Intercomparison and evaluation of global aerosol microphysical properties among AeroCom models of a range of complexity

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Volumn 14, Issue 9, 2014, Pages 4679-4713

  Mann, G W ^a   Carslaw, K S ^a   Reddington, C L ^a   Pringle, K J ^a,d   Schulz, M ^b   Asmi, A ^c   Spracklen, D V ^a   Ridley, D A ^a,e   Woodhouse, M T ^a,x   Lee, L A ^a   Zhang, K ^f,g   Ghan, S J ^g   Easter, R C ^g   Liu, X ^g,ai   Stier, P ^h   Lee, Y H ^i,l   Adams, P J ⁱ   Tost, H ^d,ad   Lelieveld, J ^d,k   Bauer, S E ^j,l   Tsigaridis, K ^j,l   Van Noije, T P C ^m   Strunk, A ^m   Vignati, E ⁿ   Bellouin, N ^o   Dalvi, M ^p   Johnson, C E ^p   Bergman, T ^q   Kokkola, H ^q   Von Salzen, K ^r   Yu, F ^s   Luo, G ^s   Petzold, A ^t,ae   Heintzenberg, J ^u   Clarke, A ^v   Ogren, J A ^w   Gras, J ^x   Baltensperger, U ^y   Kaminski, U ^z   Jennings, S G ^aa   O'Dowd, C D ^aa   Harrison, R M ^ab,af   Beddows, D C S ^ab   Kulmala, M ^c   Viisanen, Y ^c   Ulevicius, V ^ac   Mihalopoulos, N ^ag   Zdimal, V ^ah   Fiebig, M ^aj   Hansson, H C ^ak   Swietlicki, E ^al   Henzing, J S ^am   more..

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

^b NORWEGIAN METEOROLOGICAL INSTITUTE   (Norway)

^c UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI   (Finland)

^d MAX PLANCK INSTITUTE FOR CHEMISTRY   (Germany)

^e Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge   (United States)

^f MAX PLANCK INSTITUTE FOR METEOROLOGY   (Germany)

^g PACIFIC NORTHWEST NATIONAL LABORATORY   (United States)

^h UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

ⁱ CARNEGIE MELLON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^j NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies   (United States)

^k CYPRUS INSTITUTE   (Cyprus)

^l NASA GODDARD INSTITUTE FOR SPACE STUDIES   (United States)

^m ROYAL NETHERLANDS METEOROLOGICAL INSTITUTE KNMI   (Netherlands)

ⁿ JOINT RESEARCH CENTRE   (Italy)

^o UNIVERSITY OF READING   (United Kingdom)

^p MET OFFICE   (United Kingdom)

^q FINNISH METEOROLOGICAL INSTITUTE   (Finland)

^r ENVIRONMENT CANADA   (Canada)

^s STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

^t GERMAN AEROSPACE CENTER DLR   (Germany)

^u LEIBNIZ INSTITUTE FOR TROPOSPHERIC RESEARCH   (Germany)

^v UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII   (United States)

^w EARTH SYSTEM RESEARCH LABORATORY   (United States)

^x CSIRO   (Australia)

^y PAUL SCHERRER INSTITUTE   (Switzerland)

^z DEUTSCHER WETTERDIENST   (Germany)

^aa NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF IRELAND   (Ireland)

^ab UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

^ac CENTER FOR PHYSICAL SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY   (Lithuania)

^ad JOHANNES GUTENBERG UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^ae FORSCHUNGSZENTRUM JÜLICH   (Germany)

^af KING ABDULAZIZ UNIVERSITY   (Saudi Arabia)

^ag UNIVERSITY OF CRETE   (Greece)

^ah INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL PROCESS FUNDAMENTALS   (Czech Republic)

^ai UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING   (United States)

^aj NORWEGIAN INSTITUTE FOR AIR RESEARCH   (Norway)

^ak STOCKHOLM UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

^al LUND UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

^am TNO   (Netherlands)

more..

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84900843983     PISSN: 16807316     EISSN: 16807324     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/acp-14-4679-2014     Document Type: Article

References (158)

1. Aan de Brugh, J. M. J., Schaap, M., Vignati, E., Dentener, F., Kah-nert, M., Sofiev, M., Huijnen, V., and Krol, M. C.: The European aerosol budget in 2006, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 1117-1139, doi:10.5194/acp-11-1117-2011, 2011.
2. Abdul-Razzak, J. and Ghan, S. J.: A parameterization of aerosol activation: 2. Multiple aerosol types, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 6837-6844, 2000.
3. Adams, P. J. and Seinfeld, J. H.: Predicting global aerosol size distributions in general circulation models, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4370, doi:10.1029/2001JD001010, 2002.
4. Adams, P. J., Seinfeld, J. H., and Koch, D. M.: Global concentrations of tropospheric sulfate, nitrate and ammonium aerosol simulated in a general circulation model, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 13791-13823, 1999.
5. Andreae, M. O., Jones, C. D., and Cox, P. M.: Strong present-day aerosol cooling implies a hot future, Nature, 435, 1187-1190, doi:10.1038/nature03671, 2005.
6. Andres, R. J. and Kasgnoc, A. D.: A time-averaged inventory of subaerial volcanic sulfur emissions, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 25251-25261, 1998.
7. Aquila, V., Hendricks, J., Lauer, A., Riemer, N., Vogel, H., Baum-gardner, D., Minikin, A., Petzold, A., Schwarz, J. P., Spackman, J. R., Weinzierl, B., Righi, M., and Dall'Amico, M.: MADE-in: a new aerosol microphysics submodel for global simulation of insoluble particles and their mixing state, Geosci. Model Dev., 4, 325-355, doi:10.5194/gmd-4-325-2011, 2011.
8. Asmi, A., Wiedensohler, A., Laj, P., Fjaeraa, A.-M., Sellegri, K., Birmili, W., Weingartner, E., Baltensperger, U., Zdimal, V., Zikova, N., Putaud, J.-P., Marinoni, A., Tunved, P., Hansson, H.-C., Fiebig, M., Kivekäs, N., Lihavainen, H., Asmi, E., Ulevicius, V., Aalto, P. P., Swietlicki, E., Kristensson, A., Mihalopoulos, N., Kalivitis, N., Kalapov, I., Kiss, G., de Leeuw, G., Henzing, B., Harrison, R. M., Beddows, D., O'Dowd, C., Jennings, S. G., Flentje, H., Weinhold, K., Meinhardt, F., Ries, L., and Kul-mala, M.: Number size distributions and seasonality of submi-cron particles in Europe 2008-2009, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 5505-5538, doi:10.5194/acp-11-5505-2011, 2011.
9. Asmi, A., Collaud Coen, M., Ogren, J. A., Andrews, E., Sheridan, P., Jefferson, A., Weingartner, E., Baltensperger, U., Bukowiecki, N., Lihavainen, H., Kivekäs, N., Asmi, E., Aalto, P. P., Kulmala, M., Wiedensohler, A., Birmili, W., Hamed, A., O'Dowd, C., G Jennings, S., Weller, R., Flentje, H., Fjaeraa, A. M., Fiebig, M., Myhre, C. L., Hallar, A. G., Swietlicki, E., Kristensson, A., and Laj, P.: Aerosol decadal trends-Part 2: In-situ aerosol particle number concentrations at GAW and ACTRIS stations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 895-916, doi:10.5194/acp-13-895-2013, 2013.
10. Asmi, E., Frey, A., Virkkula, A., Ehn, M., Manninen, H. E., Ti-monen, H., Tolonen-Kivimäki, O., Aurela, M., Hillamo, R., and Kulmala, M.: Hygroscopicity and chemical composition of Antarctic sub-micrometre aerosol particles and observations of new particle formation, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 4253-4271, doi:10.5194/acp-10-4253-2010, 2010.
11. Ayers, G. and Gras, J.: Seasonal relationship between cloud condensation nuclei and aerosol methanesulphonate in marine air, Nature, 353, 834-835, 1991.
12. Barrie, L. A., Yi, Y., Leaitch, W. R., Lohmann, U., Kasibhatlas, P. Roelofs, G.-J., Wilson, J., McGovern, F., Benkovitz, C., Me-lieres, M. A., Law, K., Prospero, J., Kristz, M., Bergmann, D., Bridgeman, C., Chin, M., Christensen, J., Easter, R., Feichter, J., Land, C., Jeuken, A., Kjellstrom, E., Koch, D., and Rasch, P.: A comparison of large-scale atmospheric sulphate aerosol models (COSAM): overview and highlights, Tellus B, 53, 615-645, 2001.
13. Bates, T. S., Kapustin, V. N., Quinn, P. K., Covert, D. S., Coff-man, D. J., Mari, C., Durkee, P. A., De Bruyn, W. J., and Saltz-man, E. S.: Processes controlling the distribution of aerosol particles in the lower marine boundary layer during the First Aerosol Characterization Experiment (ACE 1), J. Geophys. Res., 103, 16369-16383, 1998
14. Bauer, S. E., Wright, D. L., Koch, D., Lewis, E. R., Mc-Graw, R., Chang, L.-S., Schwartz, S. E., and Ruedy, R.: MATRIX (Multiconfiguration Aerosol TRacker of mIXing state): an aerosol microphysical module for global atmospheric models, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 6003-6035, doi:10.5194/acp-8-6003-2008, 2008.
15. Beddows, D. C. S., Dall'Osto, M., and Harrison, R. M.: Cluster analysis of rural, urban and curbside atmospheric particle size data, Environ. Sci. Technol., 43, 4694-4700, 2009.
16. Beddows, D. C. S., Dall'Osto, M., Harrison, Roy M., Kulmala, M., Asmi, A., Wiedensohler, A., Laj, P., Fjaeraa, A. M., Sellegri, K., Birmili, W., Bukowiecki, N., Weingartner, E., Baltensperger, U., Zdimal, V., Zikova, N., Putaud, J.-P., Marinoni, A., Tunved, P., Hansson, H.-C., Fiebig, M., Kivekäs, N., Swietlicki, E., Li-havainen, H., Asmi, E., Ulevicius, V., Aalto, P. P., Mihalopou-los, N., Kalivitis, N., Kalapov, I., Kiss, G., de Leeuw, G., Henz-ing, B., O'Dowd, C., Jennings, S. G., Flentje, H., Meinhardt, F., Ries, L., Denier van der Gon, H. A. C., and Visschedijk, A. J. H.: Variations in tropospheric submicron particle size distributions across the European continent 2008-2009, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 4327-4348, doi:doi:10.5194/acp-14- 4327-2014, 2014.
17. Bellouin, N., Mann, G. W., Woodhouse, M. T., Johnson, C., Carslaw, K. S., and Dalvi, M.: Impact of the modal aerosol scheme GLOMAP-mode on aerosol forcing in the Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 3027-3044, doi:10.5194/acp-13-3027-2013, 2013.
18. Berglen, T. F., Berntsen, T. K., Isaksen, I. S. A., and Sundet, J. K.: A global model of the coupled sulfur/oxidant chemistry in the troposphere: the sulfur cycle, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D19310, doi:10.1029/2003JD003948, 2004.
19. Bergman, T., Kerminen, V.-M., Korhonen, H., Lehtinen, K. J., Makkonen, R., Arola, A., Mielonen, T., Romakkaniemi, S., Kul-mala, M., and Kokkola, H.: Evaluation of the sectional aerosol microphysics module SALSA implementation in ECHAM5-HAM aerosol-climate model, Geosci. Model Dev., 5, 845-868, doi:10.5194/gmd-5-845-2012, 2012.
20. Binkowski, F. S. and Shankar, U.: The Regional Particulate Matter Model: 1. Model description and preliminary results, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 26191-26209, 1995.
21. Birmili, W., Weinhold, K., Nordmann, S., Wiedensohler, A., Spindler, G., Müller, K., Herrmann, H., Gnauk, T., Pitz, M., Cyrys, J., Flentje, H., Nickel, C., Kulhbusch, T., Lschau, G., Haase, D., Meinhardt, F., Schwerin, A., Ries, L., and Wirtz, K.: Atmospheric aerosol measurements in the German Ultrafine Aerosol Network (GUAN), Part 1: Soot and particle number distributions, Gefahrst. Reinhalt. L., 69, 137-145, 2009.
22. Bodhaine, B. A.: Aerosol measurements at four background sites, J. Geophys. Res., 88, 10753-10768, 1983.
23. Bodhaine, B. A., Deluisi, J. J., Harris, J. M., Houmere, P., and Bau-man, S.: Aerosol measurements at the South Pole, Tellus B, 38, 223-235, 1986.
24. Booth, B., B. B., Dunstone, N. J., Halloran, P. R., Andrews, T., and Bellouin, N.: Aerosols implicated as a prime driver of twentieth-century North Atlantic climate variability, Nature, 484, 228-232, 2012.
25. Boulon, J., Sellegri, K., Venzac, H., Picard, D., Weingartner, E., Wehrle, G., Collaud Coen, M., Bütikofer, R., Flückiger, E., Bal-tensperger, U., and Laj, P.: New particle formation and ultrafine charged aerosol climatology at a high altitude site in the Alps (Jungfraujoch, 3580 m a.s.l., Switzerland), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 9333-9349, doi:10.5194/acp-10- 9333-2010, 2010.
26. Bourgeois, Q. and Bey, I.: Pollution transport efficiency toward the Arctic: sensitivity to aerosol scavenging and source regions, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D08213, doi:10.1029/2010JD015096, 2011.
27. Browse, J., Carslaw, K. S., Arnold, S. R., Pringle, K., and Boucher, O.: The scavenging processes controlling the seasonal cycle in Arctic sulphate and black carbon aerosol, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 6775-6798, doi:10.5194/acp-12- 6775-2012, 2012.
28. Browse, J., Carslaw, K. S., Mann, G. W., Birch, C. E., Arnold, S. R., and Leck, C.: The complex response of Arctic cloud condensation nuclei to sea-ice retreat, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 13, 17087-17121, doi:10.5194/acpd-13- 17087-2013, 2013.
29. Carslaw, K. S., Boucher, O., Spracklen, D. V., Mann, G. W., Rae, J. G. L., Woodward, S., and Kulmala, M.: A review of natural aerosol interactions and feedbacks within the Earth system, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 1701-1737, doi:10.5194/acp-10-1701-2010, 2010.
30. Carslaw, K. S., Lee, L. A., Reddington, C. L., Pringle, K. J., Rap, A., Forster, P. M., Mann, G. W., Spracklen, D. V., Woodhouse, M. T., Regayre, L. A., and Pierce, J. R.: Large contribution of natural aerosols to uncertainty in indirect forcing, Nature, 503, 67-71, doi:10.1038/nature12674, 2013.
31. Charron, A., Birmili, W., and Harrison, R. M.: Factors influencing new particle formation at the rural site, Harwell, UK, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D14210, doi:10.1029/2007JD008425, 2007.
32. Clarke, A. D. and Kapustin, V. N.: A Pacific aerosol survey, Part 1: a decade of data on particle production, transport, evolution and mixing in the troposphere, J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 363-382, 2002.
33. Clarke, A. D., Owens, S. R., and Zhou, J.: An ultrafine sea-salt flux from breaking waves: implications for CCN in the remote marine atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D06202, doi:10.1029/2005JD006565, 2006.
34. Collaud Coen, M., Andrews, E., Asmi, A., Baltensperger, U., Bukowiecki, N., Day, D., Fiebig, M., Fjaeraa, A. M., Flentje, H., Hyvärinen, A., Jefferson, A., Jennings, S. G., Kouvarakis, G., Lihavainen, H., Lund Myhre, C., Malm, W. C., Mihapopoulos, N., Molenar, J. V., O'Dowd, C., Ogren, J. A., Schichtel, B. A., Sheridan, P., Virkkula, A., Weingartner, E., Weller, R., and Laj, P.: Aerosol decadal trends-Part 1: In-situ optical measurements at GAW and IMPROVE stations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 869-894, doi:10.5194/acp-13-869-2013, 2013.
35. Covert, D. S., Wiedensohler, A., Aalto, P., Heintzenberg, J., Mc-Murry, P. H., and Leck, C.: Aerosol number size distributions from 3 to 500 nm diameter in the arctic marine boundary layer during summer and autumn, Tellus B, 48, 197-212, 1996.
36. Davison, B., O'Dowd, C., D., Hewitt, C. N., Smith, M. H., Harrison, R. M., Peel, D. A., Wolf, E., Mulvaney, R., Schwikowski, M., and Baltensperger, U.: Dimethyl sulfide and its oxidation products in the atmosphere of the Atlantic and Southern Oceans, Atmos. Environ., 30, 1895-1906, 1996.
37. Dentener, F., Kinne, S., Bond, T., Boucher, O., Cofala, J., Generoso, S., Ginoux, P., Gong, S., Hoelzemann, J. J., Ito, A., Marelli, L., Penner, J. E., Putaud, J.-P., Textor, C., Schulz, M., van der Werf, G. R., and Wilson, J.: Emissions of primary aerosol and precursor gases in the years 2000 and 1750 prescribed data-sets for Ae-roCom, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 4321-4344, doi:10.5194/acp-6-4321-2006, 2006.
38. 2 from 1980 to 2010 for hindcast model experiments, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 12, 24895-24954, doi:10.5194/acpd-12- 24895-2012, 2012.
39. Dusek, U., Frank, G. P., Hildebrandt, L., Curtius, J., Schneider, J., Walter, S., Chand, D., Drewnick, F., Hings, S., Jung, D., Bor-rmann, S., and Andreae, M. O.: Size matters more than chemistry for cloud-nucleating ability of aerosol particles, Science, 312, 1375-1378, 2006.
40. Easter, R. C., Ghan, S. J., Zhang, Y., Saylor, R. D., Chapman, E. G., Laulainen, N. S., Abdul-Razzak, H., Leung, R., Bian, X., and Zaveri, R. A.: MIRAGE: model description and evaluation of aerosols and trace gases, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D20210, doi:10.1029/2004JD004571, 2004.
41. Forster, P., Ramaswamy, V., Artaxo, P., Berntsen, T., Betts, R., Fa-hey, D. W., Haywood, J., Lean, J., Lowe, D. C., Myhre, G., Nganga, J., Prinn, R., Raga, G., Schulz, M., and Van Dorland, R.: Climate Change 2007: the Physical Science Basis, in: Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York, 129-234, 2007.
42. Garrett, T. J., Zhao, C., and Novelli, P. C.: Assessing the relative contributions of transport efficiency and scavenging to seasonal variability in Arctic aerosol, Tellus B, 62, 190-196, 2010.
43. Gelbard, F., Tambour, Y., and Seinfeld, J. H.: Sectional representations for simulating aerosol dynamics, J. Colloid Interf. Sci., 76, 541-556, 1980.
44. Ghan, S. J. and Schwartz, S. E.: Aerosol properties and processes: a path from field and laboratory measurements to global climate models, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 88, 1059-1083, 2007.
45. Ghan, S. J., Laulainen, N., Easter, R. C., Wagener, R., Nemesure, S., Chapman, E., Zhang, Y., and Leung, R.: Evaluation of aerosol direct radiative forcing in MIRAGE, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 5295-5316, 2001a.
46. Ghan, S. J., Easter, R. C., Hudson, J., and Breon, F.-M.: Evaluation of aerosol indirect radiative forcing in MIRAGE, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 5317-5334, 2001b.
47. Gong, S.-L. and Barrie, L.: Simulating the impact of sea salt on global nss sulphate aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4516, doi:10.1029/2002JD003181, 2003.
48. Haywood, J. and Boucher, O.: Estimates of the direct and indirect radiative forcing due to tropospheric aerosols-a review, Rev. Geophys., 38, 513-543, 2000.
49. Haywood, J. and Schulz, M.: Causes of the reduction in uncertainty in the anthropogenic radiative forcing of climate between IPCC (2001) and IPCC (2007), Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L20701, doi:10.1029/2007GL030749, 2007.
50. Heintzenberg, J.: The aerosol-cloud-climate conundrum, Int. J. Global Warm., 4, 219-241, 2012.
51. Heintzenberg, J. and Leck, C.: Seasonal variation of the atmospheric aerosol near the top of the marine boundary layer over Spitsbergen related to the Arctic sulphur cycle, Tellus B, 46, 52-67, 1994.
52. Heintzenberg, J., Covert, D. C., and Van Dingenen, R.: Size distribution and chemical composition of marine aerosols: a compilation and review, Tellus B, 52, 1104-1122, 2000.
53. Holben, B., Eck, T., Slutsker, I., Tanre, D., Buis, J., Ver-mote, E., Reagan, J., Kaufman, Y., Nakajima, T., Lavenau, F., Jankowiak, I., and Smirnov, A.: AERONET, a federated instrument network and data-archive for aerosol characterization, Remote Sens. Environ., 66, 1-66, 1998.
54. Hoppel, W. A., Frick, G. M., Fitzgerald, J. W., and Larson, R. E.: Marine boundary-layer measurements of new particle formation and the effects nonprecipitating clouds have on aerosol size distribution, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 14443-14459, 1994.
55. Huang, L., Gong, S. L., Jia, C. Q., and Lavoue, D.: Importance of deposition processes in simulating the seasonality of the Arctic black carbon aerosol, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D17207, doi:10.1029/2009JD013478, 2010.
56. Huneeus, N., Schulz, M., Balkanski, Y., Griesfeller, J., Prospero, J., Kinne, S., Bauer, S., Boucher, O., Chin, M., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Easter, R., Fillmore, D., Ghan, S., Ginoux, P., Grini, A., Horowitz, L., Koch, D., Krol, M. C., Landing, W., Liu, X., Mahowald, N., Miller, R., Morcrette, J.-J., Myhre, G., Penner, J., Perlwitz, J., Stier, P., Takemura, T., and Zender, C. S.: Global dust model intercomparison in AeroCom phase I, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 7781-7816, doi:10.5194/acp-11-7781-2011, 2011.
57. Jacobson, M. Z.: Strong radiative heating due to the mixing state of black carbon in atmospheric aerosols, Nature, 409, 695-697, 2001.
58. Jacobson, M. Z.: Development and application of a new air pollution modeling system-II. Aerosol module structure and design, Atmos. Environ., 31, 131-144, 1997a.
59. Jacobson, M. Z.: Development and application of a new air pollution modeling system-III, Atmos. Environ., 31, 587-608, 1997b.
60. Jacobson, M. Z. and Seinfeld, J. H.: Evolution of nanoparticle size and mixing state near the point of emission, Atmos. Environ., 38, 1839-1850, 2004.
61. Jaenicke, R., Dreiling, V., Lehmann, E., Koutsenoguii, P. K., and Stingl, J.: Condensation nuclei at the German Antarctic Station "Georg von Neumayer", Tellus B, 44, 311-317, 1992.
62. Jeuken, A., Siegmund, P., Heijboer, L., Feichter, J., and Bengts-son, L.: On the Potential of assimilating meteorological analyses in a global climate model for the purposes of model validation, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 16939-16950, 1996.
63. Kahn, R., Banerjee, P., McDonald, D., and Diner, D. J.: Sensitivity of multi-angle imaging to aerosol optical depth and to pure particle size distribution and composition over ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 32195-32213, 1998.
64. Kazil, J., Stier, P., Zhang, K., Quaas, J., Kinne, S., O'Donnell, D., Rast, S., Esch, M., Ferrachat, S., Lohmann, U., and Feichter, J.: Aerosol nucleation and its role for clouds and Earth's radiative forcing in the aerosol-climate model ECHAM5-HAM, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 10733-10752, doi:10.5194/acp-10-10733-2010, 2010.
65. Kerminen, V.-M., Paramonov, M., Anttila, T., Riipinen, I., Foun-toukis, C., Korhonen, H., Asmi, E., Laakso, L., Lihavainen, H., Swietlicki, E., Svenningsson, B., Asmi, A., Pandis, S. N., Kul-mala, M., and Petäjä, T.: Cloud condensation nuclei production associated with atmospheric nucleation: a synthesis based on existing literature and new results, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 12037-12059, doi:10.5194/acp-12-12037-2012, 2012.
66. Kinne, S., Schulz, M., Textor, C., Guibert, S., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S. E., Berntsen, T., Berglen, T. F., Boucher, O., Chin, M., Collins, W., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Easter, R., Feichter, J., Fillmore, D., Ghan, S., Ginoux, P., Gong, S., Grini, A., Hendricks, J., Herzog, M., Horowitz, L., Isaksen, I., Iversen, T., Kirkevåg, A., Kloster, S., Koch, D., Kristjansson, J. E., Krol, M., Lauer, A., Lamarque, J. F., Lesins, G., Liu, X., Lohmann, U., Montanaro, V., Myhre, G., Penner, J., Pitari, G., Reddy, S., Seland, O., Stier, P., Take-mura, T., and Tie, X.: An AeroCom initial assessment-optical properties in aerosol component modules of global models, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1815-1834, doi:10.5194/acp-6-1815-2006, 2006.
67. Kipling, Z., Stier, P., Schwarz, J. P., Perring, A. E., Spackman, J. R., Mann, G. W., Johnson, C. E., and Telford, P. J.: Constraints on aerosol processes in climate models from vertically-resolved aircraft observations of black carbon, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 5969-5986, doi:10.5194/acp-13-5969-2013, 2013.
68. Koch, D., Schulz, M., Kinne, S., McNaughton, C., Spackman, J. R., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T., Bond, T. C., Boucher, O., Chin, M., Clarke, A., De Luca, N., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Dubovik, O., Easter, R., Fahey, D. W., Feichter, J., Fillmore, D., Freitag, S., Ghan, S., Ginoux, P., Gong, S., Horowitz, L., Iversen, T., Kirkevåg, A., Klimont, Z., Kondo, Y., Krol, M., Liu, X., Miller, R., Montanaro, V., Moteki, N., Myhre, G., Penner, J. E., Perlwitz, J., Pitari, G., Reddy, S., Sahu, L., Sakamoto, H., Schuster, G., Schwarz, J. P., Seland, Ø., Stier, P., Takegawa, N., Takemura, T., Textor, C., van Aardenne, J. A., and Zhao, Y.: Evaluation of black carbon estimations in global aerosol models, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 9001-9026, doi:10.5194/acp-9-9001-2009, 2009.
69. Koffi, B., Schulz, M., Bréon, F.-M., Griesfeller, J., Winker, D., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T., Chin, M., Collins, W. D., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Easter, R. C., Ghan, S. J., Ginoux, P., Gong, S., Horowitz, L. W., Iversen, T., Kirkevåg, A., Koch, D., Krol, M., Myhre, G., Stier, P., and Takemura, T.: Application of the CALIOP layer product to evaluate the vertical distribution of aerosols estimated by global models: AeroCom phase I results, J. Geophys. Res., 117, D10201, doi:10.1029/2011JD016858, 2012.
70. Korhonen, H., Carslaw, K. S., Spracklen, D. V., Ridley, D. A., and Strom, J.: A global model study of processes controlling aerosol size distributions in the Arctic spring and summer, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D08211, doi:10.1029/2007JD009114, 2008a.
71. Korhonen, H., Carslaw, K. S., Spracklen, D. V., Mann, G. W., and Woodhouse, M. T.: Influence of ocean dimethyl sul-fide emissions on cloud condensation nuclei concentrations and seasonality over the remote Southern Hemisphere oceans: a global model study, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D15204, doi:10.1029/2007JD009718, 2008b.
72. Kulmala, M., Laaksonen, A., and Pirjola, L.: Parameterizations for sulfuric acid/water nucleation rates, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 8301-8307, 1998.
73. Kulmala, M., Vehkamaki, H., Petajda, T., Dal Maso, M., Lauria, A., Kerminen, V.-M., Birmili, W., and McMurry, P. H.: Formation and growth rates of ultrafine atmospheric particles: a review of observations, J. Aerosol Sci., 35, 143-176, 2004.
74. Lamarque, J.-F., Bond, T. C., Eyring, V., Granier, C., Heil, A., Klimont, Z., Lee, D., Liousse, C., Mieville, A., Owen, B., Schultz, M. G., Shindell, D., Smith, S. J., Stehfest, E., Van Aar-denne, J., Cooper, O. R., Kainuma, M., Mahowald, N., Mc-Connell, J. R., Naik, V., Riahi, K., and van Vuuren, D. P.: Historical (1850-2000) gridded anthropogenic and biomass burning emissions of reactive gases and aerosols: methodology and application, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 7017-7039, doi:10.5194/acp-10-7017-2010, 2010.
75. Lauer, A., Hendricks, J., Ackermann, I., Schell, B., Hass, H., and Metzger, S.: Simulating aerosol microphysics with the ECHAM/MADE GCM-Part I: Model description and comparison with observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 3251-3276, doi:10.5194/acp-5-3251-2005, 2005.
76. Leaitch, W. R., Banic, C. M., Isaac, G. A., Couture, M. D., Liu, P. S. K., Gultepe, I., Li, S.-M., Kleinman, L., Daum, P. H., and MacPherson, J. I.: Physical and chemical observations in marine stratus during the 1993 North Atlantic Regional Experiment, factors controlling cloud droplet number concentrations, J. Geo-phys. Res., 101, 29123-29135, 1996.
77. Leck, C. and Bigg, E. K.: Biogenic particles in the surface micro-layer and overlaying atmosphere in the central Arctic Ocean during summer, Tellus B, 57, 305-316, 2005.
78. Lee, L. A., Carslaw, K. S., Pringle, K. J., Mann, G. W., and Spracklen, D. V.: Emulation of a complex global aerosol model to quantify sensitivity to uncertain parameters, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 12253-12273, doi:10.5194/acp-11- 12253-2011, 2011.
79. Lee, L. A., Pringle, K. J., Reddington, C. L., Mann, G. W., Stier, P., Spracklen, D. V., Pierce, J. R., and Carslaw, K. S.: The magnitude and causes of uncertainty in global model simulations of cloud condensation nuclei, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 8879-8914, doi:10.5194/acp-13-8879-2013, 2013.
80. Lee, Y. H. and Adams, P. J.: Evaluation of aerosol distributions in the GISS-TOMAS global aerosol microphysics model with remote sensing observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 2129-2144, doi:10.5194/acp-10-2129-2010, 2010.
81. Lee, Y. H., Lamarque, J.-F., Flanner, M. G., Jiao, C., Shindell, D. T., Berntsen, T., Bisiaux, M. M., Cao, J., Collins, W. J., Cur-ran, M., Edwards, R., Faluvegi, G., Ghan, S., Horowitz, L. W., McConnell, J. R., Ming, J., Myhre, G., Nagashima, T., Naik, V., Rumbold, S. T., Skeie, R. B., Sudo, K., Takemura, T., Thevenon, F., Xu, B., and Yoon, J.-H.: Evaluation of preindustrial to present-day black carbon and its albedo forcing from Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Model Intercomparison Project (AC-CMIP), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 2607-2634, doi:10.5194/acp-13-2607-2013, 2013.
82. 2, Science, 258, 117-120, 1992.
83. Liu, J., Fan, S., Horowitz, L. W., and Levy II, H.: Evaluation of factors controlling long-range transport of black carbon to the Arctic, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D00A14, doi:10.1029/2010JD015145, 2011.
84. Liu, X., Penner, J. E., and Herzog, M.: Global modeling of aerosol dynamics: model description, evaluation, and interactions between sulfate and nonsulfate aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D18206, doi:10.1029/2004JD005674, 2005.
85. Liu, X., Easter, R. C., Ghan, S. J., Zaveri, R., Rasch, P., Shi, X., Lamarque, J.-F., Gettelman, A., Morrison, H., Vitt, F., Conley, A., Park, S., Neale, R., Hannay, C., Ekman, A. M. L., Hess, P., Mahowald, N., Collins, W., Iacono, M. J., Bretherton, C. S., Flan-ner, M. G., and Mitchell, D.: Toward a minimal representation of aerosols in climate models: description and evaluation in the Community Atmosphere Model CAM5, Geosci. Model Dev., 5, 709-739, doi:10.5194/gmd-5-709-2012, 2012.
86. Lohmann, U. and Feichter, J.: Global indirect aerosol effects: a review, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 715-737, doi:10.5194/acp-5-715-2005, 2005.
87. Lurmann, F. W., Wexler, A. S., Pandis, S. N., Musarra, S., Kumar, N., and Seinfeld, J. H.: Modelling urban and regional aerosols-II. Application to California's south coast air basin, Atmos. Environ., 31, 2695-2715, 1997.
88. Mann, G. W., Carslaw, K. S., Spracklen, D. V., Ridley, D. A., Manktelow, P. T., Chipperfield, M. P., Pickering, S. J., and Johnson, C. E.: Description and evaluation of GLOMAP-mode: a modal global aerosol microphysics model for the UKCA composition-climate model, Geosci. Model Dev., 3, 519-551, doi:10.5194/gmd-3-519-2010, 2010.
89. Mann, G. W., Carslaw, K. S., Ridley, D. A., Spracklen, D. V., Pringle, K. J., Merikanto, J., Korhonen, H., Schwarz, J. P., Lee, L. A., Manktelow, P. T., Woodhouse, M. T., Schmidt, A., Brei-der, T. J., Emmerson, K. M., Reddington, C. L., Chipperfield, M. P., and Pickering, S. J.: Intercomparison of modal and sectional aerosol microphysics representations within the same 3-D global chemical transport model, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 4449-4476, doi:10.5194/acp-12-4449-2012, 2012.
90. Mann, G. W., Johnson, C. E., Bellouin, N., Dalvi, M., Abraham, L., Carslaw, K. S., Boucher, O., Stier, P., Rae, J., Spracklen, D. V., Telford, P., Pyle, J. A., O'Connor, F., Carver, G., Pringle, K. J., and Woodhouse, M. T.: Evaluation of the new UKCA climate-composition model, Part 3: Tropospheric aerosol properties, in preparation, 2014.
91. Martensson, E. M., Nilsson, E. D., de Leeuw, G., Cohen, L. H., and Hansson, H.-C.: Laboratory simulations and parameterization of the primary marine aerosol production, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4297, doi:10.1029/ 2002JD002263, 2003.
92. Merikanto, J., Napari, I., Vehkamaki, H., Anttila, T., and Kul-mala, M.: New parameterization of sulfuric acid-ammonia-water ternary nucleation rates at tropospheric conditions, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D15207, doi:10.1029/ 2006JD007977, 2007.
93. Merikanto, J., Spracklen, D. V., Mann, G. W., Pickering, S. J., and Carslaw, K. S.: Impact of nucleation on global CCN, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 8601-8616, doi:10.5194/acp-9-8601-2009, 2009.
94. Metzger, A., Verheggen, B., Dommen, J., Duplissy, D., Pre-vot, A. S. H., Weingartner, E., Riipinen, I., Kulmala, M., Spracklen, D. V., Carslaw, K. S., and Baltensperger, U.: Evidence for the role of organics in aerosol particle formation under atmospheric conditions, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 107, 6646-6651, doi:10.1073/pnas.0911330107, 2010.
95. Metzger, S., Dentener, F. Krol, M., Jeuken, A., and Lelieveld, J.: Gas/aerosol partitioning: 2. Global modeling results, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4313, doi:10.1029/2001JD001103, 2002.
96. Myhre, G., Samset, B. H., Schulz, M., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T. K., Bian, H., Bellouin, N., Chin, M., Diehl, T., Easter, R. C., Feichter, J., Ghan, S. J., Hauglustaine, D., Iversen, T., Kinne, S., Kirkevåg, A., Lamarque, J.-F., Lin, G., Liu, X., Lund, M. T., Luo, G., Ma, X., van Noije, T., Penner, J. E., Rasch, P. J., Ruiz, A., Seland, Ø., Skeie, R. B., Stier, P., Takemura, T., Tsigaridis, K., Wang, P., Wang, Z., Xu, L., Yu, H., Yu, F., Yoon, J.-H., Zhang, K., Zhang, H., and Zhou, C.: Radiative forcing of the direct aerosol effect from AeroCom Phase II simulations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 1853-1877, doi:10.5194/acp-13-1853-2013, 2013.
97. 2O vapours, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4381, doi:10.1029/2002JD002132, 2002.
98. Nenes, A. and Seinfeld, J. H.: Parameterizations of cloud droplet formation in global climate models, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4415, doi:10.1029/2002JD002911, 2003.
99. O'Dowd, C. D. and Smith, M. H.: Physicochemical properties of aerosols over the Northeast Atlantic: evidence for wind-speed-related submicron sea-salt aerosol production, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 1137-1149, 1993.
100. O'Dowd, C. D., Geever, M., Hill, M. K., Smith, M. H., and Jennings, S. G.: New particle formation: spatial scales and nucle-ation rates in the coastal environment, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 1661-1664, 1998.
101. O'Dowd, C. D., Yoon, Y. J., Junkerman, W., Aalto, P., Kulmala, M., Lihavainen, H., and Viisanen, Y.: Airborne measurements of nucleation mode particles I: coastal nucleation and growth rates, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 1491-1501, doi:10.5194/acp-7-1491-2007, 2007.
102. Olivier, J. G. J. and Berdowski, J. J. M.: Global emissions sources and sinks, in: The Climate System, edited by: Berdowski, J., Guicherit, R., and Heij, B. J., A. A. Balkema Publishers, Swets and Zeitlinger Publishers, Lisse, the Netherlands, 33-78, 2001.
103. Paasonen, P., Asmi, A., Petaja, T., Kajos, M. K., Aijala, M. Jun-ninen, H., Holst, T., Abbatt, J. P. D., Arneth, A., Birmili, W., van der Gon, H. D., Hamed, A., Hoffer, A., Laakso, L., Laak-sonen, A., Leaitch, W. R., Plass-Dulmer, C., Pryor, S. C., Raisa-nen, P., Swietlicki, E., Wiedensohler, A., Worsnop, D. R., Ker-minen, V.-M., and Kulmala, M.: Warming-induced increase in aerosol number concentration likely to moderate climate change, Nat. Geosci., 6, 438-442, 2013.
104. Penner, J. E., Quaas, J., Storelvmo, T., Takemura, T., Boucher, O., Guo, H., Kirkevåg, A., Kristjánsson, J. E., and Seland, Ø.: Model intercomparison of indirect aerosol effects, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 3391-3405, doi:10.5194/acp-6-3391-2006, 2006.
105. Petzold, A., Fiebig, M., Flentje, H., Keil, A., Leiterer, U., Schroeder, F., Stifter, A., Wendisch, M., and Wendling, P.: Vertical variability of aerosol properties observed at a continental site during the Lindenberg Aerosol Characterization Experiment (LACE 98), J. Geophys. Res., 107, 8128, doi:10.1029/2001JD001043, 2002.
106. Philippin, S., Laj, P., Putaud, J.-P., Wiedensohler, A., de Leeuw, G., Fjaeraa, A., Platt, U., Baltensperger, U., and Fiebig, M.: EU-SAAR: an unprecedented network of aerosol observation in Europe, Earozoru Kenkyu, 24, 78-83, 2009.
107. Pierce, J. R. and Adams, P. J.: Global evaluation of CCN formation by direct emission of sea salt and growth of ultrafine sea salt, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D06203, doi:10.1029/2005JD006186, 2006.
108. Pierce, J. R. and Adams, P. J.: Uncertainty in global CCN concentrations from uncertain aerosol nucleation and primary emission rates, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 1339-1356, doi:10.5194/acp-9-1339-2009, 2009.
109. Pringle, K. J., Tost, H., Message, S., Steil, B., Giannadaki, D., Nenes, A., Fountoukis, C., Stier, P., Vignati, E., and Lelieveld, J.: Description and evaluation of GMXe: a new aerosol submodel for global simulations (v1), Geosci. Model Dev., 3, 391-412, doi:10.5194/gmd-3-391-2010, 2010.
110. Quaas, J., Ming, Y., Menon, S., Takemura, T., Wang, M., Penner, J. E., Gettelman, A., Lohmann, U., Bellouin, N., Boucher, O., Sayer, A. M., Thomas, G. E., McComiskey, A., Feingold, G., Hoose, C., Kristjánsson, J. E., Liu, X., Balkanski, Y., Donner, L. J., Ginoux, P. A., Stier, P., Grandey, B., Feichter, J., Sednev, I., Bauer, S. E., Koch, D., Grainger, R. G., Kirkevåg, A., Iversen, T., Seland, Ø., Easter, R., Ghan, S. J., Rasch, P. J., Morrison, H., Lamarque, J.-F., Iacono, M. J., Kinne, S., and Schulz, M.: Aerosol indirect effects-general circulation model intercom-parison and evaluation with satellite data, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 8697-8717, doi:10.5194/acp-9-8697-2009, 2009.
111. Quinn, P. K., Bates, T. S., Johnson, J. E., Covert, D. S., and Charl-son, R. J.: Interactions between the sulfur and reduced nitrogen cycles over the central Pacific ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 16405-16416, 1990.
112. Quinn, P. K., Covert, D. S., Bates, T. S., Kapustin, V. N., Ramsey-Bell, D. C., and McInnes, L. M.: Dimethylsulfide/cloud condensation nuclei/climate system: relevant size-resolved measurements of the chemical and physical properties of atmospheric aerosol particles, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 10411-10427, 1993.
113. Quinn, P. K., Marshall, S. F., Bates, T. S., Covert, D. S., and Ka-pustin, V. N.: Comparison of measured and calculated aerosol properties relevant to the direct radiative forcing of tropospheric sulfate aerosol on climate, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 8977-8991, 1995.
114. Quinn, P. K., Kapustin, V. N., Bates, T. S., and Covert, D. S.: Chemical and optical properties of marine boundary layer aerosol particles of the mid-Pacific in relation to sources and meteorological transport, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 6931-6951, 1996.
115. Quinn, P. K., Miller, T. L., Bates, T. S., Ogren, J. A., Andrews, G. E., and Shaw, G. E.: A 3-year record of simultaneously measured aerosol chemical and optical properties at Barrow, Alaska, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4130, doi:10.1029/2001JD001248, 2002.
116. Raes, F.: Entrainment of free tropospheric aerosol as a regulating mechanism for cloud condensation nuclei in the remote marine boundary layer, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 2893-2903, 1995.
117. Raes, F., Dingenen Van, R., Cuevas, E., Velthoven Van, P. F. J., and Prospero, J. M.: Observations of aerosols in the free troposphere and marine boundary layer of the subtropical Northeast Atlantic: discussion of processes determining their size distribution, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 21315-21328, 1997.
118. Raes, F., Van Dingenen, R., Vignati, E., Wilson, J., Putaud, J.-P., Seinfeld, J. H., and Adams, P.: Formation and cycling of aerosols in the global troposphere, Atmos. Environ., 34, 4215-4240, 2000.
119. Randles, C. A., Kinne, S., Myhre, G., Schulz, M., Stier, P., Fischer, J., Doppler, L., Highwood, E., Ryder, C., Harris, B., Huttunen, J., Ma, Y., Pinker, R. T., Mayer, B., Neubauer, D., Hitzenberger, R., Oreopoulos, L., Lee, D., Pitari, G., Di Genova, G., Quaas, J., Rose, F. G., Kato, S., Rumbold, S. T., Vardavas, I., Hatzianas-tassiou, N., Matsoukas, C., Yu, H., Zhang, F., Zhang, H., and Lu, P.: Intercomparison of shortwave radiative transfer schemes in global aerosol modeling: results from the AeroCom Radiative Transfer Experiment, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 2347-2379, doi:10.5194/acp-13-2347-2013, 2013.
120. Reddington, C. L., Carslaw, K. S., Spracklen, D. V., Frontoso, M. G., Collins, L., Merikanto, J., Minikin, A., Hamburger, T., Coe, H., Kulmala, M., Aalto, P., Flentje, H., Plass-Dülmer, C., Bir-mili, W., Wiedensohler, A., Wehner, B., Tuch, T., Sonntag, A., O'Dowd, C. D., Jennings, S. G., Dupuy, R., Baltensperger, U., Weingartner, E., Hansson, H.-C., Tunved, P., Laj, P., Sellegri, K., Boulon, J., Putaud, J.-P., Gruening, C., Swietlicki, E., Roldin, P., Henzing, J. S., Moerman, M., Mihalopoulos, N., Kouvarakis, G., Ždímal, V., Zíková, N., Marinoni, A., Bonasoni, P., and Duchi, R.: Primary versus secondary contributions to particle number concentrations in the European boundary layer, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 12007-12036, doi:10.5194/acp-11-12007-2011, 2011.
121. Samset, B. H., Myhre, G., Schulz, M., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T. K., Bian, H., Bellouin, N., Diehl, T., Easter, R. C., Ghan, S. J., Iversen, T., Kinne, S., Kirkevåg, A., Lamarque, J.-F., Lin, G., Liu, X., Penner, J. E., Seland, Ø., Skeie, R. B., Stier, P., Takemura, T., Tsigaridis, K., and Zhang, K.: Black carbon vertical profiles strongly affect its radiative forcing uncertainty, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 2423-2434, doi:10.5194/acp-13-2423- 2013, 2013.
122. Schmidt, A., Carslaw, K. S., Mann, G. W., Rap, A., Pringle, K. J., Spracklen, D. V., Wilson, M., and Forster, P. M.: Importance of tropospheric volcanic aerosol for indirect radiative forcing of climate, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 7321-7339, doi:10.5194/acp-12-7321-2012, 2012.
123. Schulz, M., Textor, C., Kinne, S., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T., Berglen, T., Boucher, O., Dentener, F., Guibert, S., Isaksen, I. S. A., Iversen, T., Koch, D., Kirkevåg, A., Liu, X., Monta-naro, V., Myhre, G., Penner, J. E., Pitari, G., Reddy, S., Seland, Ø., Stier, P., and Takemura, T.: Radiative forcing by aerosols as derived from the AeroCom present-day and pre-industrial simulations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 5225-5246, doi:10.5194/acp-6-5225-2006, 2006.
124. Schulz, M., Chin, M., and Kinne, S.: The Aerosol Model Comparison Project, AeroCom, Phase II: Clearing Up Diversity, International Global Atmospheric Chemistry Newsletter, No. 41, http://www.igacproject.org/ Newsletters, 2009.
125. Schwarz, J. P., Spackman, J. R., Gao, R. S., Watts, L. A., Stier, P., Schulz, M., Davis, S. M., Wofsy, S. C., and Fahey, D. W.: Global-scale black carbon profiles observed in the remote atmosphere and compared to models, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L18812, doi:10.1029/2010GL044372, 2010.
126. Scott, C. E., Rap, A., Spracklen, D. V., Forster, P. M., Carslaw, K. S., Mann, G. W., Pringle, K. J., Kivekäs, N., Kulmala, M., Lihavainen, H., and Tunved, P.: The direct and indirect radiative effects of biogenic secondary organic aerosol, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 447-470, doi:10.5194/acp-14-447-2014, 2014.
127. Sihto, S.-L., Kulmala, M., Kerminen, V.-M., Dal Maso, M., Petäjä, T., Riipinen, I., Korhonen, H., Arnold, F., Janson, R., Boy, M., Laaksonen, A., and Lehtinen, K. E. J.: Atmospheric sulphuric acid and aerosol formation: implications from atmospheric measurements for nucleation and early growth mechanisms, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 4079-4091, doi:10.5194/acp-6- 4079-2006, 2006.
128. Spracklen, D. V., Pringle, K. J., Carslaw, K. S., Chipperfield, M. P., and Mann, G. W.: A global off-line model of size-resolved aerosol microphysics: I. Model development and prediction of aerosol properties, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 2227-2252, doi:10.5194/acp-5-2227-2005, 2005a.
129. Spracklen, D. V., Pringle, K. J., Carslaw, K. S., Chipperfield, M. P., and Mann, G. W.: A global off-line model of size-resolved aerosol microphysics: II. Identification of key uncertainties, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 3233-3250, doi:10.5194/acp-5-3233-2005, 2005b.
130. Spracklen, D. V., Carslaw, K. S., Kulmala, M., Kerminen, V.-M., Mann, G. W., and Sihto, S.-L.: The contribution of boundary layer nucleation events to total particle concentrations on regional and global scales, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 5631-5648, doi:10.5194/acp-6-5631-2006, 2006.
131. Spracklen, D. V., Pringle, K. J., Carslaw, K. S., Mann, G. W., Mank-telow, P., and Heintzenberg, J.: Evaluation of a global aerosol microphysics model against size-resolved particle statistics in the marine atmosphere, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 2073-2090, doi:10.5194/acp-7-2073-2007, 2007.
132. Spracklen, D. V., Carslaw, K. S., Kulmala, M., Kerminen, V.-M., Sihto, S.-L., Riipinen, I., Merikanto, J., Mann, G. W., Chipper-field, M. P., Wiedensohler, A., Birmili, W., and Lihavainen, H.: Contribution of particle formation to global cloud condensation nuclei concentrations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L06808, doi:10.1029/2007GL033038, 2008.
133. Spracklen, D. V., Carslaw, K. S., Merikanto, J., Mann, G. W., Red-dington, C. L., Pickering, S., Ogren, J. A., Andrews, E., Bal-tensperger, U., Weingartner, E., Boy, M., Kulmala, M., Laakso, L., Lihavainen, H., Kivekäs, N., Komppula, M., Mihalopoulos, N., Kouvarakis, G., Jennings, S. G., O'Dowd, C., Birmili, W., Wiedensohler, A., Weller, R., Gras, J., Laj, P., Sellegri, K., Bonn, B., Krejci, R., Laaksonen, A., Hamed, A., Minikin, A., Harrison, R. M., Talbot, R., and Sun, J.: Explaining global surface aerosol number concentrations in terms of primary emissions and particle formation, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 4775-4793, doi:10.5194/acp-10-4775-2010, 2010.
134. Spracklen, D. V., Carslaw, K. S., Pöschl, U., Rap, A., and Forster, P. M.: Global cloud condensation nuclei influenced by carbonaceous combustion aerosol, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 9067-9087, doi:10.5194/acp-11-9067-2011, 2011.
135. Stier, P., Feichter, J., Kinne, S., Kloster, S., Vignati, E., Wilson, J., Ganzeveld, L., Tegen, I., Werner, M., Balkanski, Y., Schulz, M., Boucher, O., Minikin, A., and Petzold, A.: The aerosol-climate model ECHAM5-HAM, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 1125-1156, doi:10.5194/acp-5-1125-2005, 2005.
136. Stier, P., Schutgens, N. A. J., Bellouin, N., Bian, H., Boucher, O., Chin, M., Ghan, S., Huneeus, N., Kinne, S., Lin, G., Ma, X., Myhre, G., Penner, J. E., Randles, C. A., Samset, B., Schulz, M., Takemura, T., Yu, F., Yu, H., and Zhou, C.: Host model uncertainties in aerosol radiative forcing estimates: results from the Aero-Com Prescribed intercomparison study, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 3245-3270, doi:10.5194/acp-13-3245-2013, 2013.
137. Tanre, D., Kaufman, Y. J., Herman, M., and Mattoo, S.: Remote sensing of aerosol properties over ocean using the MODIS/EOS spectral radiances, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 16971-16988, 1997.
138. Telford, P. J., Braesicke, P., Morgenstern, O., and Pyle, J. A.: Technical Note: Description and assessment of a nudged version of the new dynamics Unified Model, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 1701-1712, doi:10.5194/acp-8- 1701-2008, 2008.
139. Textor, C., Schulz, M., Guibert, S., Kinne, S., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T., Berglen, T., Boucher, O., Chin, M., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Easter, R., Feichter, H., Fillmore, D., Ghan, S., Ginoux, P., Gong, S., Grini, A., Hendricks, J., Horowitz, L., Huang, P., Isaksen, I., Iversen, I., Kloster, S., Koch, D., Kirkevåg, A., Krist-jansson, J. E., Krol, M., Lauer, A., Lamarque, J. F., Liu, X., Mon-tanaro, V., Myhre, G., Penner, J., Pitari, G., Reddy, S., Seland, Ø., Stier, P., Takemura, T., and Tie, X.: Analysis and quantification of the diversities of aerosol life cycles within AeroCom, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1777-1813, doi:10.5194/acp-6-1777-2006, 2006.
140. Textor, C., Schulz, M., Guibert, S., Kinne, S., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T., Berglen, T., Boucher, O., Chin, M., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Feichter, J., Fillmore, D., Ginoux, P., Gong, S., Grini, A., Hendricks, J., Horowitz, L., Huang, P., Isaksen, I. S. A., Iversen, T., Kloster, S., Koch, D., Kirkevåg, A., Kristjans-son, J. E., Krol, M., Lauer, A., Lamarque, J. F., Liu, X., Mon-tanaro, V., Myhre, G., Penner, J. E., Pitari, G., Reddy, M. S., Seland, Ø., Stier, P., Takemura, T., and Tie, X.: The effect of harmonized emissions on aerosol properties in global models-an AeroCom experiment, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 4489-4501, doi:10.5194/acp-7-4489-2007, 2007.
141. Thomson, A. M., Calvin, K. V., Smith, S. J., Page Kyle, G., Volke, A., Patel, P., Delgado-Arias, S., Bond-Lamberty, B., Wise, M. A., Clarke, L. E., and Edmonds, J. A.: RCP4.5: a pathway for stabilisation of radiative forcing by 2100, Climatic Change, 109, 77-94, 2011.
142. Torres, O., Barthia, P. K., Herman, J. R., Sinyuk, A., Ginoux, P., and Holben, B.: A long-term record of aerosol optical depth from TOMS observations and comparisons to AERONET measurements, J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 398-413, 2002.
143. Trivitayanurak, W., Adams, P. J., Spracklen, D. V., and Carslaw, K. S.: Tropospheric aerosol microphysics simulation with assimilated meteorology: model description and intermodel comparison, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 3149-3168, doi:10.5194/acp-8-3149-2008, 2008.
144. Tsigaridis, K., Daskalakis, N., Kanakidou, M., Adams, P. J., Ar-taxo, P., Bahadur, R., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S. E., Bellouin, N., Benedetti, A., Bergman, T., Berntsen, T. K., Beukes, J. P., Bian, H., Carslaw, K. S., Chin, M., Curci, G., Diehl, T., Easter, R. C., Ghan, S. J., Gong, S. L., Hodzic, A., Hoyle, C. R., Iversen, T., Jathar, S., Jimenez, J. L., Kaiser, J. W., Kirkevåg, A., Koch, D., Kokkola, H., Lee, Y. H., Lin, G., Liu, X., Luo, G., Ma, X., Mann, G. W., Mihalopoulos, N., Morcrette, J.-J., Müller, J.-F., Myhre, G., Myriokefalitakis, S., Ng, S., O'Donnell, D., Pen-ner, J. E., Pozzoli, L., Pringle, K. J., Russell, L. M., Schulz, M., Sciare, J., Seland, Ø., Shindell, D. T., Sillman, S., Skeie, R. B., Spracklen, D., Stavrakou, T., Steenrod, S. D., Takemura, T., Ti-itta, P., Tilmes, S., Tost, H., van Noije, T., van Zyl, P. G., von Salzen, K., Yu, F., Wang, Z., Wang, Z., Zaveri, R. A., Zhang, H., Zhang, K., Zhang, Q., and Zhang, X.: The AeroCom evaluation and intercomparison of organic aerosol in global models, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 14, 6027-6161, doi:10.5194/acpd-14-6027-2014, 2014.
145. Van Dingenen, R., Raes, F., and Jenson, N. R.: Evidence for anthropogenic impact on number concentration and sulfate content of cloud-processed aerosol particles over the North Atlantic, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 21057-21067, 1995.
146. Van Dingenen, R., Raes, F., Putaud, J.-P., Baltensperger, U., Char-ron, A., Facchini, M. C., Decesar, S., Fuzzi, S., Gehrig, R., Hans-son, H. C., Harrison, R. M., Huglin, C., Jones, A. M., Laj, P., Lor-beer, G., Maenhaut, W., Palmgren, F., Querol, X., Rodriguez, S., Schneider, J., Ten Brink, H., Tunved, P., a Torseth, K., Wehner, B., Weingartner, E., Wiedensohler, A., and Waehlin, P.: A European aerosol phenomenology-1: physical characteristics of particu-late matter at kerbside, urban, rural and background sites in Europe, Atmos. Environ., 38, 2561-2577, 2004.
147. Vehkamaki, H., Kulmala, M., Napari, I., Lehtinen, K. E. J., Timm-reck, C., Noppel, M., and Laaksonen, A.: An improved parameterization for sulfuric acid-water nucleation rates for tro-pospheric and stratospheric conditions, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4622, doi:10.1029/2002JD002184, 2002.
148. Vignati, E., Karl, M., Krol, M., Wilson, J., Stier, P., and Cavalli, F.: Sources of uncertainties in modelling black carbon at the global scale, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 2595-2611, doi:10.5194/acp-10-2595-2010, 2010.
149. von Salzen, K.: Piecewise log-normal approximation of size distributions for aerosol modelling, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1351-1372, doi:10.5194/acp-6-1351- 2006, 2006.
150. Whitby, E. and McMurry, P.: Modal aerosol dynamics modeling, Aerosol. Sci. Tech., 27, 673-688, 1997.
151. Whitby, K. T.: The physical characteristics of sulfur aerosols, Atmos. Environ., 12, 135-159, 1978.
152. Wiedensohler, A., Birmili, W., Nowak, A., Sonntag, A., Weinhold, K., Merkel, M., Wehner, B., Tuch, T., Pfeifer, S., Fiebig, M., Fjäraa, A. M., Asmi, E., Sellegri, K., Depuy, R., Venzac, H., Vil-lani, P., Laj, P., Aalto, P., Ogren, J. A., Swietlicki, E., Williams, P., Roldin, P., Quincey, P., Hüglin, C., Fierz-Schmidhauser, R., Gysel, M., Weingartner, E., Riccobono, F., Santos, S., Grüning, C., Faloon, K., Beddows, D., Harrison, R., Monahan, C., Jennings, S. G., O'Dowd, C. D., Marinoni, A., Horn, H.-G., Keck, L., Jiang, J., Scheckman, J., McMurry, P. H., Deng, Z., Zhao, C. S., Moerman, M., Henzing, B., de Leeuw, G., Löschau, G., and Bastian, S.: Mobility particle size spectrometers: harmonization of technical standards and data structure to facilitate high quality long-term observations of atmospheric particle number size distributions, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 5, 657-685, doi:10.5194/amt-5-657-2012, 2012.
153. Wilson, J., Cuvelier, C., and Raes, F.: A modeling study of global mixed aerosol fields, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 34081-34108, 2001.
154. Yu, F.: Ion-mediated nucleation in the atmosphere: key controlling parameters, implications, and look-up table, J. Geophy. Res., 115, D03206, doi:10.1029/2009JD012630, 2010.
155. Yu, F. and Luo, G.: Simulation of particle size distribution with a global aerosol model: contribution of nucleation to aerosol and CCN number concentrations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 7691-7710, doi:10.5194/acp-9-7691-2009, 2009.
156. Yu, F., Luo, G., Bates, T., Anderson, B., Clarke, A., Kapustin, V., Yantosca, R., Wang, Y., and Wu, S.: Spatial distributions of particle number concentrations in the global troposphere: simulations, observations, and implications for nucleation mechanisms, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D17205, doi:10.1029/2009JD013473, 2010.
157. Zhang, K., Wan, H., Wang, B., Zhang, M., Feichter, J., and Liu, X.: Tropospheric aerosol size distributions simulated by three online global aerosol models using the M7 microphysics module, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 6409-6434, doi:10.5194/acp-10-6409-2010, 2010.
158. Zhang, K., O'Donnell, D., Kazil, J., Stier, P., Kinne, S., Lohmann, U., Ferrachat, S., Croft, B., Quaas, J., Wan, H., Rast, S., and Fe-ichter, J.: The global aerosol-climate model ECHAM-HAM, version 2: sensitivity to improvements in process representations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 8911-8949, doi:10.5194/acp-12-8911-2012, 2012.