Bread aeration and dough rheology: An introduction

Breadmaking: Improving quality, Second Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 299-336

  Campbell, G M ^a   Martin, P J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Bakery products; Baking; Bubbles; Gluten; Mixing; Moulding; Proving

Indexed keywords

EID: 84902219310     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1533/9780857095695.2.299     Document Type: Chapter

References (178)

1. Addo K., Cochran D.R., Pomeranz Y. A new parameter related to loaf volume based on the first derivative of the Alveograph curve. Cereal Chemistry 1990, 67:64-69.
2. Alava J.M., Millar S.J., Salmon S.E. The determination of wheat breadmaking performance and bread dough mixing time by NIR spectroscopy for high speed mixers. Journal of Cereal Science 2001, 33(1):71-81.
3. Anonymous Objectivity comes to food research. Chemical and Engineering News 1954, 32:3356-3357.
4. APV Corporation Ltd 1992, UK Patent GB 2264623A.
5. Atkin M. The International Grain Trade 1995, Woodhead Publishing Ltd, Cambridge, UK. 2nd edn.
6. Attenburrow G.E., Goodband R.M., Taylor L.J., Lillford P.J. Structure, mechanics and texture of a food sponge. Journal of Cereal Science 1989, 9:61-70.
7. Babin P., Della Valle G., Chiron H., Cloetens P., et al. Fast X-ray tomography analysis of bubble growth and foam setting during breadmaking. Journal of Cereal Science 2006, 43:393-397.
8. Babin P., Della Valle G., Chiron H., Cloetens P., Hoszowska J., et al. In situ fast X-ray tomography study of the evolution of cellular structure in bread doughs during proving and baking. Bubbles in Food 2: Novelty, Health and Luxury 2008, 265-272. Eagan Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. G.M. Campbell, M.G. Scanlon, D.L. Pyle (Eds.).
9. Bailey C.H., Le Vesconte A.M. Development and use of baking powder and baking chemicals. Cereal Chemistry 1924, 1:38.
10. Baker J.C. The structure of the gas cell in bread dough. Cereal Chemistry 1941, 18:34-41.
11. Baker J.C., Mize M.D. Mixing doughs in vacuum and in the presence of various gases. Cereal Chemistry 1937, 14:721-734.
12. Baker J.C., Mize M.D. Effect of temperature on dough properties, I. Cereal Chemistry 1939, 16:517-533.
13. Baker J.C., Mize M.D. Effect of temperature on dough properties, II. Cereal Chemistry 1939, 16:682-695.
14. Baker J.C., Mize M.D. The origin of the gas cell in bread dough. Cereal Chemistry 1941, 18:34-41.
15. Baker J.C., Mize M.D. The relation of fats to texture, crumb and volume of bread. Cereal Chemistry 1942, 19:84-94.
16. Baker J.C., Mize M.D. Gas occlusion during dough mixing. Cereal Chemistry 1946, 23:39-51.
17. Bell B.M., Daniels D.G.H., Fisher N. Vacuum expansion of mechanically developed doughs at proof temperature: Effect of shortening. Cereal Chemistry 1981, 58:182-186.
18. Bellido G.G., Scanlon M.G., Page J.H., Hallgrimsson B. The bubble size distribution in wheat flour dough. Food Research International 2006, 39:1058-1066.
19. Binding D.M., Couch M.A., Sujatha K.S., Webster M.F. Experimental and numerical simulation of dough kneading in filled geometries. Journal of Food Engineering 2003, 58:111-123.
20. Bloksma A.H. A calculation of the shape of the Alveograms of some rheological model substances. Cereal Chemistry 1957, 34:126-136.
21. Bloksma A.H. Rheology of the breadmaking process. Cereal Foods World 1990, 35:228-236.
22. Bloksma A.H. Dough structure, dough rheology and baking quality. Cereal Foods World 1990, 35:237-244.
23. Bock J.E., Connelly R.K. Innovative uses of near-infrared spectroscopy in food processing. Journal of Food Science 2008, 73:R91-R98.
24. Bollaín C., Collar C. Dough viscoelastic response of hydrocolloid/enzyme/surfactant blends assessed by uni- and bi-axial extension measurements. Food Hydrocolloids 2004, 18:499-507.
25. Brijwani K., Campbell G.M., Cicerelli L. Aeration of biscuit doughs during mixing. Bubbles in Food 2: Novelty, Health and Luxury 2008, 389-402. Eagan Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. G.M. Campbell, M.G. Scanlon, D.L. Pyle (Eds.).
26. Brooker B.E. The role of fat in the stabilisation of gas cells in bread dough. Journal of Cereal Science 1996, 24:187-198.
27. Burton P., Lightowler H.J. Influence of bread volume on glycaemic response and satiety. British Journal of Nutrition 2006, 96:877-882.
28. Calvel R. The Taste of Bread 2001, Aspen Publishers, Inc, Maryland, USA.
29. Campbell G.M. A history of aerated foods. Bubbles in Food 2: Novelty, Health and Luxury 2008, 1-21. Eagan Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. G.M. Campbell, M.G. Scanlon, D.L. Pyle (Eds.).
30. Campbell G.M., Rielly C.D., Fryer P.J., Sadd P.A. Aeration of bread dough during mixing: The effect of mixing dough at reduced pressure. Cereal Foods World 1998, 43:163-167.
31. Campbell G.M., Koh K.-C., Keung Y.-M., Morgenstern M. Effect of wheat bran particle size on aeration of bread dough during mixing. Bubbles in Food 2: Novelty, Health and Luxury 2008, 355-368. Eagan Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. G.M. Campbell, M.G. Scanlon, D.L. Pyle (Eds.).
32. Cauvain S.P. New mixer for variety bread production. European Food and Drink Review 1994, (Autumn):51-53.
33. Cauvain S.P., Whitworth M.B., Alava J.M. The evolution of bubble structure in bread doughs and its effect on bread structure. Bubbles in Food 1999, 85-88. Eagan Press, Minnesota, USA. G.M. Campbell, C. Webb, S.S. Pandiella, K. Niranjan (Eds.).
34. Cauvain S.P., Young L.S. The Chorleywood Bread Process 2006, Woodhead Publishing Ltd, Cambridge, UK.
35. Chamberlain N. Gases - the neglected bread ingredients 1979, 12-17.
36. Chamberlain N., Collins T.H. The Chorleywood Bread Process: the role of oxygen and nitrogen. Bakers Digest 1979, 53:18-24.
37. Chamberlain N., Collins T.H., Elton G.A.H. The Chorleywood Bread Process. Bakers Digest 1962, 36:52-53.
38. Chamberlain N., Collins T.H., Elton G.A.H. The Chorleywood Breadmaking Process: Improving effects of fat. Cereal Science Today 1965, 10:415-432.
39. Charalambides M.N., Wanigasooriya L., Williams J.G., Chakrabarti S. Biaxial deformation of dough using the bubble inflation technique. I. Experimental. Rheologica Acta 2002, 41:532-540.
40. Charalambides M.N., Wanigasooriya L., Williams J.G. Biaxial deformation of dough using the bubble inflation technique. II. Numerical modelling. Rheologica Acta 2002, 41:541-548.
41. Charalambides M.N., Wanigasooriya L., Williams J.G., Goh S.M., Chakrabarti S. Large deformation extensional rheology of bread dough. Rheologica Acta 2006, 46:239-248.
42. Chen P., Whitney L.F., Peleg M. Some tensile characteristics of bread crumb. Journal of Texture Studies 1994, 25:299-310.
43. Chin N.-L., Campbell G.M. Dough aeration and rheology. I. Effects of mixing speed and headspace pressure on mechanical development of bread doughs. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 2005, 85(13):2184-2193.
44. Chin N.-L., Campbell G.M. Dough aeration and rheology. II. Effects of flour type, mixing speed and total work input on aeration and rheology of bread dough. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 2005, 85(13):2194-2202.
45. Chin N.-L., Martin P.J., Campbell G.M. Dough aeration and rheology. III. Effect of the presence of gas bubbles on measured bulk rheology and work input rate. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 2005, 85(13):2203-2212.
46. Chiotellis E., Campbell G.M. Proving of bread dough I: Modelling the evolution of the bubble size distribution. Food and Bioproducts Processing 2003, 81:194-206.
47. Chiotellis E., Campbell G.M. Proving of bread dough II: Measurement of gas production and retention. Food and Bioproducts Processing 2003, 81:207-216.
48. Collister L., Blake A. Country Bread 2000, Octopus Publishing Group, London, UK.
49. Connelly R.K., Kokini J.L. 2-D numerical simulation of differential viscoelastic fluids in a single-screw continuous mixer: Application of viscoelastic finite element methods. Advances in Polymer Technology 2007, 22:22-41.
50. Connelly R.K., Kokini J.L. Examination of the mixing ability of single and twin screw mixers using 2D finite element method simulation with particle tracking. Journal of Food Engineering 2007, 79:956-969.
51. David E. English Bread and Yeast Cookery 1977, Penguin Books, London, UK.
52. de Cindio B., Correra S. Mathematical modelling of leavened cereal goods. Journal of Food Engineering 1995, 24:379-403.
53. de Guio F., Musse M., Benoit-Cattin H., Lucas T., Davenel A. Magnetic resonance imaging method based on magnetic susceptibility effects to estimate bubble size in alveolar products: application to bread dough during proving. Magnetic Resonance Imaging 2009, 27(4):577-585.
54. Deshlahra P., Mehra A., Ghosal D. Evolution of bubble size distribution in baked foods. Journal of Food Engineering 2009, 93:192-199.
55. Dobraszczyk B.J. Development of a new dough inflation system to evaluate doughs. Cereal Foods World 1997, 42:516-519.
56. Dobraszczyk B.J. Measurement of biaxial extensional rheological properties using bubble inflation and the stability of bubble expansion in bread doughs. Bubbles in Food 1999, 173-182. Eagan Press, Minnesota, USA. G.M. Campbell, C. Webb, S.S. Pandiella, K. Niranjan (Eds.).
57. Dobraszczyk B.J. Measuring the rheological properties of dough. Breadmaking: Improving Quality 2003, 375-400. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, UK. S.P. Cauvain (Ed.).
58. Dobraszczyk B.J. The physics of baking: rheological and polymer molecular structure-function relationships in breadmaking. Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 2004, 124:61-69.
59. Dobraszczyk B.J., Roberts C.A. Strain hardening and dough gas cell-wall failure in biaxial extension. Journal of Cereal Science 1994, 20:265-274.
60. Dobraszczyk B.J., Morgenstern M.P. Rheology and the breadmaking process. Journal of Cereal Science 2003, 38(3):229-245.
61. Dobraszczyk B.J., Salmanowicz B.P. Comparison of predictions of baking volume using large deformation rheological properties. Journal of Cereal Science 2008, 47:292-301.
62. Dobraszczyk B.J., Smewing J., Albertini M., Maesmans G., Schofield J.D. Extensional rheology and stability of gas cell wall in bread doughs at elevated temperatures in relation to breadmaking performance. Cereal Chemistry 2003, 80:218-224.
63. Doi M., Edwards S.F. The Theory of Polymer Dynamics 1986, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
64. Don C., Lichtendonk W., Plijter J.J., Hamer R.J. Glutenin macropolymer: A gel formed by glutenin particles. Journal of Cereal Science 2003, 37:1-7.
65. Dunn J.A., White J.R. The leavening action of air in cake batter. Cereal Chemistry 1939, 16:142-143.
66. Edwards W.P. The Science of Bakery Products 2007, Royal Society of Chemistry, UK.
67. Elmehdi H.M., Page J.H., Scanlon M.G. Monitoring dough fermentation using acoustic waves. Food and Bioproducts Processing 2003, 81:217-223.
68. Evans L.T. Crop Evolution, Adaptation and Yield 1993, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
69. Falcone P.M., Baiano A., Zanini F., Mancini L., Tromba G., et al. 3D quantitative analysis of bread crumb by X-ray tomography. Journal of Food Science 2005, 70:265-272.
70. Gan Z., Ellis P.R., Schofield J.D. Mini review: Gas cell stabilisation and gas retention in wheat bread dough. Journal of Cereal Science 1995, 21:215-230.
71. García-álvarez J., Salazar J., Rosell C.M. Ultrasonic study of wheat flour properties. Ultrasonics 2011, 51(2):223-228.
72. Grenier A., Lucas T., Collewet G., Lebail A. Assessment by MRI of local porosity in dough during proving. theoretical considerations and experimental validation using a spin-echo sequence. Magnetic Resonance Imaging 2003, 21(9):1071-1086.
73. Hamer R.J., van Vliet T. Understanding the structure and properties of gluten: an overview 2000, 125-131. Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge. P.R. Shewry, A.S. Tatham (Eds.).
74. Hanson M. 2011, http://www.fornobravo.com/pizzaquest/contributors/45-guest-bloggers/130-a-sacred-baker.html.
75. Hayman D., Hoseney R.C., Faubion J.M. Bread crumb grain development during baking. Cereal Chemistry 1998, 75:577-580.
76. Hayman D., Hoseney R.C., Faubion J.M. Effect of pressure (crust formation) on bread crumb grain development. Cereal Chemistry 1998, 75:581-584.
77. Hirte A., Hamer R.J., Meinders M.B.J., Primo-Martin C. Permeability of crust is key to crispness retention. Journal of Cereal Science 2010, 52:129-135.
78. Hlynka I., Barth F.W. Chopin Alveograph studies. I. Dough resistance at constant sample deformation. Cereal Chemistry 1955, 32:463-471.
79. Hood M.P., Lowe B. Air, water vapour and carbon dioxide as leavening gases in cakes made with different types of fat. Cereal Chemistry 1948, 25:244-254.
80. Jacob H.E. Six Thousand Years of Bread:Its Holy and Unholy History 1944, Lyons Press, New York, USA, reprinted in 1997 by the.
81. Janssen A.M., van Vliet T., Vereijken J.M. Fundamental and empirical rheological behaviour of wheat flour doughs and comparison with breadmaking performance. Journal Cereal Science 1996, 23:43-54.
82. Jefferson D.R., Lacey A.A., Sadd P.A. Understanding crust formation during baking. Journal of Food Engineering 2006, 75(4):515-521.
83. Keetels C.J.A.M., van Vliet T., Walstra P. Relationship between the sponge structure of starch bread and its mechanical properties. Journal of Cereal Science 1996, 24:27-31.
84. Kilborn R.H., Tipples K.H. Implications of the mechanical development of bead dough by means of sheeting rolls. Cereal Chemistry 1974, 51:648-657.
85. Kokelaar J.J., van Vliet T., Prins A. Strain hardening properties and extensibility of flour and gluten doughs in relation to breadmaking performance. Journal of Cereal Science 1996, 24:199-214.
86. Ktenioudaki A., Butler F., Gonzales-Barron U., Mccarthy U., Gallagher E. Monitoring the dynamic density of wheat dough during fermentation. Journal of Food Engineering 2009, 95:332-338.
87. Leong S.S.J., Campbell G.M. Degassing of dough pieces during sheeting. Bubbles in Food 2: Novelty, Health and Luxury 2008, 207-216. Eagan Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. G.M. Campbell, M.G. Scanlon, D.L. Pyle (Eds.).
88. Leroy V., Fan Y., Strybulevych A.L., Bellido G.G., Page J.H., Scanlon M.G. Investigating the bubble size distribution in dough using ultrasound. Bubbles in Food 2: Novelty, Health and Luxury 2008, 51-60. Eagan Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. G.M. Campbell, M.G. Scanlon, D.L. Pyle (Eds.).
89. Leroy V., Pitura K.M., Scanlon M.G., Page J.H. The complex shear modulus of dough over a wide frequency range. Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 2010, 165(9-10):475-478.
90. Létang C., Piau M., Verdier C., Lefebvre L. Characterization of wheat-flour-water doughs: A new method using ultrasound. Ultrasonics 2004, 39(2):133-141.
91. Levine L. Engineering: Sheeting of doughs. Cereal Foods World 1997, 32:397.
92. Liu Z., Scanlon M.G. Understanding and modelling the processing-mechanical property relationship of bread crumb assessed by indentation. Cereal Chemistry 2002, 79:763-767.
93. Liu Z., Scanlon M.G. Predicting mechanical properties of bread crumb. Food and Bioproducts Processing 2003, 81:224-238.
94. Lucas T., Grenier D., Bornert S., Challois S., Quellec S. Bubble growth and collapse in pre-fermented doughs during freezing, thawing and final proving. Food Research International 2010, 43(4):1041-1048.
95. MacRitchie F. The liquid phase of dough and its role in baking. Cereal Chemistry 1976, 53:318-326.
96. MacRitchie F. Studies of gluten protein from wheat flours. Cereal Foods World 1980, 25:382-385.
97. Marsh D. Mixing and dough processing. Technology of Breadmaking 1998, 81-119. Blackie Academic & Professional, London, UK. S.P. Cauvain, L.S. Young (Eds.).
98. Marston P.E. Dough development for breadmaking under controlled atmospheres. Journal of Cereal Science 1986, 4:335-344.
99. Martin P.J., Chin N.L., Campbell G.M. Aeration during bread dough mixing. II. A population balance model of aeration. Food and Bioproducts Processing 2004, 82(4C):268-281.
100. Martin P.J., Chin N.L., Campbell G.M., Morrant C.J. Aeration during bread dough mixing. III. Effect of scale-up. Food and Bioproducts Processing 2004, 82(4C):282-290.
101. Martin P.J., Tassell A., Wiktorowicz R., Morrant C.J., Campbell G.M. Mixing bread doughs under highly soluble gas atmospheres and the effect on bread crumb texture: Experimental results and theoretical interpretation. Bubbles in Food 2: Novelty, Health and Luxury 2008, 197-206. Eagan Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. G.M. Campbell, M.G. Scanlon, D.L. Pyle (Eds.).
102. Matz S.A. Bakery Technology and Engineering 1960, AVI Publishing Co. Inc, Westport, Connecticut, USA.
103. McGee H. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen 1984, Harper Collins Publishers, London, UK.
104. McKinley G.H., Hassager O. The Considere condition and rapid stretching of linear and branched polymer melts. Journal of Rheology 1999, 43:1195-1212.
105. McLeish T.C.B., Larson R.G. Molecular constitutive equations for a class of branched polymers: the pom-pom model. Journal of Rheology 1998, 42:81-110.
106. Mehta K.L., Scanlon M.G., Sapirstein H.D., Page J.H. Ultrasonic investigation of the effect of vegetable shortening and mixing time on the mechanical properties of bread dough. Journal of Food Science 2009, 74:E455-E461.
107. Mills E.N.C., Wilde P.J., Salt L.J., Skeggs P. Bubble formation and stabilisation in bread dough. Food and Bioproducts Processing 2003, 81:189-193.
108. Mondal A., Datta A.K. Bread baking - A review. Journal of Food Engineering 2008, 86:465-474.
109. Ng T.S.K., McKinley G.H. Power law gels at finite strains: The nonlinear rheology of gluten gels. Journal of Rheology 2007, 52:417-449.
110. Noort M.W.J., Van Haaster D., Hemery Y., Schols H.A., Hamer R.J. The effect of particle size of wheat bran fractions on bread quality - Evidence for fibre-protein interactions. Journal of Cereal Science 2010, 52:59-64.
111. Owolabi G.M., Bassim M.N., Page J.H., Scanlon M.G. The influence of specific mechanical energy on the ultrasonic characteristics of extruded dough. Journal of Food Engineering 2008, 86:202-206.
112. Pallav P., Hutchins D.A., Gan T.H. Air-coupled ultrasonic evaluation of food materials. Ultrasonics 2009, 49(2):244-253.
113. Peighambardoust S.H., Fallah E., Hamer R.J., Van Der Goot A.J. Aeration of bread dough influenced by different way of processing. Journal of Cereal Science 2010, 51:89-95.
114. Phan-Thien N., Newberry M., Tanner R.I. Non-linear oscillatory flow of a soft solid-like viscoelastic material. Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 2000, 92:67-80.
115. Platt W., Kratz P.D. Measuring and recording some characteristics of test sponge cakes. Cereal Chemistry 1933, 10:73-90.
116. Platt W., Powers R. Compressibility of bread crumb. Cereal Chemistry 1940, 17:601-621.
117. Primo-Martin C., Van De Pijpekamp A., van Vliet T., De Jongh H.H.J., Plijter J.J., Hamer R.J. The role of the gluten network in the crispness of bread crust. Journal of Cereal Science 2006, 43:342-352.
118. Pyler E.J. Baking Science and Technology 1973, Siebel Publishing Company, Chicago, USA.
119. Ross K.A., Pyrak-Nolte L.J., Campanella O.H. The use of ultrasound and shear oscillatory tests to characterize the effect of mixing time on the rheological properties of dough. Food Research International 2004, 37:567-577.
120. Rouillé J., Della Valle G., Lefebvre J., Sliwinski E., van Vliet T. Shear and extensional properties of bread doughs affected by their minor components. Journal of Cereal Science 2005, 42:45-57.
121. Salt L.J., Wilde P.J., Georget D., Wellner N., Skeggs P.K., Mills E.N.C. Composition and surface properties of dough liquor. Journal of Cereal Science 2006, 43:284-292.
122. Scanlon M.G., Fahloul D., Sapirstein H.D. A measure of fracture toughness of bread crumb. Cereal Chemistry 1997, 74:612-613.
123. Scanlon M.G., Sapirstein H.D., Fahloul D. Mechanical properties of bread crumb prepared from flours of different dough strength. Journal of Cereal Science 2000, 32:235-243.
124. Scanlon M.G., Elmehdi H.M., Leroy V., Page J.H. Using ultrasound to probe nucleation and growth of bubbles in bread dough and to examine the resulting cellular structure of bread crumb. Bubbles in Food 2: Novelty, Health and Luxury 2008, 217-230. Eagan Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. G.M. Campbell, M.G. Scanlon, D.L. Pyle (Eds.).
125. Schofield R.K., Scott Blair G.W. The relationship between viscosity, elasticity and plastic strength of a soft material as illustrated by some mechanical properties of flour dough, IV. The separate contributions of gluten and starch. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 1937, 160:87-94.
126. Scott Blair G.W. On the nature of "yield-value". Physics 1933, 4:113-118.
127. Serres M. Rome: The Book of Foundations 1991, Stanford University Press, USA, Stanford, (1983). Trans. Felicia McCarren.
128. Skaf A., Nassar G., Lefebvre F., Nongaillard B. A new acoustic technique to monitor bread dough during the fermentation phase. Journal of Food Engineering 2009, 93(3):365-378.
129. Spooner T.F. Controlled atmosphere: Could bakers better control mixing results by changing headspace gases in the mixer?. Baking & Snack 1999, 96-102. February 1999.
130. Sroan B.S., MacRitchie F. Mechanism of gas cell stability in breadmaking. Bubbles in Food 2: Novelty, Health and Luxury 2008, 299-306. Eagan Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. G.M. Campbell, M.G. Scanlon, D.L. Pyle (Eds.).
131. Sroan B.S., MacRitchie F. Mechanism of gas cell stabilization in breadmaking. I. The primary gluten-starch matrix. Journal of Cereal Science 2009, 49:41-46.
132. Sroan B.S., MacRitchie F. Mechanism of gas cell stabilization in breadmaking. II. The secondary liquid lamellae. Journal of Cereal Science 2009, 49:41-46.
133. Suntheimer F.J. British Patent 931637 1961.
134. Swanson C.O., Working E.B. Mechanical modification of dough to make it possible to bake bread with only fermentation in the pan. Cereal Chemistry 1926, 3:65-83.
135. Swyngedau S., Peleg M. Characterisation and prediction of the compressive stress-strain relationship of layered arrays of spongy baked goods. Cereal Chemistry 1992, 69:217-221.
136. Tanner R.I., Qi F., Dai S. Bread doughrheology: An improved damage function model. Rheologica Acta 2011, 50:75-86.
137. Todd J.P., Hawthorn J., Blain J.A. British Patent 771367 1954.
138. Tromp R.H., Primo-Martin C., Van De Zedde, Koenderink N. Quantifying the morphology of bread crusts. Bubbles in Food 2: Novelty, Health and Luxury 2008, 61-72. Eagan Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. G.M. Campbell, M.G. Scanlon, D.L. Pyle (Eds.).
139. van Herpen T.W.J.M., Cordewener J.H.G., Klok H.J., Freeman J., America A.H.P., et al. The origin and early development of wheat glutenin particles. Journal of Cereal Science 2008, 48:870-877.
140. van Vliet T. Strain hardening as an indicator of bread-making performance: A review with discussion. Journal of Cereal Science 2008, 48:1-9.
141. van Vliet T., Hamer R.J. Fourteen years strain hardening as an indicator of bread-baking performance, questions still to be solved 2006.
142. van Vliet T., Janssen T., Bloksma A.H., Walstra P. Strain hardening of dough as a requirement for gas retention. Journal of Texture Studies 1992, 23:439-460.
143. Vanin F.M., Lucas T., Trystram G. Crust formation and its role during bread baking. Trends in Food Science and Technology 2009, 20:333-343.
144. Wagner M., Zhang L., Quellec S., Doursat C., Flick D., et al. Role of the crust formation on local expansion during bread baking. Bubbles in Food 2: Novelty, Health and Luxury 2008, 241-250. Eagan Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. G.M. Campbell, M.G. Scanlon, D.L. Pyle (Eds.).
145. Wagner M., Quellec S., Trystram G., Lucas T. MRI evaluation of local expansion in bread crumb during baking. Journal of Cereal Science 2008, 48(1):213-223.
146. Weegels P.L., Groeneweg F., Esselink E., Smit R., Brown R., Ferdinando D. Large and fast deformations crucial for rheology of proofing dough. Cereal Chemistry 2003, 80(4):424-426.
147. Welch R.W. Satiety: have we neglected dietary non-nutrients?. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 2011, 70:145-154.
148. Whitworth M.B. Development of bubble structure in bread dough. Grain and Feed Milling Technology 2002, 112(6):10-11.
149. Whitworth M.B. X-ray tomography of structure formation in bread and cakes during baking. Bubbles in Food 2: Novelty, Health and Luxury 2008, 273-286. Eagan Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. G.M. Campbell, M.G. Scanlon, D.L. Pyle (Eds.).
150. Whitworth M.B., Alava J.M. The imaging and measurement of bubbles in bread doughs. Bubbles in Food 1999, 221-231. Eagan Press, Minnesota, USA. G.M. Campbell, C. Webb, S.S. Pandiella, K. Niranjan (Eds.).
151. Whitworth M.B., Alava J.M. Non-destructive imaging of bread and cake structure during baking 2005, 456-460. Woodhead Publishing Ltd, Cambridge, UK. S.P. Cauvain, S.S. Salom, L.S. Young (Eds.).
152. Whitworth M.B., Cauvain S.P., Cliffe D. Non-destructive imaging of bread and cake structure during baking 2005, 193-198. Woodhead Publishing Ltd, Cambridge, UK. S.P. Cauvain, S.S. Salom, L.S. Young (Eds.).
153. Wiggins C. Proving, baking and cooling. Technology of Breadmaking 1998, 120-148. Chapman and Hall, London, UK, (1998). S.P. Cauvain, L.S. Young (Eds.).
154. Williams A., Pullen G. Functional ingredients. Technology of Breadmaking 1998, 45-80. Chapman and Hall, London, UK. S.P. Cauvain, L.S. Young (Eds.).
155. Zghal M.C., Scanlon M.G., Sapirstein H.D. Prediction of bread crumb density by digital image analysis. Cereal Chemistry 1999, 76:734-742.
156. Zghal M.C., Scanlon M.G., Sapirstein H.D. Effects of flour strength, baking absorption and processing conditions on the structure and mechanical properties of bread crumb. Cereal Chemistry 2001, 78:1-7.
157. Zghal M.C., Scanlon M.G., Sapirstein H.D. Cellular structure of bread crumb and its influence on mechanical properties. Journal of Cereal Science 2002, 36:167-176.
158. Bloksma A.H. Effect of surface tension in the gas-dough interface on the rheological behaviour of dough. Cereal Chemistry 1981, 58:481-486.
159. Brooker B.E. The stabilisation of air in cake batters - the role of fat. Food Structure 1993, 12:285-296.
160. Brooker B.E. The role of fat in bread doughs. Scanning 1995, 17:81-82.
161. Campbell G.M., Rielly C.D., Fryer P.J., Sadd P.A. The measurement of bubble size distributions in an opaque food fluid. Food and Bioproducts Processing 1991, 69:67-76.
162. Campbell G.M., Rielly C.D., Fryer P.J., Sadd P.A. Measurement and interpretation of dough densities. Cereal Chemistry 1993, 70:517-521.
163. Campbell G.M., Rielly C.D., Fryer P.J., Sadd P.A. Reconstruction of bubble size distributions from slices. Bubbles in Food 1999, 207-220. Eagan Press, Minnesota, USA. G.M. Campbell, C. Webb, S.S. Pandiella, K. Niranjan (Eds.).
164. Campbell G.M., Webb C., Pandiella S.S., Niranjan K. Bubbles in Food 1999, Eagan Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA.
165. Campbell G.M., Herrero-Sanchez R., Payo-Rodriguez R., Merchan M.L. Measurement of dynamic dough density, and the effect of surfactants and flour type on aeration during mixing and gas retention during proving. Cereal Chemistry 2001, 78:272-277.
166. Campbell G.M., Ross M., Motoi L. Bran in bread: effects of particle size and level of wheat and oat bran on mixing, proving and baking. Bubbles in Food 2: Novelty, Health and Luxury 2008, 337-354. Eagan Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. G.M. Campbell, M.G. Scanlon, D.L. Pyle (Eds.).
167. Bubbles in Food 2: Novelty, Health and Luxury 2008, Eagan Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. G.M. Campbell, M.G. Scanlon, D.L. Pyle (Eds.).
168. Cauvain S.P., Young L.S. Technology of Breadmaking 1998, Chapman and Hall, London.
169. Chamberlain N. Advances in breadmaking technology. Bread: Social, Nutritional and Agricultural Aspects of Wheaten Bread 1975, 259-272. Applied Science Publishers, London, UK. A. Spicer (Ed.).
170. Dobraszczyk B.J., Campbell G.M., Gan Z. Bread: A Unique Food. Cereals and Cereal Products: Chemistry and Technology 2001, 182-232. Aspen Publishers Inc, Maryland, USA. D.A.V. Dendy, B.J. Dobraszczyk (Eds.).
171. Gan Z., Angold R.E., Williams M.R., Ellis P.R., Vaughan J.G., Galliard T. The microstructure and gas retention of bread dough. Journal of Cereal Science 1990, 12:15-24.
172. Gan Z., Ellis P.R., Vaughan J.G., Galliard T. Some effects of non-endosperm components of wheat and of added gluten on wholemeal bread microstructure. Journal of Cereal Science 1989, 10:81-91.
173. Handleman A.R., Conn J.F., Lyons J.W. Bubble mechanics in thick foams and their effects on cake quality. Cereal Chemistry 1961, 38:294-305.
174. Hayman D., Sipes K., Hoseney R.C., Faubion J.M. Factors controlling gas cell failure in bread dough. Cereal Chemistry 1998, 75:585-589.
175. Hibberd G.E., Parker N.S. Gas pressure-volume-time relationships in fermenting doughs. I. Rate of production and solubility of carbon dioxide in dough. Cereal Chemistry 1976, 53:338-345.
176. Junge R.C., Hoseney R.C., Varriano-Marston E. Effect of surfactants on air incorporation of dough and crumb grain of bread. Cereal Chemistry 1981, 58:338-342.
177. Pomeranz Y., Czuchajowska Z. Gas formation and gas retention. II. Role of vital gluten during baking of bread from low-protein or fiber-enriched flour. Cereal Foods World 1993, 38:504-510.
178. Williams A. Breadmaking: the Modern Revolution 1975, Hutchinson Benham, London.