A review of the pinned photodiode for CCD and CMOS image sensors

IEEE Journal of the Electron Devices Society

Volumn 2, Issue 3, 2014, Pages 33-43

  Fossum, Eric R ^a   Hondongwa, Donald B ^a  

^a DARTMOUTH COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

Charge coupled device (CCD); CMOS active pixel image sensor (CIS); photodetector; pinned photodiode (PPD); pixel

Indexed keywords

CHARGE COUPLED DEVICES; CMOS INTEGRATED CIRCUITS; DIGITAL CAMERAS; IMAGE SENSORS; PHOTODETECTORS; PHOTODIODES; PHOTONS;

ACTIVE PIXEL IMAGE SENSORS; CMOS IMAGE SENSOR; PHOTODETECTOR STRUCTURE; PINNED PHOTODIODES;

PIXELS;

EID: 84904565045     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21686734     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1109/JEDS.2014.2306412     Document Type: Article

References (110)

1. E. Becquerel, "Memoire sur les effets electriques produits sous l'influence des rayons solaires," Compte Rendu des Seances de L'Academie des Sciences, Jul. 1839, pp. 561-567.
2. W. Adams and R. Day, "The action of light on selenium," in Proc. Roy. Soc. London, vol. 25, pp. 113-117, Jun. 1876.
3. G. P. Weckler, "A silicon photodevice to operate in a photon flux integration mode," in Proc. IEDM, Oct. 1965.
4. G. P. Weckler, "Operation of p-n junction photodetectors in a photonflux integrating mode," IEEE J. Solid State Circuits, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 65-73, Sep. 1967.
5. E. R. Fossum, "CMOS image sensors: Electronic camera on a chip," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 44, no. 10, pp. 1689-1698, Oct. 1997.
6. P. J. W. Noble, "Self-scanned silicon image detector arrays," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 202-209, Apr. 1968.
7. N. Koike and K. Takemoto, Japanese Patent JP S53-86516, Jan. 1977.
8. W. S. Boyle and G. E. Smith, "Charge coupled semiconductor devices," Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 587-593, 1970.
9. M. Tompsett, G. Amelio, and G. Smith, "Charge-coupled 8-bit shift register," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 111-115, 1970.
10. R. H. Walden et al., "The buried-channel charge-coupled device," Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 51, no. 7, pp. 1635-1640, Jul. 1972.
11. M. White, D. Lampe, I. Mack, and F. Blaha, "Characterization of charge-coupled device line and area-array imaging at low light levels," in Proc. ISSCC, Feb. 1973, pp. 134-135.
12. L. Walsh and R. Dyck, "A new charge-coupled area imaging device," in Proc. CCD Applicat. Conf., pp. 21-22, Sep. 1973.
13. K. Horii, T. Kuroda, and T. Kunii, "A new configuration of CCD imager with a very low smear level," IEEE Electron Device Lett., vol. 2, no. 12, pp. 319-320, Dec. 1981.
14. C. Sequin and M. Tompsett, Charge Transfer Devices, Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics: Supplement. New York, NY, USA: Academic Press, 1968.
15. J. Hynecek, "Virtual phase charge transfer device," U.S. Patent 4,229,752, May 1978.
16. J. Hynecek, "Virtual phase CCD technology," in Proc. IEDM, Dec. 1979, pp. 611-614.
17. W. F. Kosonocky and J. E. Carnes, "Basic concepts of charge-coupled devices," RCA Rev., vol. 36, pp. 566-593, Sep. 1975.
18. T. Yamada, H. Okano, and N. Suzuki. "The evaluation of buriedchannel layer in BCCD's," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 25, no. 5, pp. 544-546, May 1978.
19. N. Teranishi, Y. Ishihara, and H. Shiraki, Japanese Patent JP 1,728,783, 1990.
20. N. Teranishi, A. Kohono, Y. Ishihara, E. Oda, and K. Arai, "No image lag photodiode structure in the interline CCD image sensor," in Proc. IEDM, Dec. 1982, pp. 324-327.
21. B. C. Burkey et al., "The pinned photodiode for an interline-transfer CCD image sensor," in Proc. IEDM, Dec. 1984, pp. 28-31.
22. N. Teranishi, Private communication, Dec. 2013.
23. T. H. Lee and B. C. Burkey, "A review of photo detector elements for interline CCD," in Prog. IEEE Charge-Coupled Devices Workshop, Jun. 1991.
24. Y. Hagiwara, Japanese Patent App 50-134985, 1975.
25. Y. Hagiwara, "High-density and high-quality frame transfer CCD imager with very low smear, low dark current and very high blue sensitivity," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 43, no. 12, pp. 2122-2130, Dec. 1996.
26. Y. Hagiwara, "Microelectronics for home entertainment," in Proc. ESSCIRC, Sep. 2001, pp. 153-161.
27. Y. Daimon-Hagiwara, M. Abe, and C. Okada, "A 380Hx488V CCD imager with narrow channel transfer gates," Japanese J. Appl. Phys., vol. 18, supplement 18-1, pp. 335-340, 1979.
28. G. Beck et al., "High density frame transfer image sensor," Japanese J. Appl. Phys., vol. 22 supplement 22-1, pp. 109-112, 1983.
29. IEEE EDS J.J. Ebers Award citation for N. Teranishi, 2013.
30. E. R. Fossum, "Active Pixel Sensors: Are CCDs dinosaurs?" in Proc. SPIE CCD's Optical Sensors III, vol. 1900. 1993, pp. 2-14.
31. E. R. Fossum, S. K. Mendis, and S. E. Kemeny, "CMOS active pixel image sensor," U.S. Patent 5,471,515, Nov. 28, 1995.
32. E. R. Fossum, "Ultra low power imaging systems using CMOS image sensor technology," in Proc. SPIE Adv. Microdevices Space Sci. Sensors, vol. 2267. 1994 pp. 107-111.
33. P. P. K. Lee, R. C. Gee, R. M. Guidash, T-H. Lee, and E. R. Fossum, "An active pixel sensor fabricated using CMOS/CCD process technology," in Prog. IEEE Workshop CCDs Adv. Image Sensors, Apr. 1995.
34. R. M. Guidash et al., "A 0.6μm CMOS pinned photodiode color imager technology," in Proc. IEDM, Dec. 1997, pp. 927-929.
35. K. Yonemoto, H. Sumi, R. Suzuki, and T. Ueno. "A CMOS image sensor with a simple FPN-reduction technology and a hole accumulated diode," in Proc. ISSCC, Feb. 2000, pp. 102-103.
36. I. Inoue et al., "Low-leakage-current and low-operating-voltage buried photodiode for a CMOS imager," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 43-47, Jan. 2003.
37. T. H. Lee, R. M. Guidash, and P. P. Lee, "Partially pinned photodiode for solid-state image sensors," U.S. Patent 5,903,021, Jan. 1997.
38. R. M. Guidash, "Active pixel image sensor with shared amplifier readout," U.S. Patent no. 6,107,655, Aug. 1997.
39. H. Takahashi et al., "A 3.9μm pixel pitch VGA format 10b digital image sensor with 1.5-transistor/pixel," in Proc. ISSCC, Feb. 2004, p. 108.
40. P. A. Gray and H. Coltman, "Back surface imaging of thinned CCDs," in Proc. CCD, 1974, pp. 162-167.
41. S. R. Shortes et al., "Development of a thinned backsideilluminated charge-coupled device image," in Proc. IEDM, Dec. 1973, p. 415.
42. S. R. Shortes et al., "Characteristics of thinned backside-illuminated charge-coupled device imagers," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 24, no. 11, pp. 565-567, 1974.
43. C. M. Huang, "Future development for thinned, back-illuminated CCD imager devices," in Prog. IEEE Charge-Coupled Devices Workshop, Jun. 1991.
44. M. Lesser, "Backside illumination: History and overview," in Proc. IISW Symposium, Jun. 2009.
45. R. Nixon, N. Doudoumopoulos, and E.R. Fossum, "Backside illumination of CMOS image sensor," U.S. Patent no. 6,429,036, Jan. 1999.
46. J. C. Ahn et al., "Advanced image sensor technology for pixel scaling down toward 1.0μm," in Proc. IEDM, Dec. 2008.
47. S. G. Wu, "BSI Technology with bulk silicon wafer," in Proc. IISW Symposium, Jun. 2009.
48. H. R. Rhodes, "Mass production of BSI image sensors: Performance results," in Proc. IISW Symposium, Jun. 2009.
49. W. Kosonocky, F. Shallcross, T. Villani, and J. Groppe, "160×244 element PtSi Schottky-barrier IR-CCD image sensor," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 32, no. 8, pp. 1564-1573, Aug. 1985.
50. S-J. Lee et al., "A 1/2.33-inch 14.6M 1.4μm-pixel backsideilluminated CMOS image sensor with floating diffusion boosting," in Proc. ISSCC, Feb. 2011, pp. 416-418.
51. T. Umebayashi, "3D Stacked CMOS Image Sensor Exmor RSTM," in Proc. ISSCC, Feb. 2014, p. 513.
52. (2012, May). IC Insights [Online]. Available: http://www.icinsights.com/news/bulletins/CMOS-Image-Sensors-Begin-Breaking-Sales-Records-Again/
53. About 15 billion units shipped in total at an average of 1.3M pixels/sensor.
54. N. Teranishi, H. Watanabe, T. Ueda, and N. Sengoku, "Evolution of optical structure in image sensors," in Proc. IEDM, Dec. 2012, pp. 533-536.
55. [Online]. Available: www.imagesensors.org
56. E. Stevens et al., "Low-crosstalk and low-dark-current CMOS imagesensor technology using a hole-based detector," in Proc. ISSCC, Feb. 2008, pp. 59-60.
57. F. Brady, U.S. Patent no. 7,821,046, Oct. 26, 2010, Y-H. Park, U.S. Patent no. 7,531,857, May 12, 2009, D. Man, et al., U.S. Patent no. 7,910,961, Mar. 22, 2011.
58. Used by Fujitsu in CMOS PPD in 1998, according J. Nakamura, private communication, Dec. 2013.
59. H. Rhodes and M. Durcan, "Retrograde well structure for a CMOS image sensor," U.S. Patent 6,310,366, Jun. 1999.
60. M. Furumiya et al., "High-sensitivity and no-crosstalk pixel technology for embedded CMOS image sensor," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 48, no. 10, pp. 2221-2227, Oct. 2001.
61. B. J. Park et al., "Deep trench isolation for crosstalk suppression in active pixel sensors with 1.7 um pixel pitch," Jap. J. Appl. Phys., vol. 46 pp. 2454-2457, 2007.
62. Y. Kitamura et al., "Suppression of crosstalk by using backside deep trench isolation for 1.12μm backside illuminated CMOS image sensor," in Proc. IEDM, Dec. 2012, pp. 24.2.1-24.2.4.
63. A. Krymski and K. Feklistov, "Estimates for Scaling of Pinned Photodiodes," in Prog. IEEE Workshop Charge-Coupled Devices Adv. Image Sensors, Jun. 2005.
64. A. Pelamatti et al., "Estimation and Modeling of the Full Well Capacity in Pinned Photodiode CMOS Image Sensors," IEEE Electron Device Lett., vol. 34, no. 7, pp. 900-902, Jul. 2013.
65. S. Kawai, N. Mutoh, and N. Teranishi, "Thermionic-emission-based barrier height analysis for precise estimation of charge handling capacity in CCD registers," IEEE Trans. Electron Dev., vol. 44, no. 10, pp. 1588-1592, Oct. 1997.
66. M. Sarkar, B. Buttgen, and A. Theuwissen, "Feedforward effect in standard CMOS pinned photodiodes," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 60, no. 3, pp. 1154-1161, Mar. 2013.
67. [Online]. Available: http://www.clarkvision.com/articles/digital.sensor. performance.summary/#full-well
68. E. R. Fossum, "Charge transfer noise and lag in CMOS active pixel sensors," in Prog. IEEE Workshop Charge-Coupled Devices Adv. Image Sensors, May 2003.
69. J. Yu, B. Li, P. Yu, J. Xu, and M. Cun, "Two-dimensional pixel image lag simulation and optimization in a 4-T CMOS image sensor," J. Semicond., vol. 31, no. 9, p. 094011, 2010.
70. L. Han, S. Yao, J. Xu, C. Xu, and Z. Gao, "Analysis of incomplete charge transfer effects in a CMOS image sensor," J. Semicond., vol. 34, no. 5, p. 054009, 2013.
71. J. P. Lavine and E. K. Banghart, "The effect of potential obstacles on charge transfer in image sensors," IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 44, no. 10, pp. 1593-1598, Oct. 1997.
72. Y. Ishihara et al., "Interline CCD image sensor with an anti-blooming structure," in Proc. ISSCC, Feb. 1982, pp. 168-169.
73. K. K. Thornber, "Theory of noise in charge-transfer devices," Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 53, no. 7 pp. 1211-1262, Jul. 1974.
74. A. Theuwissen, Solid-State Imaging with Charge-Coupled Devices. Boston, MA, USA: Kluwer Acad., 1995.
75. B. Fowler and X. Liu, "Charge transfer noise in image sensors," in Proc. IISW, Jun. 2007, pp. 51-54.
76. W. Kosonocky et al., "360×360-element very-high-frame-rate burst image sensor," in Proc. ISSCC, Feb. 1996, pp. 182-183.
77. D. Durini et al., "Lateral drift-field photodiode for low noise, highspeed, large photoactive-area CMOS imaging applications," Nuclear Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sec. A, vol. 624, no. 2, pp. 470-475, 2010.
78. B. Shin, S. Park, and H. Shin, "The effect of photodiode shape on charge transfer in CMOS image sensors," Solid State Electron., vol. 54, no. 11, pp. 1416-1420, Nov. 2010.
79. C. Tubert, L. Simony, F. Roy, A. Tournier, L. Pinzelli, and P. Magnan, "High speed dual port pinned-photodiode for time-of-flight imaging," in Proc. IISW, Jun. 2009.
80. C. Chao, et al., "Blooming and antiblooming in 1.1um-pixel CIS," in Proc. IISW, Jun. 2013.
81. G. Agranov et al., "Pixel continues to shrink ⋯. small pixels for novel CMOS image sensors," in Proc. IISW, Jun. 2011.
82. V. Koifman, private communication, Dec. 2013.
83. H. Han et al., "Evaluation of a small negative transfer gate bias on the performance of 4T CMOS image sensor pixels," in Proc. IISW, Jun. 2007, pp. 238-240.
84. B. Mheen, Y-J. Song, and A. J. P. Theuwissen, "Negative offset operation of four-transistor CMOS image pixels for increased well capacity and suppressed dark current," IEEE Electron Device Lett., vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 347-349, Apr. 2008.
85. A. Fenigstein, A. Lahav, D. Veinger, and A. Birman, "The heart of modern CIS pixels: The pinned photo-diode and beyond," in Proc. 6th Fraunhofer IMS Workshop CMOS Imag., Jun. 2012.
86. W. Li, J. Xu, C. Xu, B. Li, and S. Yao, "Collection efficiency and charge transfer optimization for a 4-T pixel with multi n-type implants," J. Semicond. vol. 32, no. 12, p. 124008, 2011.
87. Japanese Patents: JP H04-127473 (1990), JP H06-112464 (1992), JP H05-48066A (1993), JP H08-335690 (1995).
88. From Chipworks report IPR-111-801 courtesy R. Fontaine.
89. E. R. Fossum and P. H-S. Wong, "Future prospects for CMOS active pixel image sensors," in Prog. IEEE Workshop CCDs Adv. Image Sensors, Apr. 1995.
90. H-S. P. Wong, "CMOS image sensors-recent advances and device scaling considerations," in Proc. IEDM, Dec. 1997, pp. 201-204.
91. A. Theuwissen, "CMOS image sensors: State-of-the-art," Solid-State Electron., vol. 52, no. 9, pp. 1401-1406, Sep. 2008.
92. E. R. Fossum, "CMOS active pixel image sensors," in Nuclear Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A, vol. 395, no. 3, pp. 291-297, 1997.
93. Y. Lim et al., "Stratified photodiode: A new concept for small size-high performance CMOS image sensor pixels," in Proc. IISW, Jun. 2007, pp. 311-314.
94. J. Michelot et al., "Back illuminated vertically pinned photodiode with in depth charge storage," in Proc. IISW, Jun. 2011.
95. T. Shinohara et al., "Three-dimensional Structures for High Saturation Signals and Crosstalk Suppression in 1.20μm Pixel Back-Illuminated CMOS Image Sensor," in Proc. IEDM, Dec. 2013, pp. 27.4.1-27.4.4.
96. J. Ahn et al., "1/4-inch 8Mpixel CMOS image sensor with 3D backsideilluminated 1.12μm pixel with front-side deep-trench isolation and vertical transfer gate," in Proc. ISSCC, Feb. 2014, pp. 124-125.
97. V. Berezin, "Active pixel sensor with mixed analog and digital signal integration," U.S. Patent 7,139,025, Oct. 1998.
98. J. Hynecek, "Low noise image sensing system and method for use with sensors with very small pixel size," U.S. Patent 7,825,971, Oct. 2003.
99. S. Chen, A. Ceballos, and E. R. Fossum, "Digital integration sensor," in Proc. IISW, Jun. 2013.
100. E. R. Fossum, "Active pixel sensor array with electronic shuttering," U.S. Patent 6,486,503, Jan. 1994.
101. K. Yasutomi, S. Itoh, S. Kawahito, and T. Tamura, "Two-stage charge transfer pixel using pinned diodes for low-noise global shutter imaging," in Proc. IISW, Jun. 2009.
102. S. Velichko et al., "Low Noise High Efficiency 3.75μm and 2.8μm Global Shutter CMOS Pixel Arrays," in Proc. IISW, Jun. 2013.
103. V. Berezin, A. Krymski, and E.R. Fossum, "Lock-in pinned photodiode photodetector," U.S. Patent 6,239,456, Aug. 1998.
104. D. Stoppa et al., "A range image sensor based on 10 um lock-in pixels in 0.18 um CMOS imaging technology," IEEE J. Solid State Circuits, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 248-258, Jan. 2011.
105. D. Durini et al., "Experimental Comparison of Four Different CMOS Pixel Architectures Used in Indirect Time-of-Flight Distance Measurement Sensors," in Proc. IISW, Jun. 2011.
106. W. Kim et al., "A 1.5 Mpixel RGBZ CMOS image sensor for simultaneous color and range image capture," in Proc. ISSCC, Feb. 2012, pp. 392-393.
107. S-J. Kim, J. D. K. Kim, B. Kang, and K. Lee, "A CMOS image sensor based on unified pixel architecture with time-division multiplexing scheme for color and depth image acquisition," IEEE J. Solid State Circuits, vol. 47, no. 11, pp. 2834-2845, Nov. 2012.
108. S. Place, J-P. Carrere, P. Magnan, V. Goiffon, and F. Roy, "Radiation effects on CMOS image sensors with sub-2μm pinned photodiodes," in Proc. RADECS, 2011, pp. 314-320.
109. J. Tan, B. Buttgen, and A. J. P. Theuwissen, "Analyzing the radiation degradation of 4-transistor deep submicron technology CMOS image sensors," IEEE Sensors J., vol. 12, no. 6, pp. 2278-2286, Jun. 2012.
110. V. Goiffon et al., "Radiation effects in pinned photodiode CMOS image sensors: Pixel performance degradation due to total ionizing dose," IEEE Trans. Nuclear Sci., vol. 59, no. 6, pp. 2878-2887, Dec. 2012.