreery, D.B.: Histological evaluation of neural damage from electrical stimulation: considerations for the selection of parameters for clinical application. Neurosurgery 9, 292–299 (1981)
102. Shannon, R.V.: A model of safe levels for electrical stimulation. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 39, 424–426 (1992). doi:10.1109/10.126616
103. Mccreery, D.B., Agnew, W.F., Yuen, T.G. H. and Bullara, L.: Charge-Density and Charge Per Phase as Cofactors in Neural Injury Induced by Electrical-Stimulation. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 37, 996–1001 (1990). doi:10.1109/10.102812
104. Agnew, W.F., McCreery, D.B., Yuen, T.G. and Bullara, L.A.: Histologic and physiologic evaluation of electrically stimulated peripheral nerve: considerations for the selection of parameters. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 17, 39–60 (1989)
105. T.D.Y. Kozai et al. Bhargava, A.: Long-term effects of quasi-trapezoidal pulses on the structure and function of sacral anterior roots. Dissertation, Case Western Reserve University (1993)
106. Townsend, G., Peloquin, P., Kloosterman, F., Hetke, J.F. and Leung, L.S.: Recording and marking with silicon multichannel electrodes. Brain Res Brain Res Protoc 9, 122–129 (2002). S1385299X02001393 [pii]
107. Schaldach, M., Hubmann, M., Weikl, A. and Hardt, R.: Sputter-Deposited TiN Electrode Coatings for Superior Sensing and Pacing Performance. PACE 13, 1891–1895 (1990)
108. Negi, S., Bhandari, R. and Solzbacher, F.: A novel technique for increasing charge injection capacity of neural electrodes for efficacious and safe neural stimulation. In: Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), 2012 Annual International Conference of the IEEE, 5142–5145, San Diego 28 August–1 September (2012)
109. Tykocinski, M., Duan, Y., Tabor, B. and Cowan, R.S.: Chronic electrical stimulation of the auditory nerve using high surface area (HiQ) platinum electrodes. Hearing research 159, 53–68 (2001)
110. Del Bufalo, A. G., Schlaepfer, J., Fromer, M. and Kappenberger, L.: Acute and long-term ventricular stimulation thresholds with a new, iridium oxide-coated electrode. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 16, 1240–1244 (1993)
111. Gradaus, R. et al.: Fractally coated defibrillation electrodes: is an improvement in defibrillation threshold possible? Europace 2, 154–159 (2000). doi:10.1053/eupc.1999.0084
112. Frohlig, G. et al.: A fractally coated, 1.3 mm2 high impedance pacing electrode. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 21, 1239–1246 (1998)
113. Lau, C. et al.: Intraoperative study of polarization and evoked response signals in different endocardial electrode designs. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 24, 1055–1060 (2001)
114. Mond, H. et al.: The porous titanium steroid eluting electrode: a double blind study assessing the stimulation threshold effects of steroid. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 11, 214–219 (1988)
115. Norlin, A., Pan, J. and Leygraf, C.: Investigation of Electrochemical Behavior of Stimulation/Sensing Materials for Pacemaker Electrode Applications: I. Pt, Ti, and TiN Coated Electrodes. J. Electrochem. Soc. 152, J7–J15 (2005). doi:10.1149/1.1842092
116. De Levie, R. The Influence of Surface Roughness of Solid Electrodes on Electrochemical Measurements. Electrochim. Acta 10, 113–130 (1965)
117. Song, H., Jung, Y., Lee, K. and Dao, L.: Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy of porous electrodes: the effect of pore size distribution. Electrochim. Acta 44, 3513–3519 (1999)
118. Santini, M., De Seta, F.: Do Steroid-Eluting Electrodes Really Have Better Performance Than Other State-of-the-Art Designs? The Italian Multicenter Study Group on Low Output Stimulation. Pacing. Clin. Electrophysiol. 16, 722–728 (1993).
119. Johnson, M. D., Otto, K. J. and Kipke, D. R. Repeated Voltage Biasing Improves Unit Recordings by Reducing Resistive Tissue Impedances. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 13, 160–165 (2005). doi:10.1109/TNSRE.2005.847373
120. Prasad, A. and Sanchez, J.C.: Quantifying long-term microelectrode array functionality using chronic in vivo impedance testing. J. Neural Eng. 9, 026028 (2012). doi:10.1088/1741-2560/9/2/026028
121. Williams, J.C., Hippensteel, J.A., Dilgen, J., Shain, W. and Kipke, D.R.: Complex impedance spectroscopy for monitoring tissue responses to inserted neural implants. J. Neural Eng. 4, 410–423 (2007)
122. Lempka, S.F., Miocinovic, S., Johnson, M.D., Vitek, J. and McIntyre, C.C.: In vivo impedance spectroscopy of deep brain stimulation electrodes. Journal of Neural Engineering 6, 046001 (2009). doi:10.1088/1741-2560/6/4/046001
123. Gaylor, J.M. et al.: Cochlear implantation in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 139, 265–272 (2013). doi:10.1001/jamaoto.2013.1744
124. Gustafsson, B. and Jankowska, E.: Direct and indirect activation of nerve cells by electrical pulses applied extracellularly. The Journal of Physiology 258, 33–61 (1976)
125. Wei, X.F., and Grill, W.M.: Analysis of high-perimeter planar electrodes for efficient neural stimulation. Front. Neuroengineering 2, 15 (2009). doi:10.3389/neuro.16.015.2009
126. Han, J. et al.: Elimination of nanovoids induced during electroforming of metallic nanostamps with high-aspect-ratio nanostructures by the pulse reverse current electroforming process. Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering 22, 065004 (2012). doi:10.1088/0960-1317/22/6/065004
127. Babb, T.L., and Kupfer, W.: Phagocytic and metabolic reactions to chronically implanted metal brain electrodes. Exp. Neurol. 86, 171–182 (1984). http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/0014-4886(84)90179-1
128. Miller, L., and Zhou, X.: Poly(N-methylpyrrolylium) poly(styrenesulfonate) - a conductive, electrically switchable cation exchanger that cathodically binds and anodically releases dopamine. Macromolecules 20, 1594–1597 (1987)
129. Dymond, A.M., Kaechele, L.E., Jurist, J.M. and Crandall, P.H.: Brain tissue reaction to some chronically implanted metals. J. Neurosurg. 33, 574–580 (1970). doi:10.3171/jns.1970.33.5.0574
130. Fischer, G., Sayre, G. and Bickford, R.: Histological Changes in the Cat’s Brain after Introduction of Metallic and Plastic-Coated Wire. In: Sheer, D.E. (ed.) Electrical stimulation of the brain, pp. 55–59. University of Texas Press, Austin, TX (1961)
131. Sawyer, P., and Srinivasan, S.: Synthetics and Implants. In: Ray, C.D. (ed.), Medical engineering, pp. 1099–1100. Year Book Medical Publishers, Chicago, IL (1974)
132. Kozai, T.D.Y., et al.: Ultrasmall implantable composite microelectrodes with bioactive surfaces for chronic neural interfaces. Nat. Mater. 11, 1065–1073 (2012). doi:10.1038/nmat3468
133. Kozai, T.D., et al.: Reduction of neurovascular damage resulting from microelectrode insertion into the cerebral cortex using in vivo two-photon mapping. J. Neural Eng. 7, 046011 (2010) doi:10.1088/1741-2560/7/4/046011. S1741-2560(10)46092-9 [pii]
134. Beebe, X. and Rose, T.L.: Charge injection limits of activated iridium oxide electrodes with 2 ms pulses in bicarbonate buffered saline. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 35, 494–495 (1988). doi:10.1109/10.2122
135. Blau, A., et al.: Characterization and optimization of microelectrode arrays for in vivo nerve signal recording and stimulation. Biosens. Bioelectron. 12, 883–892 (1977). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0956-5663(97)00017-1
136. Johnson, M.D., Langhals, N.B. and Kipke, D.R.: Neural interface dynamics following insertion of hydrous iridium oxide microelectrode arrays. Conf. Proc. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc. 1, 3178–3181 (2006). doi:10.1109/IEMBS.2006.260521
137. Meyer, R.D., Cogan, S.F., Nguyen, T.H., and Rauh, R.D.: Electrodeposited iridium oxide for neural stimulation and recording electrodes. IEEE transactions on neural systems and rehabilitation engineering: a publication of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society 9, 2–11 (2001). doi:10.1109/7333.918271
138. Mcintyre, J.D.E., Peck, W.F., and Nakahara, S.: Oxidation-State Changes and Structure of Electrochromic Iridium Oxide-Films. J. Electrochem. Soc. 127, 1264–1268 (1980). doi:10.1149/1.2129868
139. Cogan, S.F. et al.: Sputtered Iridium Oxide Films for Neural Stimulation Electrodes. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B-Applied Biomaterials 89B, 353–361(2009). doi:10.1002/Jbm.B.31223
140. Klein, J.D., Clauson, S.L. and Cogan, S.F.: Reactive Iro2 Sputtering in Reducing Oxidizing Atmospheres. J. Mater. Res. 10, 328–333 (1995). doi:10.1557/Jmr.1995.0328
141. Negi, S., Bhandari, R., Rieth, L., Van Wagenen, R. and Solzbacher, F.: Neural electrode degradation from continuous electrical stimulation: Comparison of sputtered and activated iridium oxide. J. Neurosci. Methods 186, 8–17 (2010). doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2009.10.016
142. Klein, J.D., Clauson, S.L. and Cogan, S.F.: Morphology and charge capacity of sputtered iridium oxide films. Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 7, 3043–3047 (1989)
143. Desai, S.A., Rolston, J.D., Guo, L. and Potter, S.M.: Improving impedance of implantable microwire multi-electrode arrays by ultrasonic electroplating of durable platinum black. Front Neuroeng 3, 5 (2010). doi:10.3389/fneng.2010.00005
144. Cui, X. and Martin, D.C.: Fuzzy gold electrodes for lowering impedance and improving adhesion with electrodeposited conducting polymer films. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical 103, 384–394 (2003). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0924-4247(02)00427-2
145. T.D.Y. Kozai et al. Kim, J.H., Kang, G., Nam, Y. and Choi, Y.K.: Surface-modified microelectrode array with flake nanostructure for neural recording and stimulation. Nanotechnology 21(8), 85303 (2010). doi:10.1088/0957-4484/21/8/085303
146. Park, S., Song, Y.J., Boo, H. and Chung, T.D.: Nanoporous Pt Microelectrode for Neural Stimulation and Recording: In Vitro Characterization. J. Phys. Chem. C 114, 8721–8726 (2010). doi:10.1021/Jp911256h
147. Cogan, S.F., Troyk, P.R., Ehrlich, J., and Plante, T.D.: In vitro comparison of the charge-injection limits of activated iridium oxide (AIROF) and platinum-iridium microelectrodes. Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on 52, 1612–1614 (2005). doi:10.1109/tbme.2005.851503
148. Johnson, M.D., Kao, O.E. and Kipke, D.R.: Spatiotemporal pH dynamics following insertion of neural microelectrode arrays. J Neurosci Methods 160, 276–287 (2007). doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2006.09.023
149. Johnson, M.D., Franklin, R.K., Gibson, M.D., Brown, R.B. and Kipke, D.R.: Implantable microelectrode arrays for simultaneous electrophysiological and neurochemical recordings. J. Neurosci. Methods 174, 62–70 (2008). doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2008.06.036, S0165-0270(08)00391-9 [pii]
150. McCreery, D.B., Agnew, W.F., Yuen, T.G. and Bullara, L.A.: Comparison of neural damage induced by electrical stimulation with faradaic and capacitor electrodes. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 16, 463–481 (1988)
151. Rose, T.L., Kelliher, E.M., and Robblee, L.S.: Assessment of capacitor electrodes for intracortical neural stimulation. J. Neurosci. Methods 12, 181–193 (1985)
152. Guyton, D.L., and Hambrecht, F.T.: Capacitor Electrode Stimulates Nerve or Muscle without Oxidation-Reduction Reactions. Science 181 (1973). 74–76, doi:10.1126/science.181.4094.74
153. Chouard, C.H., and Pialoux, P.: Biocompatibility of Cochlear Implants. Bull. Acad. Natl. Med. 179(3), 549–555 (1995)
154. Weiland, J.D., Anderson, D.J. and Humayun, M.S.: In vitro electrical properties for iridium oxide versus titanium nitride stimulating electrodes. Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions 49, 1574–1579 (2002). doi:10.1109/tbme.2002.805487
155. Schmidt, E.M., Hambrecht, F.T. and McIntosh, J.S.: Intracortical capacitor electrodes: preliminary evaluation. J. Neurosci. Methods 5, 33–39 (1982). doi:10.1016/0165-0270(82)90048-6
156. Fairbrother, F.: The Chemistry of Niobium and Tantalum, pp. 1–28. Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam (1967)
157. Nashed, R., Hassan, W.M., Ismail, Y. and Allam, N.K.: Unravelling the interplay of crystal structure and electronic band structure of tantalum oxide (Ta2O5). Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 15, 1352–1357 (2013). doi:10.1039/c2cp43492j
158. Posey, F.A. and Morozumi, T.: Theory of Potentiostatic and Galvanostatic Charging of the Double Layer in Porous Electrodes. J. Electrochem. Soc. 113, 176–184 (1966) doi:10.1149/1.2423897
159. Goldberg, I.B. and Bard, A.J.: Resistive effects in thin electrochemical cells: Digital simulations of current and potential steps in thin layer electrochemical cells. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry 38, 313–322 (1972). http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/S0022-0728(72)80341-3
160. Schoen, I., and Fromherz, P.: Extracellular stimulation of mammalian neurons through repetitive activation of Na+ channels by weak capacitive currents on a silicon chip. J. Neurophysiol. 100, 346–357 (2008). doi:10.1152/jn.90287.2008, 90287.2008 [pii]
161. Long, T.C., Saleh, N., Tilton, R.D., Lowry, G.V. and Veronesi, B. Titanium dioxide (P25) produces reactive oxygen species in immortalized brain microglia (BV2): implications for nanoparticle neurotoxicity. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40, 4346–4352 (2006)
162. Fromherz, P. and Stett, A. Silicon-Neuron Junction: Capacitive Stimulation of an Individual Neuron on a Silicon Chip. Phys. Rev. Lett. 75, 1670–1673 (1995)
163. Fromherz, P., Offenhausser, A., Vetter, T. and Weis, J.: A neuron-silicon junction: a Retzius cell of the leech on an insulated-gate field-effect transistor. Science 252, 1290–1293 (1991)
164. Fromherz, P. Electrical interfacing of nerve cells and semiconductor chips. Chemphyschem: a European journal of chemical physics and physical chemistry 3, 276–284 (2002). doi:10.1002/1439-7641(20020315)3:3<276::AID-CPHC276>3.0.CO;2-A
165. Hammerle, H., et al.: Biostability of micro-photodiode arrays for subretinal implantation. Biomaterials 23, 797–804 (2002)
166. Janders, M., Egert, U., Stelzle, M. and Nisch, W.: Novel thin film titanium nitride micro-electrodes with excellent charge transfer capability for cell stimulation and sensing applications. In Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 1996. Bridging Disciplines for Biomedicine. Proceedings of the 18th Annual International Conference of the IEEE 241, 245–247 (1996)
167. Kress, H., et al.: Cell stimulation with optically manipulated microsources. Nat. Methods 6, 905–909 (2009). doi:10.1038/nmeth.1400
168. Hai, A., Shappir, J. and Spira, M.E.: Long-term, multisite, parallel, in-cell recording and stimulation by an array of extracellular microelectrodes. J. Neurophysiol. 104, 559–568 (2010). doi:10.1152/jn.00265.2010
169. Hai, A. et al.: Changing gears from chemical adhesion of cells to flat substrata toward engulfment of micro-protrusions by active mechanisms. J. Neural Eng. 6, 066009 (2009). doi:10.1088/1741-2560/6/6/066009
170. Braeken, D., et al.: Local electrical stimulation of single adherent cells using three-dimensional electrode arrays with small interelectrode distances. Proceedings of the Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Conference 2009, 2756–2759 (2009). doi:10.1109/IEMBS.2009.5333871
171. Hai, A. and Spira, M.E.: On-chip electroporation, membrane repair dynamics and transient in-cell recordings by arrays of gold mushroom-shaped microelectrodes. Lab. Chip 12, 2865–2873 (2012). doi:10.1039/c2lc40091j
172. Xie, C., Lin, Z., Hanson, L., Cui, Y. and Cui, B.: Intracellular recording of action potentials by nanopillar electroporation. Nat. Nanotechnol. 7, 185–190 (2012). doi:10.1038/nnano.2012.8
173. Hai, A., Shappir, J. and Spira, M.E.: In-cell recordings by extracellular microelectrodes. Nature methods 7 (2010). 200–202, doi:10.1038/nmeth.1420
174. Huys, R., et al.: Single-cell recording and stimulation with a 16k micro-nail electrode array integrated on a 0.18 mum CMOS chip. Lab. Chip 12, 1274–1280 (2012). doi:10.1039/c2lc21037a
175. Robinson, J.T., et al.: Vertical nanowire electrode arrays as a scalable platform for intracellular interfacing to neuronal circuits. Nat. Nanotechnol. 7, 180–184 (2012). doi:10.1038/nnano.2011.249, nnano.2011.249 [pii]
176. Ciofani, G., et al.: Enhancement of neurite outgrowth in neuronal-like cells following boron nitride nanotube-mediated stimulation. ACS Nano 4, 6267–6277 (2010). doi:10.1021/nn101985a
177. Bredas, J. and Street, G.: Polarons, Bipolarons, and Solitons in Conducting Polymers. Acc. Chem. Res. 18, 309–315 (1985)
178. Svirskis, D., Travas-Sejdic, J., Rodgers, A. and Garg, S. Electrochemically controlled drug delivery based on intrinsically conducting polymers. J. Control. Release 146, 6–15 (2010). doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2010.03.023
179. Green, R. A., Lovell, N. H., Wallace, G. G. and Poole-Warren, L. A. Conducting polymers for neural interfaces: Challenges in developing an effective long-term implant. Biomaterials 29, 3393–3399 (2008). doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.04.047
180. Cui, X., Hetke, J.F., Wiler, J.A., Anderson, D.J., and Martin, D.C.: Electrochemical deposition and characterization of conducting polymer polypyrrole/PSS on multichannel neural probes. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical 93, 8–18 (2001)
181. Vernitskaya, T. and Efimov, O.: Polypyrrole: a conducting polymer; its synthesis, properties and applications. Russ. Chem. Rev. 66, 443–457 (1997)
182. Cui, X., and Martin, D.C.: Electrochemical deposition and characterization of poly (3, 4-ethylenedioxythiophene) on neural microelectrode arrays. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 89, 92–102 (2003)
183. Cui, X.T., and Zhou, D.D.: Poly (3,4-Ethylenedioxythiophene) for Chronic Neural Stimulation. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 15, 502–508 (2007). doi:10.1109/TNSRE.2007.909811
184. Wilks, S., Richardson-Burns, S. M., Hendricks, J. L., Martin, D. C. and Otto, K. J.: Poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene) (PEDOT) as a micro-neural interface material for electrostimulation. Front. Neuroengineering 2, 7 (2009). doi:10.3389/neuro.16.007.2009
185. Xiao, Y. et al.: Electrochemical polymerization of poly (hydroxymethylated-3, 4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT-MeOH) on multichannel neural probes. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 99, 437–443 (2004)
186. Xiao, Y., Cui, X. and Martin, D.C.: Electrochemical polymerization and properties of PEDOT/S-EDOT on neural microelectrode arrays. J. Electroanal. Chem. 573, 43–48 (2004)
187. Kotwal, A., and Schmidt, C.E.: Electrical stimulation alters protein adsorption and nerve cell interactions with electrically conducting biomaterials. Biomaterials 22, 1055–1064 (2001)
188. Schmidt, C.E., Shastri, V.R., Vacanti, J.P. and Langer, R.: Stimulation of neurite outgrowth using an electrically conducting polymer. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 94, 8948–8953 (1997)
189. Thaning, E.M., Asplund, M.L.M., Nyberg, T.A., Inganäs, O.W., and von Holst, H.: Stability of poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene) materials intended for implants. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B: Applied Biomaterials 93B, 407–415 (2010). doi:10.1002/jbm.b.31597
190. Soforo, E., et al.: Induction of systemic lupus erythematosus with tumor necrosis factor blockers. J Rheumatol 37, 204–205 (2010). doi:10.3899/jrheum.081312, 37/1/204 [pii]
191. Yamato, H., Ohwa, M. and Wernet, W.: Stability of polypyrrole and poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) for biosensor application. J. Electroanal. Chem. 397, 163–170 (1995). doi:10.1016/0022-0728(95)04156-8
192. Green, R., Baek, S., Poole-Warren, L. and Martens, P.: Conducting polymer-hydrogels for medical electrode applications. Sci Technol Adv Mater. 11, 014107 (2010)
193. Hardy, J.G., Lee, J.Y., and Schmidt, C.E.: Biomimetic conducting polymer-based tissue scaffolds. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 24,847–854 (2013). doi:10.1016/j.copbio.2013.03.011
194. Li, C., Sun, C., Chen, W., and Pan, L.: Electrochemical thin film deposition of polypyrrole on different substrates. Surf. Coat. Technol. 198, 474–477 (2005)
195. Fonner, J. M. et al. Biocompatibility implications of polypyrrole synthesis techniques. Biomed Mater 3, 034124 (2008). doi:10.1088/1748-6041/3/3/034124
196. Baker, C., Qiu, Y., and Reynolds, J.: Electrochemically Induced Charge and Mass Transport In Polypyrrole/Poly(styrenesulfonate) Molecular Composites. J. Phys. Chem. 95, 4446–4452 (1991)
197. Ludwig, K.A., et al.: Poly (3, 4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) polymer coatings facilitate smaller neural recording electrodes. J. Neural Eng. 8, 014001 (2011)
198. Ludwig, K.A., Uram, J.D., Yang, J., Martin, D.C., and Kipke, D.R.: Chronic neural recordings using silicon microelectrode arrays electrochemically deposited with a poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) film. J. Neural Eng. 3, 59–70 (2006). doi:10.1088/1741-2560/3/1/007
199. Yang, J., and Martin, D.C.: Microporous conducting polymers on neural microelectrode arrays. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical 113, 204–211 (2004). doi:10.1016/j.sna.2004.02.029
200. Yang, J. and Martin, D. C. Microporous conducting polymers on neural microelectrode arrays. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 101, 133–142 (2004). doi:10.1016/j.snb.2004.02.056
201. Venkatraman, S., et al.: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of PEDOT Microelectrodes for Neural Stimulation and Recording. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 19, 307–316 (2011). doi:10.1109/TNSRE.2011.2109399
202. Silk, T., Hong, Q., Tamm, J., and Compton, R.: AFM studies of polypyrrole film surface morphology I. The influence of film thickness and dopant nature. Synth. Met. 93, 59–64 (1998)
203. Kim, J., Jung, J., Lee, D. and Joo, J.: Enhancement of electrical conductivity of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/poly(4-styrenesulfonate) by a change of solvents. Synthetic Metals 126, 311–316 (2002)
204. Nyberg, T., Shimada, A. and Torimitsu, K. Ion conducting polymer microelectrodes for interfacing with neural networks. J. Neurosci. Methods 160, 16–25 (2007). doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2006.08.008
205. Cogan, S., et al.: Polyethylenedioxythiophene (PEDOT) coatings for neural stimulation and recording electrodes. Mater. Res. Soc. Meet., Abstr. QQ2. 7 (2007)
206. Cogan, S.F., Troyk, P.R., Ehrlich, J., Plante, T.D., and Detlefsen, D.E.: Potential-biased, asymmetric waveforms for charge-injection with activated iridium oxide (AIROF) neural stimulation electrodes. IEEE Transactions on Bio-medical Engineering 53, 327–332 (2006). doi:10.1109/TBME.2005.862572
207. Kelliher, E.M., and Rose, T.L.: Evaluation of Charge Injection Properties of Thin Film Redox Materials for use as Neural Stimulation Electrodes. MRS Online Proceedings Library 110, 23–27 (1987). doi:10.1557/PROC-110-23
208. Boretius, T., Schuettler, M. and Stieglitz, T.: On the Stability of Poly-Ethylenedioxythiopene as Coating Material for Active Neural Implants. Artif. Organs 35, 245–248 (2011)
209. Xue, F., Su, Y., and Varahramyan, K.: Modified PEDOT-PSS Conducting Polymer as S/D Electrodes for Device Performance Enhancement of P3HT TFTs. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 52, 1982–1987 (2005)
210. Drillet, J., Dittmeyer, R., and Jüttner, K.: Activity and long-term stability of PEDOT as Pt catalyst support for the DMFC anode. J. Appl. Electrochem. 37, 1219–1226 (2007)
211. Green, R.A., et al.: Substrate dependent stability of conducting polymer coatings on medical electrodes. Biomaterials 33, 5875–5886 (2012). doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.05.017
212. Isaksson, J., et al.: Electronic control of Ca2+ signalling in neuronal cells using an organic electronic ion pump. Nat. Mater. 6, 673–679 (2007). doi:10.1038/nmat1963
213. Cui, X., et al.: Surface modification of neural recording electrodes with conducting polymer/biomolecule blends. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 56, 261–272 (2001)
214. Cui, X., Wiler, J., Dzaman, M., Altschuler, R.A., and Martin, D.C.: In vivo studies of polypyrrole/peptide coated neural probes. Biomaterials 24, 777–787 (2003)
215. Green, R.A., Lovell, N.H., and Poole-Warren, L.A.: Impact of co-incorporating laminin peptide dopants and neurotrophic growth factors on conducting polymer properties. Acta Biomater. 6, 63–71 (2010). doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2009.06.030
216. Stauffer, W.R., and Cui, X.T.: Polypyrrole doped with 2 peptide sequences from laminin. Biomaterials 27, 2405–2413 (2006)
217. Collier, J.H., Camp, J.P., Hudson, T.W., and Schmidt, C.E.: Synthesis and characterization of polypyrrole-hyaluronic acid composite biomaterials for tissue engineering applications. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 50, 574–584 (2000)
218. Asplund, M., von Holst, H., and Inganas, O.: Composite biomolecule/PEDOT materials for neural electrodes. Biointerphases 3, 83–93 (2008). doi:10.1116/1.2998407
219. Ru, X., et al.: Synthesis of polypyrrole nanowire network with high adenosine triphosphate release efficiency. Electrochim. Acta 56, 9887–9892 (2011)
220. Kim, D.H., Richardson-Burns, S.M., Hendricks, J.L., Sequera, C., and Martin, D.C.: Effect of Immobilized Nerve Growth Factor on Conductive Polymers: Electrical Properties and Cellular Response. Adv. Funct. Mater. 17, 79–86 (2007). doi:10.1002/adfm.200500594
221. Wadhwa, R., Lagenaur, C.F., and Cui, X.T.: Electrochemically controlled release of dexamethasone from conducting polymer polypyrrole coated electrode. J. Control. Release 110, 531–541 (2006)
222. Richardson, R.T., et al.: The effect of polypyrrole with incorporated neurotrophin-3 on the promotion of neurite outgrowth from auditory neurons. Biomaterials 28, 513–523 (2007)
223. Richardson, R.T., et al. Polypyrrole-coated electrodes for the delivery of charge and neurotrophins to cochlear neurons. Biomaterials 30, 2614–2624 (2009). doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2009.01.015
224. Thompson, B.C., et al.: Optimising the incorporation and release of a neurotrophic factor using conducting polypyrrole. J. Control. Release 116, 285–294 (2006). doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2006.09.004
225. Thompson, B.C., Moulton, S.E., Richardson, R.T., and Wallace, G.G.: Effect of the dopant anion in polypyrrole on nerve growth and release of a neurotrophic protein. Biomaterials 32, 3822–3831 (2011). doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.01.053
226. Thompson, B.C., et al.: Conducting polymers, dual neurotrophins and pulsed electrical stimulation - dramatic effects on neurite outgrowth. J. Control. Release 141, 161–167 (2010). doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2009.09.016
227. Bidez, P.R., et al.: Polyaniline, an electroactive polymer, supports adhesion and proliferation of cardiac myoblasts. Journal of Biomaterials Science, Polymer Edition 17, 199–212 (2006)
228. Di, L., et al.: Protein adsorption and peroxidation of rat retinas under stimulation of a neural probe coated with polyaniline. Acta Biomater. 7, 3738–3745 (2011). doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2011.06.009
229. Lee, H., Dellatore, S.M., Miller, W.M., and Messersmith, P.B.: Mussel-Inspired Surface Chemistry for Multifunctional Coatings. Science 318, 426–430 (2007). doi:10.1126/science.1147241
230. Kang, K., Choi, I. and Nam, Y.: A biofunctionalization scheme for neural interfaces using polydopamine polymer. Biomaterials 32, 6374–6380 (2011)
231. Abidian, M.R., Corey, J.M., Kipke, D.R., and Martin, D.C.: Conducting-Polymer Nanotubes Improve Electrical Properties, Mechanical Adhesion, Neural Attachment, and Neurite Outgrowth of Neural Electrodes. Small 6, 421–429 (2010)
232. Abidian, M.R., Ludwig, K.A., Marzullo, T.C., Martin, D.C., and Kipke, D.R.: Interfacing Conducting Polymer Nanotubes with the Central Nervous System: Chronic Neural Recording using Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) Nanotubes. Adv. Mater. 21, 3764–3770 (2009). doi:10.1002/adma.200900887
233. Abidian, M.R., and Martin, D.C.: Experimental and theoretical characterization of implantable neural microelectrodes modified with conducting polymer nanotubes. Biomaterials 29, 1273–1283 (2008)
234. González, M.B., and Saidman, S.B.: Electrosynthesis of hollow polypyrrole microtubes with a rectangular cross-section. Electrochem. Commun. 13, 513–516 (2011). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.elecom.2011.02.037
235. Lee, J.Y., Lee, J.W., and Schmidt, C.E.: Neuroactive conducting scaffolds: nerve growth factor conjugation on active ester-functionalized polypyrrole. J. R. Soc. Interface 6, 801–810 (2009). doi:10.1098/rsif.2008.0403
236. Xie, J., et al.: Conductive Core-Sheath Nanofibers and Their Potential Application in Neural Tissue Engineering. Adv. Funct. Mater. 19, 2312–2318 (2009). doi:10.1002/adfm.200801904
237. Bolin, M.H., et al.: Nano-fiber scaffold electrodes based on PEDOT for cell stimulation. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 142, 451–456 (2009). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2009.04.062
238. Ghasemi-Mobarakeh, L., Prabhakaran, M. P., Morshed, M., Nasr-Esfahani, M. H. and Ramakrishna, S. Electrical stimulation of nerve cells using conductive nanofibrous scaffolds for nerve tissue engineering. Tissue Eng. Part A 15, 3605–3619 (2009). doi:10.1089/ten. TEA.2008.0689
239. Huang, J., et al.: Electrical regulation of Schwann cells using conductive polypyrrole/chitosan polymers. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 93, 164–174 (2010). doi:10.1002/jbm.a.32511
240. Jeong, S.I., et al.: Development of electroactive and elastic nanofibers that contain polyaniline and poly(L-lactide-co-epsilon-caprolactone) for the control of cell adhesion. Macromol. Biosci. 8, 627–637 (2008). doi:10.1002/mabi.200800005
241. Li, M., Guo, Y., Wei, Y., MacDiarmid, A.G., and Lelkes, P.I.: Electrospinning polyaniline-contained gelatin nanofibers for tissue engineering applications. Biomaterials 27, 2705–2715 (2006). doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2005.11.037
242. Rowlands, A.S., and Cooper-White, J.J.: Directing phenotype of vascular smooth muscle cells using electrically stimulated conducting polymer. Biomaterials 29, 4510–4520 (2008). doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.07.052
243. Shi, G., Rouabhia, M., Wang, Z., Dao, L.H., and Zhang, Z.: A novel electrically conductive and biodegradable composite made of polypyrrole nanoparticles and polylactide. Biomaterials 25, 2477–2488 (2004)
244. Shi, G., Zhang, Z., and Rouabhia, M.: The regulation of cell functions electrically using biodegradable polypyrrole-polylactide conductors. Biomaterials 29, 3792–3798 (2008). doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.06.010
245. Zhang, Z., et al.: Electrically conductive biodegradable polymer composite for nerve regeneration: electricity-stimulated neurite outgrowth and axon regeneration. Artif. Organs 31, 13–22 (2007). doi:10.1111/j.1525-1594.2007.00335.x
246. Ghasemi-Mobarakeh, L., et al.: Application of conductive polymers, scaffolds and electrical stimulation for nerve tissue engineering. J. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med. 5, e17–35 (2011). doi:10.1002/term.383
247. Heo, C., et al.: The control of neural cell-to-cell interactions through non-contact electrical field stimulation using graphene electrodes. Biomaterials 32, 19–27 (2011). doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.08.095
248. Treacy, M.M.J., Ebbesen, T.W., and Gibson, J.M.: Exceptionally high Young’s modulus observed for individual carbon nanotubes. Nature 381, 678–680 (1996). doi:10.1038/381678a0
249. Yu, M. F. et al. Strength and breaking mechanism of multiwalled carbon nanotubes under tensile load. Science 287, 637–640 (2000).
250. Charlier, J.-C., Blase, X., and Roche, S.: Electronic and transport properties of nanotubes. Reviews of Modern Physics 79, 677–732 (2007)
251. Gabay, T., et al.: Electro-chemical and biological properties of carbon nanotube based multi-electrode arrays. Nanotechnology 18, 035201 (2007). doi:10.1088/0957-4484/18/3/035201, S0957-4484(07)32481-1 [pii]
252. Wang, K., Fishman, H.A., Dai, H., and Harris, J.S.: Neural stimulation with a carbon nanotube microelectrode array. Nano Lett. 6, 2043–2048 (2006). doi:10.1021/nl061241t
253. Cannizzaro, C. et al.: Tissue Engineering. In: Hauser, H., and Fussenegger, M.M. (eds.) Methods Molecular Medicine, pp. 291–307. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ (2007)
254. Lee, C.Y., Choi, W., Han, J.H., and Strano, M.S.: Coherence resonance in a single-walled carbon nanotube ion channel. Science 329, 1320–1324 (2010). doi:10.1126/science.1193383
255. Fang, W.-C., et al.: Carbon Nanotubes Grown Directly on Ti Electrodes and Enhancement of Their Electrochemical Properties by Nitric Acid Treatment. Electrochem. Solid-State Lett. 9, A5–A8 (2006). doi:10.1149/1.2128123
256. Li, J., Cassell, A., Delzeit, L., Han, J., and Meyyappan, M.: Novel Three-Dimensional Electrodes: Electrochemical Properties of Carbon Nanotube Ensembles. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 106, 9299–9305 (2002). doi:10.1021/jp021201n
257. Chmiola, J., et al.: Anomalous Increase in Carbon Capacitance at Pore Sizes Less Than 1 Nanometer. Science 313, 1760–1763 (2006). doi:10.1126/science.1132195
258. Barisci, J. N., Wallace, G. G., and Baughman, R.H.: Electrochemical studies of single-wall carbon nanotubes in aqueous solutions. J. Electroanal. Chem. 488, 92–98 (2000). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-0728(00)00179-0
259. Lu, X., and Chen, Z.: Curved pi-conjugation, aromaticity, and the related chemistry of small fullerenes (< C60) and single-walled carbon nanotubes. Chem. Rev. 105, 3643–3696 (2005). doi:10.1021/cr030093d
260. Hong, S., and Myung, S.: Nanotube electronics: a flexible approach to mobility. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2, 207–208 (2007). doi:10.1038/nnano.2007.89, nnano.2007.89 [pii]
261. Jiang, L.Q., and Gao, L.: Fabrication and characterization of carbon nanotube-titanium nitride composites with enhanced electrical and electrochemical properties. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 89, 156–161 (2006). doi:10.1111/j.1551-2916.2005.00687.x
262. Liopo, A.V., Stewart, M.P., Hudson, J., Tour, J.M., and Pappas, T.C.: Biocompatibility of native and functionalized single-walled carbon nanotubes for neuronal interface. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 6, 1365–1374 (2006). doi:10.1166/Jnn.2006.155
263. Jan, E., et al.: Layered carbon nanotube-polyelectrolyte electrodes outperform traditional neural interface materials. Nano Lett 9, 4012–4018 (2009). doi:10.1021/nl902187z
264. Mazzatenta, A., et al.: Interfacing Neurons with Carbon Nanotubes: Electrical Signal Transfer and Synaptic Stimulation in Cultured Brain Circuits. J. Neurosci. 27, 6931–6936 (2007). doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1051-07.2007
265. de Asis, E.D., et al.: High efficient electrical stimulation of hippocampal slices with vertically aligned carbon nanofiber microbrush array. Biomed Microdevices 11, 801–808 (2009). doi:10.1007/s10544-009-9295-7
266. Mattson, M.P., Haddon, R.C., and Rao, A.M.: Molecular functionalization of carbon nanotubes and use as substrates for neuronal growth. J. Mol. Neurosci. 14, 175–182 (2000). doi:10.1385/JMN:14:3:175
267. Hu, H., et al.: Polyethyleneimine functionalized single-walled carbon nanotubes as a substrate for neuronal growth. J. Phys. Chem. B 109, 4285–4289 (2005). doi:10.1021/jp0441137
268. Voge, C. M. and Stegemann, J. P. Carbon nanotubes in neural interfacing applications. J. Neural Eng. 8, 011001 (2011). doi:10.1088/1741-2560/8/1/011001, S1741-2560(11)68242-0 [pii]
269. Guitchounts, G., Markowitz, J.E., Liberti, W.A., and Gardner, T.J.: A carbon-fiber electrode array for long-term neural recording. J. Neural Eng. 10, 046016 (2013)
270. Decher, G., Hong, J.D., and Schmitt, J.: Buildup of Ultrathin Multilayer Films by a Self-Assembly Process. 3. Consecutively Alternating Adsorption of Anionic and Cationic Polyelectrolytes on Charged Surfaces. Thin Solid Films 210, 831–835 (1992). doi:10.1016/0040-6090(92)90417-A
271. Iler, R.K.: Multilayers of Colloidal Particles. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 21, 569–594 (1966). doi:10.1016/0095-8522(66)90018-3
272. Tang, Z., Wang, Y., Podsiadlo, P., and Kotov, N.A.: Biomedical applications of layer-by-layer assembly: from biomimetics to tissue engineering. Adv. Mater. 18, 3203–24 (2007)
273. Cogan, S.F.: Neural Stimulation and Recording Electrodes. Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 10, 275–309 (2008)
274. Shim, B.S., et al.: Multiparameter Structural Optimization of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Composites: Toward Record Strength, Stiffness, and Toughness. ACS Nano 3, 1711–1722 (2009)
275. Kozai, T.D., and Kipke, D.R.: Insertion shuttle with carboxyl terminated self-assembled monolayer coatings for implanting flexible polymer neural probes in the brain. J. Neurosci. Methods 184, 199–205 (2009). doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2009.08.002, S0165-0270(09)00434-8 [pii]
276. Subbaroyan, J., Martin, D. C. and Kipke, D. R. A finite-element model of the mechanical effects of implantable microelectrodes in the cerebral cortex. J. Neural Eng. 2, 103–113 (2005). doi:10.1088/1741-2560/2/4/006, S1741-2560(05)99280-X [pii]
277. Bai, Y.X., Ho, S.S., and Kotov, N.A.: Direct-write maskless lithography of LBL nanocomposite films and its prospects for MEMS technologies. Nanoscale 4, 4393–4398 (2012). doi:10.1039/C2nr30197k
278. Jan, E., and Kotov, N.A.: Successful Differentiation of Mouse Neural Stem Cells on Layerby- Layer Assembled Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Composite. Nano Lett. 7, 1123–1128 (2007)
279. Gheith, M.K., et al.: Stimulation of Neural Cells by Lateral Currents in Conductive Layerby- Layer Films of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes. Adv. Mater. 18, 2975–2979 (2006). doi:10.1002/adma.200600878
280. Jan, E., et al.: Layered carbon nanotube-polyelectrolyte electrodes outperform traditional neural interface materials. Nano Lett 9, 4012–4018 (2009). doi:10.1021/nl902187z
281. Zhang, H., et al.: Tissue-Compliant Neural Implants from Microfabricated Carbon Nanotube Multilayer Composite. ACS Nano 7, 7619–7629 (2013). doi:10.1021/nn402074y
282. Zhang, H., Shih, J., Zhu, J. and Kotov, N.A.: Layered Nanocomposites from Gold Nanoparticles for Neural Prosthetic Devices. Nano Lett. 12, 3391–3398 (2012). doi:10.1021/Nl3015632
283. Kam, N.W.S., Jan, E., and Kotov, N.A.: Electrical Stimulation of Neural Stem Cells Mediated by Humanized Carbon Nanotube Composite Made with Extracellular Matrix Protein. Nano Lett. 9, 273–278 (2009)
284. Jan, E., Pereira, F.N., Turner, D.L., and Kotov, N.A.: In situ gene transfection and neuronal programming on electroconductive nanocomposite to reduce inflammatory response. J. Mater. Chem. 21, 1109–1114 (2011). doi:10.1039/C0jm01895c
285. Chen, G. Z., et al.: Carbon Nanotube and Polypyrrole Composites: Coating and Doping. Adv. Mater. 12, 522–526 (2000).
286. Lee, Y., Lee, K., Kim, D., Lee, D., and Kim, J.: Polypyrrole-carbon nanotube composite films synthesized through gas-phase polymerization. Synth. Met. 160, 814–818 (2010)
287. Lu, Y. et al. Electrodeposited polypyrrole/carbon nanotubes composite films electrodes for neural interfaces. Biomaterials 31, 5169–5181 (2010). doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.03.022
288. Bhandari, S., Deepa, M., Srivastava, A.K., Joshi, A.G., and Kant, R.: Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)- multiwalled carbon nanotube composite films: structure-directed amplified electrochromic response and improved redox activity. J. Phys. Chem. B 113, 9416–9428 (2009). doi:10.1021/jp9012976
289. Gerwig, R., et al.: PEDOT-CNT Composite Microelectrodes for Recording and Electrostimulation Applications: Fabrication, Morphology, and Electrical Properties. Front. Neuroengineering 5, 8 (2012). doi:10.3389/fneng.2012.00008
290. Luo, X., Weaver, C.L., Zhou, D.D., Greenberg, R., and Cui, X.T.: Highly stable carbon nanotube doped poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) for chronic neural stimulation. Biomaterials 32, 5551–5557 (2011). doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.04.051
291. Zhou, H., Cheng, X., Rao, L., Li, T., and Duan, Y.Y.: Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/multiwall carbon nanotube composite coatings for improving the stability of microelectrodes in neural prostheses applications. Acta Biomater. 9, 6439–6449 (2013). doi:10.1016/j. actbio.2013.01.042
292. Zou, J., Tran, B., Huo, Q., and Zhai, L.: Transparent carbon nanotube/poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) composite electrical conductors. Soft Materials 7, 355–365 (2009)
293. Luo, X., Matranga, C., Tan, S., Alba, N., and Cui, X.T.: Carbon nanotube nanoreservior for controlled release of anti-inflammatory dexamethasone. Biomaterials 32, 6316–6323 (2011). doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.05.020
294. Starovoytov, A., Choi, J., and Seung, H.S.: Light-directed electrical stimulation of neurons cultured on silicon wafers. J. Neurophysiol. 93, 1090–1098 (2005). doi:10.1152/jn.00836.200400836.2004
295. Kimura, M., et al.: Evaluation of thin-film photodevices and application to an artificial retina. Journal of the Society for Information Display 16, 661–667 (2008). doi:10.1889/1.2938867
296. Bucher, V., Brunner, B., Leibrock, C., Schubert, M., and Nisch, W.: Electrical properties of a light-addressable microelectrode chip with high electrode density for extracellular stimulation and recording of excitable cells. Biosens. Bioelectron. 16, 205–210 (2001). S095656630100135X [pii]
297. Zochowski, M., et al.: Imaging membrane potential with voltage-sensitive dyes. The Biological bulletin 198, 1–21 (2000)
298. Gross, G.W., Rhoades, B.K., Reust, D.L., and Schwalm, F.U.: Stimulation of monolayer networks in culture through thin-film indium-tin oxide recording electrodes. J. Neurosci. Methods 50, 131–143 (1993)
299. Fraser, D.B., and Cook, H.D.: Highly Conductive, Transparent Films of Sputtered In2- Xsnxo3-Y. J. Electrochem. Soc. 119, 1368–1374 (1972). doi:10.1149/1.2403999
300. Pappas, T.C., et al.: Nanoscale engineering of a cellular interface with semiconductor nanoparticle films for photoelectric stimulation of neurons. Nano Lett. 7, 513–519 (2007). doi:10.1021/Nl062513v
301. Zhao, Y., Larimer, P., Pressler, R.T., Strowbridge, B.W., and Burda, C.: Wireless Activation of Neurons in Brain Slices Using Nanostructured Semiconductor Photoelectrodes. Angewandte Chemie International Edition 48, 2407–2410 (2009). doi:10.1002/anie.200806093
302. Yue, Z., Moulton, S.E., Cook, M., O’Leary, S., and Wallace, G.G.: Controlled delivery for neuro-bionic devices. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 65, 559–569 (2013). doi:10.1016/j.addr.2012.06.002
303. Otero, T.F., Martinez, J.G., and Arias-Pardilla, J.: Biomimetic electrochemistry from conducting polymers. A review Artificial muscles, smart membranes, smart drug delivery and computer/neuron interfaces. Electrochim. Acta. 84, 112–128 (2012)
304. Abidian, M.R., Kim, D.H., and Martin, D.C.: Conducting-Polymer Nanotubes for Controlled Drug Release. Adv. Mater. 18, 405–409 (2006). doi:10.1002/adma.200501726
305. Hepel, M., and Mahdavi, F.: Application of the Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance for Electrochemically Controlled Binding and Release of Chlorpromazine from Conductive Polymer Matrix. Microchem. J. 56, 54–64 (1997)
306. Gade, V., et al.: Synthesis and Characterization of Ppy-PVS, Ppy-pTS, and Ppy-DBS Composite Films. International Journal of Polymeric Materials and Polymeric Biomaterials 56, 107–114 (2007)
307. Svirskis, D. and Garg, S.: Polypyrrole Film as a Drug Delivery System for the Controlled Release of Risperidone. In: Hendy, S.C., and Brown I.W.M. (eds.) Proceedings of the International Conference on Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Dunedin, New Zeland, February 2009. AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 1151, pp. 36–39. Amer. Inst. Physics, New York (2009)
308. Sharma, M., Waterhouse, G.I., Loader, S.W., Garg, S., and Svirskis, D.: High surface area polypyrrole scaffolds for tunable drug delivery. Int. J. Pharm. 443, 163–168 (2013). doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2013.01.006
309. Svirskis, D., Sharma, M., Yu, Y., and Garg, S.: Electrically switchable polypyrrole film for the tunable release of progesterone. Ther Deliv 4, 307–313 (2013). doi:10.4155/tde.12.166
310. Zhou, Q., Miller, L., and Valentine, J.: Electrochemically controlled binding and release of protonated dimethyldopamine and other cations from poly(N-methyl-pyrrole)/polyanion composite redox polymers. J. Electroanal. Chem. 261, 147–164 (1989)
311. Pyo, M., and Reynolds, J.: Electrochemically Stimulated Adenosine 5’-Triphosphate (ATP) Release through Redox Switching of Conducting Polypyrrole Films and Bilayers. Chem. Mater. 8, 128–133 (1996)
312. Stauffer, W.R., Lau, P.M., Bi, G.Q., and Cui, X.T.: Rapid modulation of local neural activity by controlled drug release from polymer-coated recording microelectrodes. J. Neural Eng. 8, 044001 (2011). doi:10.1088/1741-2560/8/4/044001
313. Kontturi, K., Pentti, P., and Sundholm, G.: Polypyrrole as a model membrane for drug delivery. J Electroanal Chem 453, 231–238 (1998). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-0728(98)00246-0
314. Bidan, G., Lopez, C., Mendes-Viegas, F., Vieil, E., and Gadelle, A.: Incorporation of sulphonated cyclodextrins into polypyrrole: an approach for the electro-controlled delivering of neutral drugs. Biosens. Bioelectron. 10, 219–229 (1995). doi:10.1016/0956-5663(95)96808-C
315. Sirivisoot, S., Pareta, R.A., and Webster, T.J.: Electrically-Controlled Penicillin/Streptomycin Release from Nanostructured Polypyrrole Coated on Titanium for Orthopedic Implants. Solid State Phenomena 151, 197–202 (2009)
316. Zinger, B., and Miller, L. Timed release of chemicals from polypyrrole films. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 106, 6861–6863 (1984)
317. Cho, Y., Shi, R., Ivanisevic, A., and Ben Borgens, R.:A mesoporous silica nanosphere-based drug delivery system using an electrically conducting polymer. Nanotechnology 20, 275102 (2009). doi:10.1088/0957-4484/20/27/275102
318. Jiang, S., et al.: Enhanced drug loading capacity of polypyrrole nanowire network for controlled drug release. Synth. Met. 163, 19–23 (2013)
319. Luo, X., and Cui, X.T.: Electrochemically controlled release based on nanoporous conducting polymers. Electrochem. Commun. 11, 402–404, (2009). doi:10.1016/j.elecom.2008.11.052
320. Luo, X., and Cui, X.T.: Sponge-like nanostructured conducting polymers for electrically controlled drug release. Electrochem. Commun. 11, 1956–1959 (2009). doi:10.1016/j.elecom.2009.08.027
321. Luo, X., Matranga, C., Tan, S., Alba, N., and Cui, X.T.: Carbon nanotube nanoreservior for controlled release of anti-inflammatory dexamethasone. Biomaterials 32, 6316–6323 (2011). doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.05.020
322. Xiao, Y., Ye, X., He, L., and Che, J.: New carbon nanotube-conducting polymer composite electrodes for drug delivery applications. Polym. Int. 61, 190–196 (2012)
323. Sirivisoot, S., Pareta, R., and Webster, T.J.: Electrically controlled drug release from nanostructured polypyrrole coated on titanium. Nanotechnology 22, 085101 (2011). doi:10.1088/0957-4484/22/8/085101
324. Leprince, L., Dogimont, A., Magnin, D. and Demoustier-Champagne, S. Dexamethasone electrically controlled release from polypyrrole-coated nanostructured electrodes. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 21, 925–930 (2010). doi:10.1007/s10856-010-4008-6
325. Simon, D.T., et al.: Organic electronics for precise delivery of neurotransmitters to modulate mammalian sensory function. Nat. Mater. 8, 742–746 (2009). doi:10.1038/nmat2494
326. Kopell, B.H., Machado, A., and Butson, C. Stimulation technology in functional neurosurgery. In: Lozano, A.M., Gildenberg, P.L., Tasker, R.R. (eds.) Textbook of Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery, pp. 1401–1425. Springer, Berlin (2009)
327. Yoo, J.-M., et al.: Excimer laser deinsulation of Parylene-C on iridium for use in an activated iridium oxide film-coated Utah electrode array. J. Neurosci. Methods 215, 78–87 (2013). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneumeth.2013.02.010
328. Eick, S., et al.: Iridium oxide microelectrode arrays for in vitro stimulation of individual rat neurons from dissociated cultures. Front Neuroeng 2, 16 (2009). doi:10.3389/neuro.16.016.2009
329. Guimard, N.K., Gomez, N., and Schmidt, C.E.: Conducting polymers in biomedical engineering. Prog. Polym. Sci. 32, 876–921 (2007). doi:10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2007.05.012
330. Wang, L., Wang, W., Di, L., Lu, Y., and Wang, J.: Protein Adsorption under electrical stimulation of neural probe coated with polyaniline. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 80, 72–78 (2010)