Transcriptional gene silencing (TGS) via the RNAi machinery in HIV-1 infections

Biology

Volumn 1, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 339-369

  Sampey, Gavin C ^a   Guendel, Irene ^a   Das, Ravi ^a   Jaworski, Elizabeth ^a   Klase, Zachary ^b   Narayanan, Aarthi ^a   Kehn Hall, Kylene ^a   Kashanchi, Fatah ^a  

^a GEORGE MASON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ALLERGY AND INFECTIOUS DISEASES   (United States)

Author keywords

Chromatin remodeler; HIV; miRNA; RNAi; Transcriptional gene silencing

Indexed keywords

EID: 84888197948     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20797737     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/biology1020339     Document Type: Review

References (198)

1. UNAIDS. Global Report: Unaids Report on the Global Aids Epidemic 2010; Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS): Geneva, Switzerland, 2010.
2. Nachega, J.B.; Marconi, V.C.; van Zyl, G.U.; Gardner, E.M.; Preiser, W.; Hong, S.Y.; Mills, E.J.; Gross, R. Hiv treatment adherence, drug resistance, virologic failure: Evolving concepts. Infect. Disord. Drug Targets 2011, 11, 167-174.
3. Schweighardt, B.; Ortiz, G.M.; Grant, R.M.; Wellons, M.; Miralles, G.D.; Kostrikis, L.G.; Bartlett, J.A.; Nixon, D.F. Emergence of drug-resistant hiv-1 variants in patients undergoing structured treatment interruptions. Aids 2002, 16, 2342-2344.
4. Mette, M.F.; Aufsatz, W.; van der Winden, J.; Matzke, M.A.; Matzke, A.J. Transcriptional silencing and promoter methylation triggered by double-stranded rna. EMBO J. 2000, 19, 5194-5201.
5. Verdel, A.; Jia, S.; Gerber, S.; Sugiyama, T.; Gygi, S.; Grewal, S.I.; Moazed, D. Rnai-mediated targeting of heterochromatin by the rits complex. Science 2004, 303, 672-676.
6. Noma, K.; Sugiyama, T.; Cam, H.; Verdel, A.; Zofall, M.; Jia, S.; Moazed, D.; Grewal, S.I. Rits acts in cis to promote rna interference-mediated transcriptional and post-transcriptional silencing. Nat. Genet. 2004, 36, 1174-1180.
7. Morris, K.V.; Chan, S.W.; Jacobsen, S.E.; Looney, D.J. Small interfering rna-induced transcriptional gene silencing in human cells. Science 2004, 305, 1289-1292.
8. Omoto, S.; Ito, M.; Tsutsumi, Y.; Ichikawa, Y.; Okuyama, H.; Brisibe, E.A.; Saksena, N.K.; Fujii, Y.R. Hiv-1 nef suppression by virally encoded microRNA. Retrovirology 2004, 1, doi:10.1186/1742-4690-1-44.
9. Chua, J.H.; Armugam, A.; Jeyaseelan, K. Micrornas: Biogenesis, function and applications. Curr. Opin. Mol. Ther. 2009, 11, 189-199.
10. Ying, S.Y.; Lin, S.L. Intron-mediated rna interference and microrna biogenesis. Methods Mol. Biol. 2009, 487, 387-413.
11. Perron, M.P.; Provost, P. Protein components of the microrna pathway and human diseases. Methods Mol. Biol. 2009, 487, 369-385.
12. Winter, J.; Jung, S.; Keller, S.; Gregory, R.I.; Diederichs, S. Many roads to maturity: Microrna biogenesis pathways and their regulation. Nat. Cell Biol. 2009, 11, 228-234.
13. Faller, M.; Guo, F. Microrna biogenesis: There's more than one way to skin a cat. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2008, 1779, 663-667.
14. Van Wynsberghe, P.M.; Chan, S.P.; Slack, F.J.; Pasquinelli, A.E. Analysis of microrna expression and function. Methods Cell Biol. 2011, 106, 219-252.
15. Yang, J.S.; Lai, E.C. Alternative mirna biogenesis pathways and the interpretation of core mirna pathway mutants. Mol. Cell 2011, 43, 892-903.
16. Perron, M.P.; Provost, P. Protein interactions and complexes in human microrna biogenesis and function. Frontiers Biosci. A J. Virtual Libr. 2008, 13, 2537-2547.
17. Cai, X.; Hagedorn, C.H.; Cullen, B.R. Human micrornas are processed from capped, polyadenylated transcripts that can also function as mrnas. RNA 2004, 10, 1957-1966.
18. Lee, Y.; Ahn, C.; Han, J.; Choi, H.; Kim, J.; Yim, J.; Lee, J.; Provost, P.; Radmark, O.; Kim, S.; et al. The nuclear rnase iii drosha initiates microrna processing. Nature 2003, 425, 415-419.
19. Denli, A.M.; Tops, B.B.; Plasterk, R.H.; Ketting, R.F.; Hannon, G.J. Processing of primary micrornas by the microprocessor complex. Nature 2004, 432, 231-235.
20. Han, J.; Lee, Y.; Yeom, K.H.; Kim, Y.K.; Jin, H.; Kim, V.N. The drosha-dgcr8 complex in primary microrna processing. Genes Dev. 2004, 18, 3016-3027.
21. Yi, R.; Qin, Y.; Macara, I.G.; Cullen, B.R. Exportin-5 mediates the nuclear export of pre-micrornas and short hairpin rnas. Genes Dev. 2003, 17, 3011-3016.
22. Kim, V.N. Microrna precursors in motion: Exportin-5 mediates their nuclear export. Trends Cell Biol. 2004, 14, 156-159.
23. Vermeulen, A.; Behlen, L.; Reynolds, A.; Wolfson, A.; Marshall, W.S.; Karpilow, J.; Khvorova, A. The contributions of dsrna structure to dicer specificity and efficiency. RNA 2005, 11, 674-682.
24. Macrae, I.J.; Li, F.; Zhou, K.; Cande, W.Z.; Doudna, J.A. Structure of dicer and mechanistic implications for rnai. Cold Spring Harb. Symp Quant. Biol. 2006, 71, 73-80.
25. Zhang, X.; Zeng, Y. The terminal loop region controls microrna processing by drosha and dicer. Nucleic Acids Res. 2010, 38, 7689-7697.
26. Chendrimada, T.P.; Gregory, R.I.; Kumaraswamy, E.; Norman, J.; Cooch, N.; Nishikura, K.; Shiekhattar, R. Trbp recruits the dicer complex to ago2 for microrna processing and gene silencing. Nature 2005, 436, 740-744.
27. Haase, A.D.; Jaskiewicz, L.; Zhang, H.; Laine, S.; Sack, R.; Gatignol, A.; Filipowicz, W. Trbp, a regulator of cellular pkr and hiv-1 virus expression, interacts with dicer and functions in rna silencing. EMBO Rep. 2005, 6, 961-967.
28. Kawamata, T.; Tomari, Y. Making risc. Trends Biochem. Sci. 2010, 35, 368-376.
29. Easow, G.; Teleman, A.A.; Cohen, S.M. Isolation of microrna targets by mirnp immunopurification. RNA 2007, 13, 1198-1204.
30. Lytle, J.R.; Yario, T.A.; Steitz, J.A. Target mrnas are repressed as efficiently by micrornabinding sites in the 5' utr as in the 3' utr. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2007, 104, 9667-9672.
31. Orom, U.A.; Nielsen, F.C.; Lund, A.H. Microrna-10a binds the 5'utr of ribosomal protein mrnas and enhances their translation. Mol. Cell 2008, 30, 460-471.
32. Hafner, M.; Landthaler, M.; Burger, L.; Khorshid, M.; Hausser, J.; Berninger, P.; Rothballer, A.; Ascano, M., Jr.; Jungkamp, A.C.; Munschauer, M.; et al. Transcriptome-wide identification of rna-binding protein and microrna target sites by par-clip. Cell 2010, 141, 129-141.
33. Rigoutsos, I. New tricks for animal micrornas: Targeting of amino acid coding regions at conserved and nonconserved sites. Cancer Res. 2009, 69, 3245-3248.
34. Parker, J.S.; Roe, S.M.; Barford, D. Molecular mechanism of target rna transcript recognition by argonaute-guide complexes. Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. 2006, 71, 45-50.
35. Parker, J.S.; Parizotto, E.A.; Wang, M.; Roe, S.M.; Barford, D. Enhancement of the seed-target recognition step in rna silencing by a piwi/mid domain protein. Mol. Cell 2009, 33, 204-214.
36. Zofall, M.; Grewal, S.I. Rnai-mediated heterochromatin assembly in fission yeast. Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. 2006, 71, 487-496.
37. Buhler, M.; Moazed, D. Transcription and rnai in heterochromatic gene silencing. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 2007, 14, 1041-1048.
38. Li, L.C.; Okino, S.T.; Zhao, H.; Pookot, D.; Place, R.F.; Urakami, S.; Enokida, H.; Dahiya, R. Small dsrnas induce transcriptional activation in human cells. Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. USA 2006, 103, 17337-17342.
39. Place, R.F.; Li, L.C.; Pookot, D.; Noonan, E.J.; Dahiya, R. Microrna-373 induces expression of genes with complementary promoter sequences. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105, 1608-1613.
40. Morris, K.V.; Santoso, S.; Turner, A.M.; Pastori, C.; Hawkins, P.G. Bidirectional transcription directs both transcriptional gene activation and suppression in human cells. PLoS Genet. 2008, 4, e1000258.
41. Umbach, J.L.; Cullen, B.R. The role of rnai and micrornas in animal virus replication and antiviral immunity. Genes Dev. 2009, 23, 1151-1164.
42. Botos, I.; Liu, L.; Wang, Y.; Segal, D.M.; Davies, D.R. The toll-like receptor 3: Dsrna signaling complex. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2009, 1789, 667-674.
43. Kok, K.H.; Lei, T.; Jin, D.Y. Identification and validation of the cellular targets of virus-encoded micrornas. Methods Mol. Biol. 2010, 667, 319-326.
44. Pfeffer, S.; Zavolan, M.; Grasser, F.A.; Chien, M.; Russo, J.J.; Ju, J.; John, B.; Enright, A.J.; Marks, D.; Sander, C.; et al. Identification of virus-encoded micrornas. Science 2004, 304, 734-736.
45. Griffiths-Jones, S.; Grocock, R.J.; van Dongen, S.; Bateman, A.; Enright, A.J. Mirbase: Microrna sequences, targets and gene nomenclature. Nucleic Acids Res. 2006, 34, D140-D144.
46. Griffiths-Jones, S.; Saini, H.K.; van Dongen, S.; Enright, A.J. Mirbase: Tools for microrna genomics. Nucleic Acids Res. 2008, 36, D154-D158.
47. Sullivan, C.S.; Ganem, D. Micrornas and viral infection. Mol. Cell 2005, 20, 3-7.
48. Barth, S.; Pfuhl, T.; Mamiani, A.; Ehses, C.; Roemer, K.; Kremmer, E.; Jaker, C.; Hock, J.; Meister, G.; Grasser, F.A. Epstein-barr virus-encoded microrna mir-bart2 down-regulates the viral DNA polymerase balf5. Nucleic Acids Res. 2008, 36, 666-675.
49. Schopman, N.C.; Willemsen, M.; Liu, Y.P.; Bradley, T.; van Kampen, A.; Baas, F.; Berkhout, B.; Haasnoot, J. Deep sequencing of virus-infected cells reveals hiv-encoded small rnas. Nucleic Acids Res. 2012, 40, 414-427.
50. Riley, K.J.; Rabinowitz, G.S.; Yario, T.A.; Luna, J.M.; Darnell, R.B.; Steitz, J.A. Ebv and human micrornas co-target oncogenic and apoptotic viral and human genes during latency. EMBO J. 2012, doi:10.1038/emboj.2012.63.
51. Gupta, A.; Gartner, J.J.; Sethupathy, P.; Hatzigeorgiou, A.G.; Fraser, N.W. Anti-apoptotic function of a microrna encoded by the hsv-1 latency-associated transcript. Nature 2006, 442, 82-85.
52. Bennasser, Y.; Le, S.Y.; Yeung, M.L.; Jeang, K.T. Hiv-1 encoded candidate micro-rnas and their cellular targets. Retrovirology 2004, 1, doi:10.1186/1742-4690-1-43.
53. Grey, F.; Meyers, H.; White, E.A.; Spector, D.H.; Nelson, J. A human cytomegalovirus-encoded microrna regulates expression of multiple viral genes involved in replication. PLoS Pathog. 2007, 3, e163.
54. Lo, A.K.; To, K.F.; Lo, K.W.; Lung, R.W.; Hui, J.W.; Liao, G.; Hayward, S.D. Modulation of lmp1 protein expression by ebv-encoded micrornas. Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. USA 2007, 104, 16164-16169.
55. Murphy, E.; Vanicek, J.; Robins, H.; Shenk, T.; Levine, A.J. Suppression of immediate-early viral gene expression by herpesvirus-coded micrornas: Implications for latency. Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. USA 2008, 105, 5453-5458.
56. Hall, I.M.; Shankaranarayana, G.D.; Noma, K.; Ayoub, N.; Cohen, A.; Grewal, S.I. Establishment and maintenance of a heterochromatin domain. Science 2002, 297, 2232-2237.
57. Jenuwein, T. Molecular biology. An rna-guided pathway for the epigenome. Science 2002, 297, 2215-2218.
58. Matzke, M.A.; Birchler, J.A. Rnai-mediated pathways in the nucleus. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2005, 6, 24-35.
59. Volpe, T.A.; Kidner, C.; Hall, I.M.; Teng, G.; Grewal, S.I.; Martienssen, R.A. Regulation of heterochromatic silencing and histone h3 lysine-9 methylation by rnai. Science 2002, 297, 1833-1837.
60. Klase, Z.; Kale, P.; Winograd, R.; Gupta, M.V.; Heydarian, M.; Berro, R.; McCaffrey, T.; Kashanchi, F. Hiv-1 tar element is processed by dicer to yield a viral micro-rna involved in chromatin remodeling of the viral ltr. BMC Mol. Biol. 2007, 8, doi:10.1186/1471-2199-8-63.
61. Cantalupo, P.; Doering, A.; Sullivan, C.S.; Pal, A.; Peden, K.W.; Lewis, A.M.; Pipas, J.M. Complete nucleotide sequence of polyomavirus sa12. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 13094-13104.
62. Hussain, M.; Taft, R.J.; Asgari, S. An insect virus-encoded microrna regulates viral replication. J. Virol. 2008, 82, 9164-9170.
63. Aparicio, O.; Razquin, N.; Zaratiegui, M.; Narvaiza, I.; Fortes, P. Adenovirus virus-associated rna is processed to functional interfering rnas involved in virus production. J. Virol. 2006, 80, 1376-1384.
64. Grundhoff, A.; Sullivan, C.S. Virus-encoded micrornas. Virology 2011, 411, 325-343.
65. Zhu, J.Y.; Pfuhl, T.; Motsch, N.; Barth, S.; Nicholls, J.; Grasser, F.; Meister, G. Identification of novel epstein-barr virus microrna genes from nasopharyngeal carcinomas. J. Virol. 2009, 83, 3333-3341.
66. Grundhoff, A.; Sullivan, C.S.; Ganem, D. A combined computational and microarray-based approach identifies novel micrornas encoded by human gamma-herpesviruses. RNA 2006, 12, 733-750.
67. Sullivan, C.S.; Sung, C.K.; Pack, C.D.; Grundhoff, A.; Lukacher, A.E.; Benjamin, T.L.; Ganem, D. Murine polyomavirus encodes a microrna that cleaves early rna transcripts but is not essential for experimental infection. Virology 2009, 387, 157-167.
68. Singh, J.; Singh, C.P.; Bhavani, A.; Nagaraju, J. Discovering micrornas from bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrosis virus. Virology 2010, 407, 120-128.
69. Seo, G.J.; Chen, C.J.; Sullivan, C.S. Merkel cell polyomavirus encodes a microrna with the ability to autoregulate viral gene expression. Virology 2009, 383, 183-187.
70. Narayanan, A.; Kehn-Hall, K.; Bailey, C.; Kashanchi, F. Analysis of the roles of hiv-derived micrornas. Expert Opin. Biol. Ther. 2011, 11, 17-29.
71. Lin, J.; Cullen, B.R. Analysis of the interaction of primate retroviruses with the human rna interference machinery. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 12218-12226.
72. Klase, Z.; Winograd, R.; Davis, J.; Carpio, L.; Hildreth, R.; Heydarian, M.; Fu, S.; McCaffrey, T.; Meiri, E.; Ayash-Rashkovsky, M.; et al. Hiv-1 tar mirna protects against apoptosis by altering cellular gene expression. Retrovirology 2009, 6, doi:10.1186/1742-4690-6-18.
73. Kincaid, R.P.; Burke, J.M.; Sullivan, C.S. Rna virus microrna that mimics a b-cell oncomir. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2012, 109, 3077-3082.
74. Ouellet, D.L.; Plante, I.; Landry, P.; Barat, C.; Janelle, M.E.; Flamand, L.; Tremblay, M.J.; Provost, P. Identification of functional micrornas released through asymmetrical processing of hiv-1 tar element. Nucleic Acids Res. 2008, 36, 2353-2365.
75. Perez, J.T.; Varble, A.; Sachidanandam, R.; Zlatev, I.; Manoharan, M.; Garcia-Sastre, A.; tenOever, B.R. Influenza a virus-generated small rnas regulate the switch from transcription to replication. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 11525-11530.
76. Althaus, C.F.; Vongrad, V.; Niederost, B.; Joos, B.; di Giallonardo, F.; Rieder, P.; Pavlovic, J.; Trkola, A.; Gunthard, H.F.; Metzner, K.J.; et al. Tailored enrichment strategy detects low abundant small noncoding rnas in hiv-1 infected cells. Retrovirology 2012, 9, doi:10.1186/ 1742-4690-9-27.
77. Yeung, M.L.; Bennasser, Y.; Watashi, K.; Le, S.Y.; Houzet, L.; Jeang, K.T. Pyrosequencing of small non-coding rnas in hiv-1 infected cells: Evidence for the processing of a viral-cellular double-stranded rna hybrid. Nucleic Acids Res. 2009, 37, 6575-6586.
78. Gatignol, A.; Buckler-White, A.; Berkhout, B.; Jeang, K.T. Characterization of a human tar rnabinding protein that activates the hiv-1 ltr. Science 1991, 251, 1597-1600.
79. Feng, S.; Holland, E.C. Hiv-1 tat trans-activation requires the loop sequence within tar. Nature 1988, 334, 165-167.
80. Berkhout, B.; Jeang, K.T. Detailed mutational analysis of tar rna: Critical spacing between the bulge and loop recognition domains. Nucleic Acids Res. 1991, 19, 6169-6176.
81. Rana, T.M.; Jeang, K.T. Biochemical and functional interactions between hiv-1 tat protein and tar rna. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1999, 365, 175-185.
82. Bennasser, Y.; Yeung, M.L.; Jeang, K.T. Hiv-1 tar rna subverts rna interference in transfected cells through sequestration of tar rna-binding protein, trbp. J. Biol. Chem. 2006, 281, 27674-27678.
83. Cummings, M.; Higginbottom, K.; McGurk, C.J.; Wong, O.G.; Koberle, B.; Oliver, R.T.; Masters, J.R. Xpa versus ercc1 as chemosensitising agents to cisplatin and mitomycin c in prostate cancer cells: Role of ercc1 in homologous recombination repair. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2006, 72, 166-175.
84. Chang, I.Y.; Kim, M.H.; Kim, H.B.; Lee, D.Y.; Kim, S.H.; Kim, H.Y.; You, H.J. Small interfering rna-induced suppression of ercc1 enhances sensitivity of human cancer cells to cisplatin. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2005, 327, 225-233.
85. Imbeault, M.; Ouellet, M.; Tremblay, M.J. Microarray study reveals that hiv-1 induces rapid type-i interferon-dependent p53 mrna up-regulation in human primary cd4+ t cells. Retrovirology 2009, 6, doi: 10.1186/1742-4690-6-5.
86. Rotger, M.; Dang, K.K.; Fellay, J.; Heinzen, E.L.; Feng, S.; Descombes, P.; Shianna, K.V.; Ge, D.; Gunthard, H.F.; Goldstein, D.B.; et al. Genome-wide mrna expression correlates of viral control in cd4+ t-cells from hiv-1-infected individuals. PLoS Pathog. 2010, 6, e1000781.
87. Kaul, D.; Ahlawat, A.; Gupta, S.D. Hiv-1 genome-encoded hiv1-mir-h1 impairs cellular responses to infection. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 2009, 323, 143-148.
88. Arhel, N.J.; Kirchhoff, F. Implications of nef: Host cell interactions in viral persistence and progression to aids. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 2009, 339, 147-175.
89. Omoto, S.; Fujii, Y.R. Regulation of human immunodeficiency virus 1 transcription by nef microrna. J. Gen. Virol. 2005, 86, 751-755.
90. Workman, J.L.; Kingston, R.E. Alteration of nucleosome structure as a mechanism of transcriptional regulation. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1998, 67, 545-579.
91. Armstrong, J.A.; Emerson, B.M. Transcription of chromatin: These are complex times. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 1998, 8, 165-172.
92. Kadonaga, J.T. Eukaryotic transcription: An interlaced network of transcription factors and chromatin-modifying machines. Cell 1998, 92, 307-313.
93. Kingston, R.E.; Narlikar, G.J. Atp-dependent remodeling and acetylation as regulators of chromatin fluidity. Genes Dev. 1999, 13, 2339-2352.
94. Lyko, F.; Paro, R. Chromosomal elements conferring epigenetic inheritance. Bioessays 1999, 21, 824-832.
95. Rohlf, T.; Steiner, L.; Przybilla, J.; Prohaska, S.; Binder, H.; Galle, J. Modeling the dynamic epigenome: From histone modifications towards self-organizing chromatin. Epigenomics 2012, 4, 205-219.
96. Weng, N.P.; Araki, Y.; Subedi, K. The molecular basis of the memory t cell response: Differential gene expression and its epigenetic regulation. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2012, 12, 306-315.
97. Tripathy, M.K.; Abbas, W.; Herbein, G. Epigenetic regulation of hiv-1 transcription. Epigenomics 2011, 3, 487-502.
98. Van Duyne, R.; Guendel, I.; Narayanan, A.; Gregg, E.; Shafagati, N.; Tyagi, M.; Easley, R.; Klase, Z.; Nekhai, S.; Kehn-Hall, K.; et al. Varying modulation of hiv-1 ltr activity by baf complexes. J. Mol. Biol. 2011, 411, 581-596.
99. Hakre, S.; Chavez, L.; Shirakawa, K.; Verdin, E. Epigenetic regulation of hiv latency. Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS 2011, 6, 19-24.
100. El Kharroubi, A.; Piras, G.; Zensen, R.; Martin, M.A. Transcriptional activation of the integrated chromatin-associated human immunodeficiency virus type 1 promoter. Mol. Cell Biol. 1998, 18, 2535-2544.
101. Ravindra, K.C.; Narayan, V.; Lushington, G.H.; Peterson, B.R.; Prabhu, K.S. Targeting of histone acetyltransferase p300 by cyclopentenone prostaglandin delta(12)-pgj(2) through covalent binding to cys(1438). Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2012, 25, 337-347.
102. Sterner, D.E.; Berger, S.L. Acetylation of histones and transcription-related factors. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. MMBR 2000, 64, 435-459.
103. Di Fenza, A.; Rocchia, W.; Tozzini, V. Complexes of hiv-1 integrase with hat proteins: Multiscale models, dynamics, and hypotheses on allosteric sites of inhibition. Proteins 2009, 76, 946-958.
104. Easley, R.; van Duyne, R.; Coley, W.; Guendel, I.; Dadgar, S.; Kehn-Hall, K.; Kashanchi, F. Chromatin dynamics associated with hiv-1 tat-activated transcription. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2010, 1799, 275-285.
105. Voss, A.K.; Thomas, T. Myst family histone acetyltransferases take center stage in stem cells and development. BioEssays News Rev. Mol. Cell. Dev. Biol. 2009, 31, 1050-1061.
106. Avvakumov, N.; Cote, J. The myst family of histone acetyltransferases and their intimate links to cancer. Oncogene 2007, 26, 5395-5407.
107. Rekowski, M.W.; Giannis, A. Histone acetylation modulation by small molecules: A chemical approach. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2010, 1799, 760-767.
108. Ogryzko, V.V.; Schiltz, R.L.; Russanova, V.; Howard, B.H.; Nakatani, Y. The transcriptional coactivators p300 and cbp are histone acetyltransferases. Cell 1996, 87, 953-959.
109. Deng, L.; de la Fuente, C.; Fu, P.; Wang, L.; Donnelly, R.; Wade, J.D.; Lambert, P.; Li, H.; Lee, C.G.; Kashanchi, F. Acetylation of hiv-1 tat by cbp/p300 increases transcription of integrated hiv-1 genome and enhances binding to core histones. Virology 2000, 277, 278-295.
110. Cereseto, A.; Manganaro, L.; Gutierrez, M.I.; Terreni, M.; Fittipaldi, A.; Lusic, M.; Marcello, A.; Giacca, M. Acetylation of hiv-1 integrase by p300 regulates viral integration. EMBO J. 2005, 24, 3070-3081.
111. Harrod, R.; Nacsa, J.; van Lint, C.; Hansen, J.; Karpova, T.; McNally, J.; Franchini, G. Human immunodeficiency virus type-1 tat/co-activator acetyltransferase interactions inhibit p53lys-320 acetylation and p53-responsive transcription. J. Biol. Chem. 2003, 278, 12310-12318.
112. Imai, K.; Ochiai, K. Role of histone modification on transcriptional regulation and hiv-1 gene expression: Possible mechanisms of periodontal diseases in aids progression. J. Oral Sci. 2011, 53, 1-13.
113. Col, E.; Caron, C.; Seigneurin-Berny, D.; Gracia, J.; Favier, A.; Khochbin, S. The histone acetyltransferase, hgcn5, interacts with and acetylates the hiv transactivator, tat. J. Biol. Chem. 2001, 276, 28179-28184.
114. Kiernan, R.E.; Vanhulle, C.; Schiltz, L.; Adam, E.; Xiao, H.; Maudoux, F.; Calomme, C.; Burny, A.; Nakatani, Y.; Jeang, K.T.; et al. Hiv-1 tat transcriptional activity is regulated by acetylation. EMBO J. 1999, 18, 6106-6118.
115. D'Orso, I.; Frankel, A.D., Tat acetylation modulates assembly of a viral-host rna-protein transcription complex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2009, 106, 3101-3106.
116. Weissman, J.D.; Brown, J.A.; Howcroft, T.K.; Hwang, J.; Chawla, A.; Roche, P.A.; Schiltz, L.; Nakatani, Y.; Singer, D.S. Hiv-1 tat binds tafii250 and represses tafii250-dependent transcription of major histocompatibility class i genes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1998, 95, 11601-11606.
117. Triboulet, R.; Mari, B.; Lin, Y.L.; Chable-Bessia, C.; Bennasser, Y.; Lebrigand, K.; Cardinaud, B.; Maurin, T.; Barbry, P.; Baillat, V.; et al. Suppression of microrna-silencing pathway by hiv-1 during virus replication. Science 2007, 315, 1579-1582.
118. Balasubramanyam, K.; Varier, R.A.; Altaf, M.; Swaminathan, V.; Siddappa, N.B.; Ranga, U.; Kundu, T.K. Curcumin, a novel p300/creb-binding protein-specific inhibitor of acetyltransferase, represses the acetylation of histone/nonhistone proteins and histone acetyltransferase-dependent chromatin transcription. J. Biol. Chem. 2004, 279, 51163-51171.
119. Dorr, A.; Kiermer, V.; Pedal, A.; Rackwitz, H.R.; Henklein, P.; Schubert, U.; Zhou, M.M.; Verdin, E.; Ott, M. Transcriptional synergy between tat and pcaf is dependent on the binding of acetylated tat to the pcaf bromodomain. EMBO J. 2002, 21, 2715-2723.
120. Mantelingu, K.; Reddy, B.A.; Swaminathan, V.; Kishore, A.H.; Siddappa, N.B.; Kumar, G.V.; Nagashankar, G.; Natesh, N.; Roy, S.; Sadhale, P.P.; et al. Specific inhibition of p300-hat alters global gene expression and represses hiv replication. Chem. Biol. 2007, 14, 645-657.
121. Gregoretti, I.V.; Lee, Y.M.; Goodson, H.V. Molecular evolution of the histone deacetylase family: Functional implications of phylogenetic analysis. J. Mol. Biol. 2004, 338, 17-31.
122. De Ruijter, A.J.; van Gennip, A.H.; Caron, H.N.; Kemp, S.; van Kuilenburg, A.B. Histone deacetylases (hdacs): Characterization of the classical hdac family. Biochem. J. 2003, 370, 737-749.
123. Keedy, K.S.; Archin, N.M.; Gates, A.T.; Espeseth, A.; Hazuda, D.J.; Margolis, D.M. A limited group of class i histone deacetylases acts to repress human immunodeficiency virus type 1 expression. J. Virol. 2009, 83, 4749-4756.
124. Coull, J.J.; Romerio, F.; Sun, J.M.; Volker, J.L.; Galvin, K.M.; Davie, J.R.; Shi, Y.; Hansen, U.; Margolis, D.M. The human factors yy1 and lsf repress the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 long terminal repeat via recruitment of histone deacetylase 1. J. Virol. 2000, 74, 6790-6799.
125. Williams, S.A.; Chen, L.F.; Kwon, H.; Ruiz-Jarabo, C.M.; Verdin, E.; Greene, W.C. Nf-kappab p50 promotes hiv latency through hdac recruitment and repression of transcriptional initiation. EMBO J. 2006, 25, 139-149.
126. Kutsch, O.; Benveniste, E.N.; Shaw, G.M.; Levy, D.N. Direct and quantitative single-cell analysis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reactivation from latency. J. Virol. 2002, 76, 8776-8786.
127. Huber, K.; Doyon, G.; Plaks, J.; Fyne, E.; Mellors, J.W.; Sluis-Cremer, N. Inhibitors of histone deacetylases: Correlation between isoform specificity and reactivation of hiv type 1 (hiv-1) from latently infected cells. J. Biol. Chem. 2011, 286, 22211-22218.
128. Kim, D.H.; Villeneuve, L.M.; Morris, K.V.; Rossi, J.J. Argonaute-1 directs sirna-mediated transcriptional gene silencing in human cells. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 2006, 13, 793-797.
129. Suzuki, K.; Juelich, T.; Lim, H.; Ishida, T.; Watanebe, T.; Cooper, D.A.; Rao, S.; Kelleher, A.D. Closed chromatin architecture is induced by an rna duplex targeting the hiv-1 promoter region. J. Biol. Chem. 2008, 283, 23353-23363.
130. Huo, L.; Li, D.; Sun, X.; Shi, X.; Karna, P.; Yang, W.; Liu, M.; Qiao, W.; Aneja, R.; Zhou, J. Regulation of tat acetylation and transactivation activity by the microtubule-associated deacetylase hdac6. J. Biol. Chem. 2011, 286, 9280-9286.
131. Valenzuela-Fernandez, A.; Alvarez, S.; Gordon-Alonso, M.; Barrero, M.; Ursa, A.; Cabrero, J.R.; Fernandez, G.; Naranjo-Suarez, S.; Yanez-Mo, M.; Serrador, J.M.; et al. Histone deacetylase 6 regulates human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Mol. Biol. Cell 2005, 16, 5445-5454.
132. Van Duyne, R.; Easley, R.; Wu, W.; Berro, R.; Pedati, C.; Klase, Z.; Kehn-Hall, K.; Flynn, E.K.; Symer, D.E.; Kashanchi, F. Lysine methylation of hiv-1 tat regulates transcriptional activity of the viral ltr. Retrovirology 2008, 5, doi:10.1186/1742-4690-5-40.
133. Dillon, S.C.; Zhang, X.; Trievel, R.C.; Cheng, X. The set-domain protein superfamily: Protein lysine methyltransferases. Genome Biol. 2005, 6, doi:10.1186/gb-2005-6-8-227.
134. Luo, M. Current chemical biology approaches to interrogate protein methyltransferases. ACS Chem. Biol. 2012, 7, 443-463.
135. Zhang, L.; Eugeni, E.E.; Parthun, M.R.; Freitas, M.A. Identification of novel histone posttranslational modifications by peptide mass fingerprinting. Chromosoma 2003, 112, 77-86.
136. Feng, Q.; Wang, H.; Ng, H.H.; Erdjument-Bromage, H.; Tempst, P.; Struhl, K.; Zhang, Y. Methylation of h3-lysine 79 is mediated by a new family of hmtases without a set domain. Curr. Biol. 2002, 12, 1052-1058.
137. Ng, H.H.; Feng, Q.; Wang, H.; Erdjument-Bromage, H.; Tempst, P.; Zhang, Y.; Struhl, K. Lysine methylation within the globular domain of histone h3 by dot1 is important for telomeric silencing and sir protein association. Genes Dev. 2002, 16, 1518-1527.
138. Lachner, M.; O'Carroll, D.; Rea, S.; Mechtler, K.; Jenuwein, T. Methylation of histone h3 lysine 9 creates a binding site for hp1 proteins. Nature 2001, 410, 116-120.
139. Schneider, R.; Bannister, A.J.; Myers, F.A.; Thorne, A.W.; Crane-Robinson, C.; Kouzarides, T. Histone h3 lysine 4 methylation patterns in higher eukaryotic genes. Nat. Cell Biol. 2004, 6, 73-77.
140. Ng, H.H.; Robert, F.; Young, R.A.; Struhl, K. Targeted recruitment of set1 histone methylase by elongating pol ii provides a localized mark and memory of recent transcriptional activity. Mol. Cell 2003, 11, 709-719.
141. Rao, B.; Shibata, Y.; Strahl, B.D.; Lieb, J.D. Dimethylation of histone h3 at lysine 36 demarcates regulatory and nonregulatory chromatin genome-wide. Mol. Cell Biol. 2005, 25, 9447-9459.
142. Schotta, G.; Lachner, M.; Sarma, K.; Ebert, A.; Sengupta, R.; Reuter, G.; Reinberg, D.; Jenuwein, T. A silencing pathway to induce h3-k9 and h4-k20 trimethylation at constitutive heterochromatin. Genes Dev. 2004, 18, 1251-1262.
143. Le Douce, V.; Colin, L.; Redel, L.; Cherrier, T.; Herbein, G.; Aunis, D.; Rohr, O.; van Lint, C.; Schwartz, C. Lsd1 cooperates with ctip2 to promote hiv-1 transcriptional silencing. Nucleic Acids Res. 2012, 40, 1904-1915.
144. Li, F.; Huarte, M.; Zaratiegui, M.; Vaughn, M.W.; Shi, Y.; Martienssen, R.; Cande, W.Z. Lid2 is required for coordinating h3k4 and h3k9 methylation of heterochromatin and euchromatin. Cell 2008, 135, 272-283.
145. Wysocka, J.; Allis, C.D.; Coonrod, S. Histone arginine methylation and its dynamic regulation. Frontiers Biosci. A J. Virtual Libr. 2006, 11, 344-355.
146. Bachand, F. Protein arginine methyltransferases: From unicellular eukaryotes to humans. Eukaryot. Cell 2007, 6, 889-898.
147. Cuthbert, G.L.; Daujat, S.; Snowden, A.W.; Erdjument-Bromage, H.; Hagiwara, T.; Yamada, M.; Schneider, R.; Gregory, P.D.; Tempst, P.; Bannister, A.J.; et al. Histone deimination antagonizes arginine methylation. Cell 2004, 118, 545-553.
148. Willemsen, N.M.; Hitchen, E.M.; Bodetti, T.J.; Apolloni, A.; Warrilow, D.; Piller, S.C.; Harrich, D. Protein methylation is required to maintain optimal hiv-1 infectivity. Retrovirology 2006, 3, doi:10.1186/1742-4690-3-92.
149. Kwak, Y.T.; Guo, J.; Prajapati, S.; Park, K.J.; Surabhi, R.M.; Miller, B.; Gehrig, P.; Gaynor, R.B. Methylation of spt5 regulates its interaction with rna polymerase ii and transcriptional elongation properties. Mol. Cell 2003, 11, 1055-1066.
150. Xie, B.; Invernizzi, C.F.; Richard, S.; Wainberg, M.A. Arginine methylation of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 tat protein by prmt6 negatively affects tat interactions with both cyclin t1 and the tat transactivation region. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 4226-4234.
151. Boulanger, M.C.; Liang, C.; Russell, R.S.; Lin, R.; Bedford, M.T.; Wainberg, M.A.; Richard, S. Methylation of tat by prmt6 regulates human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gene expression. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 124-131.
152. Friedman, J.; Cho, W.K.; Chu, C.K.; Keedy, K.S.; Archin, N.M.; Margolis, D.M.; Karn, J. Epigenetic silencing of hiv-1 by the histone h3 lysine 27 methyltransferase enhancer of zeste 2. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 9078-9089.
153. Weinberg, M.S.; Villeneuve, L.M.; Ehsani, A.; Amarzguioui, M.; Aagaard, L.; Chen, Z.X.; Riggs, A.D.; Rossi, J.J.; Morris, K.V. The antisense strand of small interfering rnas directs histone methylation and transcriptional gene silencing in human cells. RNA 2006, 12, 256-262.
154. Meissner, A.; Mikkelsen, T.S.; Gu, H.; Wernig, M.; Hanna, J.; Sivachenko, A.; Zhang, X.; Bernstein, B.E.; Nusbaum, C.; Jaffe, D.B.; et al. Genome-scale DNA methylation maps of pluripotent and differentiated cells. Nature 2008, 454, 766-770.
155. Fan, S.; Zhang, M.Q.; Zhang, X. Histone methylation marks play important roles in predicting the methylation status of cpg islands. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2008, 374, 559-564.
156. Cedar, H.; Bergman, Y. Linking DNA methylation and histone modification: Patterns and paradigms. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2009, 10, 295-304.
157. Ooi, S.K.; Qiu, C.; Bernstein, E.; Li, K.; Jia, D.; Yang, Z.; Erdjument-Bromage, H.; Tempst, P.; Lin, S.P.; Allis, C.D.; et al. Dnmt3l connects unmethylated lysine 4 of histone h3 to de novo methylation of DNA. Nature 2007, 448, 714-717.
158. Jia, D.; Jurkowska, R.Z.; Zhang, X.; Jeltsch, A.; Cheng, X. Structure of dnmt3a bound to dnmt3l suggests a model for de novo DNA methylation. Nature 2007, 449, 248-251.
159. Ishida, T.; Hamano, A.; Koiwa, T.; Watanabe, T. 5' long terminal repeat (ltr)-selective methylation of latently infected hiv-1 provirus that is demethylated by reactivation signals. Retrovirology 2006, 3, doi:10.1186/1742-4690-3-69.
160. Blazkova, J.; Murray, D.; Justement, J.S.; Funk, E.K.; Nelson, A.K.; Moir, S.; Chun, T.W.; Fauci, A.S. Paucity of hiv DNA methylation in latently infected, resting cd4+ t cells from infected individuals receiving antiretroviral therapy. J. Virol. 2012, 86, 5390-5392.
161. Ting, A.H.; Schuebel, K.E.; Herman, J.G.; Baylin, S.B. Short double-stranded rna induces transcriptional gene silencing in human cancer cells in the absence of DNA methylation. Nat. Genet. 2005, 37, 906-910.
162. Ansari, K.I.; Mishra, B.P.; Mandal, S.S. Mll histone methylases in gene expression, hormone signaling and cell cycle. Front. Biosci. 2009, 14, 3483-3495.
163. Tsukiyama, T.; Wu, C. Chromatin remodeling and transcription. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 1997, 7, 182-191.
164. Reyes, J.C.; Barra, J.; Muchardt, C.; Camus, A.; Babinet, C.; Yaniv, M. Altered control of cellular proliferation in the absence of mammalian brahma (snf2alpha). EMBO J. 1998, 17, 6979-6991.
165. Chiba, H.; Muramatsu, M.; Nomoto, A.; Kato, H. Two human homologues of saccharomyces cerevisiae swi2/snf2 and drosophila brahma are transcriptional coactivators cooperating with the estrogen receptor and the retinoic acid receptor. Nucleic Acids Res. 1994, 22, 1815-1820.
166. De la Serna, I.L.; Ohkawa, Y.; Imbalzano, A.N. Chromatin remodelling in mammalian differentiation: Lessons from atp-dependent remodellers. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2006, 7, 461-473.
167. Wang, W.; Xue, Y.; Zhou, S.; Kuo, A.; Cairns, B.R.; Crabtree, G.R. Diversity and specialization of mammalian swi/snf complexes. Genes Dev. 1996, 10, 2117-2130.
168. Sudarsanam, P.; Winston, F. The swi/snf family nucleosome-remodeling complexes and transcriptional control. Trends Genet. 2000, 16, 345-351.
169. Narlikar, G.J.; Fan, H.Y.; Kingston, R.E. Cooperation between complexes that regulate chromatin structure and transcription. Cell 2002, 108, 475-487.
170. Sims, R.J., 3rd; Mandal, S.S.; Reinberg, D. Recent highlights of rna-polymerase-ii-mediated transcription. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 2004, 16, 263-271.
171. Fan, H.Y.; Narlikar, G.J.; Kingston, R.E. Noncovalent modification of chromatin: Different remodeled products with different atpase domains. Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. 2004, 69, 183-192.
172. Liu, N.; Balliano, A.; Hayes, J.J. Mechanism(s) of swi/snf-induced nucleosome mobilization. Chembiochem 2011, 12, 196-204.
173. Castanotto, D.; Tommasi, S.; Li, M.; Li, H.; Yanow, S.; Pfeifer, G.P.; Rossi, J.J. Short hairpin rna-directed cytosine (cpg) methylation of the rassf1a gene promoter in hela cells. Mol. Ther. 2005, 12, 179-183.
174. Ahlenstiel, C.L.; Lim, H.G.; Cooper, D.A.; Ishida, T.; Kelleher, A.D.; Suzuki, K. Direct evidence of nuclear argonaute distribution during transcriptional silencing links the actin cytoskeleton to nuclear rnai machinery in human cells. Nucleic Acids Res. 2012, 40, 1579-1595.
175. Janowski, B.A.; Huffman, K.E.; Schwartz, J.C.; Ram, R.; Nordsell, R.; Shames, D.S.; Minna, J.D.; Corey, D.R. Involvement of ago1 and ago2 in mammalian transcriptional silencing. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 2006, 13, 787-792.
176. Vire, E.; Brenner, C.; Deplus, R.; Blanchon, L.; Fraga, M.; Didelot, C.; Morey, L.; van Eynde, A.; Bernard, D.; Vanderwinden, J.M.; et al. The polycomb group protein ezh2 directly controls DNA methylation. Nature 2006, 439, 871-874.
177. Han, J.; Kim, D.; Morris, K.V. Promoter-associated rna is required for rna-directed transcriptional gene silencing in human cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2007, 104, 12422-12427.
178. Janowski, B.A.; Huffman, K.E.; Schwartz, J.C.; Ram, R.; Hardy, D.; Shames, D.S.; Minna, J.D.; Corey, D.R. Inhibiting gene expression at transcription start sites in chromosomal DNA with antigene rnas. Nat. Chem. Biol. 2005, 1, 216-222.
179. Hawkins, P.G.; Santoso, S.; Adams, C.; Anest, V.; Morris, K.V. Promoter targeted small rnas induce long-term transcriptional gene silencing in human cells. Nucleic Acids Res. 2009, 37, 2984-2995.
180. Clerc, I.; Laverdure, S.; Torresilla, C.; Landry, S.; Borel, S.; Vargas, A.; Arpin-Andre, C.; Gay, B.; Briant, L.; Gross, A.; et al. Polarized expression of the membrane asp protein derived from hiv-1 antisense transcription in t cells. Retrovirology 2011, 8, doi:10.1186/1742-4690-8-74.
181. Lefebvre, G.; Desfarges, S.; Uyttebroeck, F.; Munoz, M.; Beerenwinkel, N.; Rougemont, J.; Telenti, A.; Ciuffi, A. Analysis of hiv-1 expression level and sense of transcription by highthroughput sequencing of the infected cell. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 6205-6211.
182. Bansal, A.; Carlson, J.; Yan, J.; Akinsiku, O.T.; Schaefer, M.; Sabbaj, S.; Bet, A.; Levy, D.N.; Heath, S.; Tang, J.; et al. Cd8 t cell response and evolutionary pressure to hiv-1 cryptic epitopes derived from antisense transcription. J. Exp. Med. 2010, 207, 51-59.
183. Bentley, K.; Deacon, N.; Sonza, S.; Zeichner, S.; Churchill, M. Mutational analysis of the hiv-1 ltr as a promoter of negative sense transcription. Arch. Virol. 2004, 149, 2277-2294.
184. Briquet, S.; Vaquero, C. Immunolocalization studies of an antisense protein in hiv-1-infected cells and viral particles. Virology 2002, 292, 177-184.
185. Tagieva, N.E.; Vaquero, C. Expression of naturally occurring antisense rna inhibits human immunodeficiency virus type 1 heterologous strain replication. J. Gen. Virol. 1997, 78 (Pt. 10), 2503-2511.
186. Peeters, A.; Lambert, P.F.; Deacon, N.J. A fourth sp1 site in the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 long terminal repeat is essential for negative-sense transcription. J. Virol. 1996, 70, 6665-6672.
187. Landry, S.; Halin, M.; Lefort, S.; Audet, B.; Vaquero, C.; Mesnard, J.M.; Barbeau, B. Detection, characterization and regulation of antisense transcripts in hiv-1. Retrovirology 2007, 4, doi:10.1186/1742-4690-4-71.
188. Ludwig, L.B.; Ambrus, J.L., Jr.; Krawczyk, K.A.; Sharma, S.; Brooks, S.; Hsiao, C.B.; Schwartz, S.A. Human immunodeficiency virus-type 1 ltr DNA contains an intrinsic gene producing antisense rna and protein products. Retrovirology 2006, 3, doi:10.1186/1742-4690-3-80.
189. Vanhee-Brossollet, C.; Thoreau, H.; Serpente, N.; D'Auriol, L.; Levy, J.P.; Vaquero, C. A natural antisense rna derived from the hiv-1 env gene encodes a protein which is recognized by circulating antibodies of hiv+ individuals. Virology 1995, 206, 196-202.
190. Michael, N.L.; Vahey, M.T.; d'Arcy, L.; Ehrenberg, P.K.; Mosca, J.D.; Rappaport, J.; Redfield, R.R. Negative-strand rna transcripts are produced in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected cells and patients by a novel promoter downregulated by tat. J. Virol. 1994, 68, 979-987.
191. Miller, R.H. Human immunodeficiency virus may encode a novel protein on the genomic DNA plus strand. Science 1988, 239, 1420-1422.
192. Kobayashi-Ishihara, M.; Yamagishi, M.; Hara, T.; Matsuda, Y.; Takahashi, R.; Miyake, A.; Nakano, K.; Yamochi, T.; Ishida, T.; Watanabe, T. Hiv-1-encoded antisense rna suppresses viral replication for a prolonged period. Retrovirology 2012, 9, doi:10.1186/1742-4690-9-38.
193. Suzuki, K.; Shijuuku, T.; Fukamachi, T.; Zaunders, J.; Guillemin, G.; Cooper, D.; Kelleher, A. Prolonged transcriptional silencing and cpg methylation induced by sirnas targeted to the hiv-1 promoter region. J. RNAi Gene Silenc. 2005, 1, 66-78.
194. Suzuki, K.; Ishida, T.; Yamagishi, M.; Ahlenstiel, C.; Swaminathan, S.; Marks, K.; Murray, D.; McCartney, E.M.; Beard, M.R.; Alexander, M.; et al. Transcriptional gene silencing of hiv-1 through promoter targeted rna is highly specific. RNA Biol. 2011, 8, 1035-1046.
195. Carpio, L.; Klase, Z.; Coley, W.; Guendel, I.; Choi, S.; Van Duyne, R.; Narayanan, A.; Kehn-Hall, K.; Meijer, L.; Kashanchi, F. Microrna machinery is an integral component of drug-induced transcription inhibition in hiv-1 infection. J RNAi Gene Silenc. 2010, 6, 386-400.
196. Coley, W.; Van Duyne, R.; Carpio, L.; Guendel, I.; Kehn-Hall, K.; Chevalier, S.; Narayanan, A.; Luu, T.; Lee, N.; Klase, Z.; et al. Absence of dicer in monocytes and its regulation by hiv-1. J. Biol. Chem. 2010, 285, 31930-31943.
197. Morris, K.V. Therapeutic potential of sirna-mediated transcriptional gene silencing. Biotechniques 2006, 40, S7-S13.
198. Turner, A.M.; Ackley, A.M.; Matrone, M.A.; Morris, K.V. Characterization of an hiv-targeted transcriptional gene-silencing rna in primary cells. Hum. Gene Ther. 2012, 23, 473-483.