Ectopic fat and cardiometabolic and vascular risk

International Journal of Cardiology

Volumn 169, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 166-176

  Lim, Soo ^a,b   Meigs, James B ^a  

^a MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b Seoul National University Bundang Hospital   (South Korea)

Author keywords

Cardiometabolic risk; Ectopic fat; Locally acting fat; Systemically acting fat

Indexed keywords

ULTRASMALL SUPERPARAMAGNETIC IRON OXIDE;

ADIPOSE TISSUE; ARTICLE; BODY FAT DISTRIBUTION; CARDIOMETABOLIC RISK; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DUAL ENERGY X RAY ABSORPTIOMETRY; ECHOGRAPHY; FATTY LIVER; HEART; HUMAN; INTRAABDOMINAL FAT; INTRAMUSCULAR FAT; KIDNEY; LIPID STORAGE; METABOLIC DISORDER; NECK; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY; PERIVASCULAR ADIPOSE TISSUE; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SUBCUTANEOUS FAT; THREE DIMENSIONAL IMAGING;

BMI; BODY MASS INDEX; C-REACTIVE PROTEIN; CAD; CARDIOMETABOLIC RISK; COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; CRP; CT; DUAL ENERGY X-RAY ABSORPTIOMETRY; DXA; ECTOPIC FAT; FFA; FREE FATTY ACID; IL-6; INTERLEUKIN-6; LOCALLY ACTING FAT; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY; MCP-1; MONOCYTE CHEMOATTRACTANT PROTEIN-1; MRI; MRS; PAI-1; PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR INHIBITOR-1; SAT; SUBCUTANEOUS ADIPOSE TISSUE; SYSTEMICALLY ACTING FAT; T2DM; TNF-Α; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR-Α; TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS; ULTRASMALL SUPER-PARAMAGNETIC IRON OXIDE; USPIO; VAT; VISCERAL ADIPOSE TISSUE;

ANIMALS; BODY FAT DISTRIBUTION; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CHORISTOMA; HUMANS; INTRA-ABDOMINAL FAT; RISK FACTORS; SUBCUTANEOUS FAT;

EID: 84887625928     PISSN: 01675273     EISSN: 18741754     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2013.08.077     Document Type: Review

References (173)

1. B. Larsson, K. Svardsudd, and L. Welin Abdominal adipose tissue distribution, obesity, and risk of cardiovascular disease and death: 13 year follow up of participants in the study of men born in 1913 Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 288 1984 1401 1404
2. J.P. Despres, and I. Lemieux Abdominal obesity and metabolic syndrome Nature 444 2006 881 887
3. C.S. Fox, J.M. Massaro, and U. Hoffmann Abdominal visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue compartments: association with metabolic risk factors in the Framingham Heart Study Circulation 116 2007 39 48
4. D. Canoy, S.M. Boekholdt, and N. Wareham Body fat distribution and risk of coronary heart disease in men and women in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition in Norfolk cohort: a population-based prospective study Circulation 116 2007 2933 2943
5. F. Schouten, J.W. Twisk, and M.R. de Boer Increases in central fat mass and decreases in peripheral fat mass are associated with accelerated arterial stiffening in healthy adults: the Amsterdam Growth and Health Longitudinal Study Am J Clin Nutr 94 2011 40 48
6. J.P. Despres Is visceral obesity the cause of the metabolic syndrome? Ann Med 38 2006 52 63
7. E.K. Speliotes, J.M. Massaro, and U. Hoffmann Fatty liver is associated with dyslipidemia and dysglycemia independent of visceral fat: the Framingham Heart Study Hepatology 51 2010 1979 1987
8. A. Virkamaki, E. Korsheninnikova, and A. Seppala-Lindroos Intramyocellular lipid is associated with resistance to in vivo insulin actions on glucose uptake, antilipolysis, and early insulin signaling pathways in human skeletal muscle Diabetes 50 2001 2337 2343
9. G.A. Rosito, J.M. Massaro, and U. Hoffmann Pericardial fat, visceral abdominal fat, cardiovascular disease risk factors, and vascular calcification in a community-based sample: the Framingham Heart Study Circulation 117 2008 605 613
10. K.N. Manolopoulos, F. Karpe, and K.N. Frayn Gluteofemoral body fat as a determinant of metabolic health Int J Obes (Lond) 34 2010 949 959
11. S.H. Saverymuttu, A.E. Joseph, and J.D. Maxwell Ultrasound scanning in the detection of hepatic fibrosis and steatosis Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 292 1986 13 15
12. F.F. Ribeiro-Filho, A.N. Faria, and S. Azjen Methods of estimation of visceral fat: advantages of ultrasonography Obes Res 11 2003 1488 1494
13. G. Iacobellis, F. Assael, and M.C. Ribaudo Epicardial fat from echocardiography: a new method for visceral adipose tissue prediction Obes Res 11 2003 304 310
14. G. Iacobellis, and H.J. Willens Echocardiographic epicardial fat: a review of research and clinical applications J Am Soc Echocardiogr 22 2009 1311 1319
15. O. Lamacchia, V. Nicastro, and D. Camarchio Para- and perirenal fat thickness is an independent predictor of chronic kidney disease, increased renal resistance index and hyperuricaemia in type-2 diabetic patients Nephrol Dial Transplant 26 2011 892 898
16. S. Kawasaki, K. Aoki, and O. Hasegawa Sonographic evaluation of visceral fat by measuring para- and perirenal fat J Clin Ultrasound 36 2008 129 133
17. T. Yoshizumi, T. Nakamura, and M. Yamane Abdominal fat: standardized technique for measurement at CT Radiology 211 1999 283 286
18. C.S. Fox, J.M. Massaro, and C.L. Schlett Periaortic fat deposition is associated with peripheral arterial disease: the Framingham Heart Study Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 3 2010 515 519
19. C.L. Schlett, J.M. Massaro, and S.J. Lehman Novel measurements of periaortic adipose tissue in comparison to anthropometric measures of obesity, and abdominal adipose tissue Int J Obes (Lond) 33 2009 226 232
20. M.C. Foster, S.J. Hwang, and S.A. Porter Development and reproducibility of a computed tomography-based measurement of renal sinus fat BMC Nephrol 12 2011 52
21. J. Machann, C. Thamer, and N. Stefan Follow-up whole-body assessment of adipose tissue compartments during a lifestyle intervention in a large cohort at increased risk for type 2 diabetes Radiology 257 2010 353 363
22. E.L. Thomas, N. Saeed, and J.V. Hajnal Magnetic resonance imaging of total body fat J Appl Physiol 85 1998 1778 1785
23. J. Machann, C. Thamer, and B. Schnoedt Standardized assessment of whole body adipose tissue topography by MRI J Magn Reson Imaging 21 2005 455 462
24. H.H. Hu, K.S. Nayak, and M.I. Goran Assessment of abdominal adipose tissue and organ fat content by magnetic resonance imaging Obes Rev 12 2011 e504 e515
25. T. Joy, B.A. Kennedy, and S. Al-Attar Predicting abdominal adipose tissue among women with familial partial lipodystrophy Metabolism 58 2009 828 834
26. E.L. Thomas, J.A. Fitzpatrick, and S.J. Malik Whole body fat: content and distribution Prog Nucl Magn Reson Spectrosc 73 2013 56 80
27. W. Shen, H. Liu, and M. Punyanitya Pediatric obesity phenotyping by magnetic resonance methods Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 8 2005 595 601
28. S.B. Reeder, C.A. McKenzie, and A.R. Pineda Water-fat separation with IDEAL gradient-echo imaging J Magn Reson Imaging 25 2007 644 652
29. A. Alabousi, S. Al-Attar, and T.R. Joy Evaluation of adipose tissue volume quantification with IDEAL fat-water separation J Magn Reson Imaging 34 2011 474 479
30. H. Kim, S.E. Taksali, and S. Dufour Comparative MR study of hepatic fat quantification using single-voxel proton spectroscopy, two-point dixon and three-point IDEAL Magn Reson Med 59 2008 521 527
31. H.H. Hu, H.W. Kim, and K.S. Nayak Comparison of fat-water MRI and single-voxel MRS in the assessment of hepatic and pancreatic fat fractions in humans Obesity (Silver Spring) 18 2010 841 847
32. K. Rittig, K. Staib, and J. Machann Perivascular fatty tissue at the brachial artery is linked to insulin resistance but not to local endothelial dysfunction Diabetologia 51 2008 2093 2099
33. J. He, S. Watkins, and D.E. Kelley Skeletal muscle lipid content and oxidative enzyme activity in relation to muscle fiber type in type 2 diabetes and obesity Diabetes 50 2001 817 823
34. K.F. Petersen, D. Befroy, and S. Dufour Mitochondrial dysfunction in the elderly: possible role in insulin resistance Science 300 2003 1140 1142
35. I. Lingvay, V. Esser, and J.L. Legendre Noninvasive quantification of pancreatic fat in humans J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94 2009 4070 4076
36. E. Sai, K. Shimada, and T. Yokoyama Association between myocardial triglyceride content and cardiac function in healthy subjects and endurance athletes PLoS One 8 2013 e61604
37. K. Hind, B. Oldroyd, and J.G. Truscott In vivo precision of the GE Lunar iDXA densitometer for the measurement of total body composition and fat distribution in adults Eur J Clin Nutr 65 2011 140 142
38. S.P. Howarth, T.Y. Tang, and R. Trivedi Utility of USPIO-enhanced MR imaging to identify inflammation and the fibrous cap: a comparison of symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals Eur J Radiol 70 2009 555 560
39. A.A. Joshi, H.H. Hu, and R.M. Leahy Automatic intra-subject registration-based segmentation of abdominal fat from three-dimensional water-fat MRI J Magn Reson Imaging 37 2012 423 430
40. J.M. Ng, K. Azuma, and C. Kelley PET imaging reveals distinctive roles for different regional adipose tissue depots in systemic glucose metabolism in nonobese humans Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 303 2012 E1134 E1141
41. K.A. Virtanen, M.E. Lidell, and J. Orava Functional brown adipose tissue in healthy adults N Engl J Med 360 2009 1518 1525
42. M. Bucci, C.M. Aparici, and R. Hawkins Validation of FDG uptake in the arterial wall as an imaging biomarker of atherosclerotic plaques with (18) F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography-computed tomography (FDG-PET/CT) J Neuroimaging 2012 10.1111/j.1552-6569.2012.00740.x
43. K.F. Petersen, and G.I. Shulman Etiology of insulin resistance Am J Med 119 2006 S10 S16
44. E.E. Kershaw, and J.S. Flier Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89 2004 2548 2556
45. M.A. Cornier, J.P. Despres, and N. Davis Assessing adiposity: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Circulation 124 2011 1996 2019
46. M. Kabir, K.J. Catalano, and S. Ananthnarayan Molecular evidence supporting the portal theory: a causative link between visceral adiposity and hepatic insulin resistance Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 288 2005 E454 E461
47. S.E. Shoelson, J. Lee, and A.B. Goldfine Inflammation and insulin resistance J Clin Invest 116 2006 1793 1801
48. C. Couillard, P. Mauriege, and D. Prud'homme Plasma leptin concentrations: gender differences and associations with metabolic risk factors for cardiovascular disease Diabetologia 40 1997 1178 1184
49. C. Weyer, T. Funahashi, and S. Tanaka Hypoadiponectinemia in obesity and type 2 diabetes: close association with insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86 2001 1930 1935
50. A. Veilleux, M. Caron-Jobin, and S. Noel Visceral adipocyte hypertrophy is associated with dyslipidemia independent of body composition and fat distribution in women Diabetes 60 2011 1504 1511
51. G.S. Hotamisligil, N.S. Shargill, and B.M. Spiegelman Adipose expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha: direct role in obesity-linked insulin resistance Science 259 1993 87 91
52. H. Baumann, and J. Gauldie Regulation of hepatic acute phase plasma protein genes by hepatocyte stimulating factors and other mediators of inflammation Mol Biol Med 7 1990 147 159
53. C. Weber, and H. Noels Atherosclerosis: current pathogenesis and therapeutic options Nat Med 17 2011 1410 1422
54. S.A. Porter, J.M. Massaro, and U. Hoffmann Abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue: a protective fat depot? Diabetes Care 32 2009 1068 1075
55. K.M. Pou, J.M. Massaro, and U. Hoffmann Visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue volumes are cross-sectionally related to markers of inflammation and oxidative stress: the Framingham Heart Study Circulation 116 2007 1234 1241
56. T. McLaughlin, C. Lamendola, and A. Liu Preferential fat deposition in subcutaneous versus visceral depots is associated with insulin sensitivity J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96 2011 E1756 E1760
57. J. Liu, C.S. Fox, and D.A. Hickson Impact of abdominal visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue on cardiometabolic risk factors: the Jackson Heart Study J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95 2010 5419 5426
58. S. Perrini, L. Laviola, and A. Cignarelli Fat depot-related differences in gene expression, adiponectin secretion, and insulin action and signalling in human adipocytes differentiated in vitro from precursor stromal cells Diabetologia 51 2008 155 164
59. M.M. Ibrahim Subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue: structural and functional differences Obes Rev 11 2010 11 18
60. T.T. Tran, Y. Yamamoto, and S. Gesta Beneficial effects of subcutaneous fat transplantation on metabolism Cell Metab 7 2008 410 420
61. K.M. Rexrode, V.J. Carey, and C.H. Hennekens Abdominal adiposity and coronary heart disease in women JAMA 280 1998 1843 1848
62. A. Onat, G.S. Avci, and M.M. Barlan Measures of abdominal obesity assessed for visceral adiposity and relation to coronary risk Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 28 2004 1018 1025
63. S. Yamashita, T. Nakamura, and I. Shimomura Insulin resistance and body fat distribution Diabetes Care 19 1996 287 291
64. W.Y. Fujimoto, R.W. Bergstrom, and E.J. Boyko Visceral adiposity and incident coronary heart disease in Japanese-American men. The 10-year follow-up results of the Seattle Japanese-American Community Diabetes Study Diabetes Care 22 1999 1808 1812
65. D.R. Faber, Y. van der Graaf, and J. Westerink Increased visceral adipose tissue mass is associated with increased C-reactive protein in patients with manifest vascular diseases Atherosclerosis 212 2010 274 280
66. S.M. Kang, J.W. Yoon, and H.Y. Ahn Android fat depot is more closely associated with metabolic syndrome than abdominal visceral fat in elderly people PLoS One 6 2011 e27694
67. D.E. Kelley, F.L. Thaete, and F. Troost Subdivisions of subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue and insulin resistance Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 278 2000 E941 E948
68. J.L. Kuk, T.S. Church, and S.N. Blair Does measurement site for visceral and abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue alter associations with the metabolic syndrome? Diabetes Care 29 2006 679 684
69. S. Lim, S.H. Choi, and Y.J. Park Visceral fatness and insulin sensitivity in women with a previous history of gestational diabetes mellitus Diabetes Care 30 2007 348 353
70. R.P. Wildman, I. Janssen, and U.I. Khan Subcutaneous adipose tissue in relation to subclinical atherosclerosis and cardiometabolic risk factors in midlife women Am J Clin Nutr 93 2011 719 726
71. R. Meshkani, and K. Adeli Hepatic insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease Clin Biochem 42 2009 1331 1346
72. L. Lo, S.V. McLennan, and P.F. Williams Diabetes is a progression factor for hepatic fibrosis in a high fat fed mouse obesity model of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis J Hepatol 55 2011 435 444
73. N.H. Cho, H.C. Jang, and S.H. Choi Abnormal liver function test predicts type 2 diabetes: a community-based prospective study Diabetes Care 30 2007 2566 2568
74. A. Kotronen, and H. Yki-Jarvinen Fatty liver: a novel component of the metabolic syndrome Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 28 2008 27 38
75. G. Targher, L. Bertolini, and F. Poli Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and risk of future cardiovascular events among type 2 diabetic patients Diabetes 54 2005 3541 3546
76. A. Qayyum, D.M. Chen, and R.S. Breiman Evaluation of diffuse liver steatosis by ultrasound, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging: which modality is best? Clin Imaging 33 2009 110 115
77. K.F. Petersen, S. Dufour, and D. Befroy Impaired mitochondrial activity in the insulin-resistant offspring of patients with type 2 diabetes N Engl J Med 350 2004 664 671
78. B.K. Kang, E.S. Yu, and S.S. Lee Hepatic fat quantification: a prospective comparison of magnetic resonance spectroscopy and analysis methods for chemical-shift gradient echo magnetic resonance imaging with histologic assessment as the reference standard Invest Radiol 47 2012 368 375
79. K. Ishizaka, N. Oyama, and S. Mito Comparison of 1H MR spectroscopy, 3-point DIXON, and multi-echo gradient echo for measuring hepatic fat fraction Magn Reson Med Sci 10 2011 41 48
80. L. Ryysy, A.M. Hakkinen, and T. Goto Hepatic fat content and insulin action on free fatty acids and glucose metabolism rather than insulin absorption are associated with insulin requirements during insulin therapy in type 2 diabetic patients Diabetes 49 2000 749 758
81. E. Fabbrini, F. Magkos, and B.S. Mohammed Intrahepatic fat, not visceral fat, is linked with metabolic complications of obesity Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106 2009 15430 15435
82. M. Hamaguchi, T. Kojima, and N. Takeda Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is a novel predictor of cardiovascular disease World J Gastroenterol 13 2007 1579 1584
83. G. Targher, L. Bertolini, and S. Rodella Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is independently associated with an increased incidence of cardiovascular events in type 2 diabetic patients Diabetes Care 30 2007 2119 2121
84. L.J. Rijzewijk, J.T. Jonker, and R.W. van der Meer Effects of hepatic triglyceride content on myocardial metabolism in type 2 diabetes J Am Coll Cardiol 56 2010 225 233
85. S. Bonapace, G. Perseghin, and G. Molon Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is associated with left ventricular diastolic dysfunction in patients with type 2 diabetes Diabetes Care 35 2012 389 395
86. G. Targher, C.P. Day, and E. Bonora Risk of cardiovascular disease in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease N Engl J Med 363 2010 1341 1350
87. D.I. Phillips, S. Caddy, and V. Ilic Intramuscular triglyceride and muscle insulin sensitivity: evidence for a relationship in nondiabetic subjects Metabolism 45 1996 947 950
88. D.E. Kelley, and B.H. Goodpaster Skeletal muscle triglyceride. An aspect of regional adiposity and insulin resistance Diabetes Care 24 2001 933 941
89. M.J. Watt, G.J. Heigenhauser, and L.L. Spriet Intramuscular triacylglycerol utilization in human skeletal muscle during exercise: is there a controversy? J Appl Physiol 93 2002 1185 1195
90. C.S. Shaw, J. Clark, and A.J. Wagenmakers The effect of exercise and nutrition on intramuscular fat metabolism and insulin sensitivity Annu Rev Nutr 30 2010 13 34
91. B.H. Goodpaster, J. He, and S. Watkins Skeletal muscle lipid content and insulin resistance: evidence for a paradox in endurance-trained athletes J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86 2001 5755 5761
92. D.S. Hardin, B. Azzarelli, and J. Edwards Mechanisms of enhanced insulin sensitivity in endurance-trained athletes: effects on blood flow and differential expression of GLUT 4 in skeletal muscles J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80 1995 2437 2446
93. M.B. Snijder, M. Visser, and J.M. Dekker Low subcutaneous thigh fat is a risk factor for unfavourable glucose and lipid levels, independently of high abdominal fat. The Health ABC Study Diabetologia 48 2005 301 308
94. R.D. Hansen, D.A. Williamson, and T.P. Finnegan Estimation of thigh muscle cross-sectional area by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry in frail elderly patients Am J Clin Nutr 86 2007 952 958
95. B.H. Goodpaster, F.L. Thaete, and D.E. Kelley Thigh adipose tissue distribution is associated with insulin resistance in obesity and in type 2 diabetes mellitus Am J Clin Nutr 71 2000 885 892
96. I. Miljkovic-Gacic, X. Wang, and C.M. Kammerer Fat infiltration in muscle: new evidence for familial clustering and associations with diabetes Obesity (Silver Spring) 16 2008 1854 1860
97. A. Kautzky-Willer, M. Krssak, and C. Winzer Increased intramyocellular lipid concentration identifies impaired glucose metabolism in women with previous gestational diabetes Diabetes 52 2003 244 251
98. R. Weiss, S. Dufour, and S.E. Taksali Prediabetes in obese youth: a syndrome of impaired glucose tolerance, severe insulin resistance, and altered myocellular and abdominal fat partitioning Lancet 362 2003 951 957
99. S. Jacob, J. Machann, and K. Rett Association of increased intramyocellular lipid content with insulin resistance in lean nondiabetic offspring of type 2 diabetic subjects Diabetes 48 1999 1113 1119
100. A.V. Greco, G. Mingrone, and A. Giancaterini Insulin resistance in morbid obesity: reversal with intramyocellular fat depletion Diabetes 51 2002 144 151
101. S.K. Kim, S.W. Park, and I.J. Hwang High fat stores in ectopic compartments in men with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes: an anthropometric determinant of carotid atherosclerosis and insulin resistance Int J Obes (Lond) 34 2010 105 110
102. J.E. Yim, S. Heshka, and J.B. Albu Femoral-gluteal subcutaneous and intermuscular adipose tissues have independent and opposing relationships with CVD risk J Appl Physiol 104 2008 700 707
103. B. Buemann, T.I. Sorensen, and O. Pedersen Lower-body fat mass as an independent marker of insulin sensitivity - the role of adiponectin Int J Obes (Lond) 29 2005 624 631
104. H. Staiger, O. Tschritter, and J. Machann Relationship of serum adiponectin and leptin concentrations with body fat distribution in humans Obes Res 11 2003 368 372
105. T.T. Tran, and C.R. Kahn Transplantation of adipose tissue and stem cells: role in metabolism and disease Nat Rev Endocrinol 6 2010 195 213
106. J.C. Seidell, L. Perusse, and J.P. Despres Waist and hip circumferences have independent and opposite effects on cardiovascular disease risk factors: the Quebec Family Study Am J Clin Nutr 74 2001 315 321
107. T.C. Friedman, G. Mastorakos, and T.D. Newman Carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in endogenous hypercortisolism: shared features with metabolic syndrome X and NIDDM Endocr J 43 1996 645 655
108. I. Lemieux Energy partitioning in gluteal-femoral fat: does the metabolic fate of triglycerides affect coronary heart disease risk? Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 24 2004 795 797
109. I.L. Mortimore, I. Marshall, and P.K. Wraith Neck and total body fat deposition in nonobese and obese patients with sleep apnea compared with that in control subjects Am J Respir Crit Care Med 157 1998 280 283
110. M. Laakso, V. Matilainen, and S. Keinanen-Kiukaanniemi Association of neck circumference with insulin resistance-related factors Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 26 2002 873 875
111. S.R. Preis, J.M. Massaro, and U. Hoffmann Neck circumference as a novel measure of cardiometabolic risk: the Framingham Heart Study J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95 2010 3701 3710
112. K.P. Strohl, and S. Redline Recognition of obstructive sleep apnea Am J Respir Crit Care Med 154 1996 279 289
113. V. Mohsenin Sleep-related breathing disorders and risk of stroke Stroke 32 2001 1271 1278
114. L. Ben-Noun, and A. Laor Relationship of neck circumference to cardiovascular risk factors Obes Res 11 2003 226 231
115. Y. Shigeta, R. Enciso, and T. Ogawa Cervical CT derived neck fat tissue distribution differences in Japanese males and females and its effect on retroglossal and retropalatal airway volume Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 106 2008 275 284
116. K.V. Fitch, T.L. Stanley, and S.E. Looby Relationship between neck circumference and cardiometabolic parameters in HIV-infected and non-HIV-infected adults Diabetes Care 34 2011 1026 1031
117. M.W. Rajala, and P.E. Scherer Minireview: the adipocyte - at the crossroads of energy homeostasis, inflammation, and atherosclerosis Endocrinology 144 2003 3765 3773
118. J.P. Montani, J.F. Carroll, and T.M. Dwyer Ectopic fat storage in heart, blood vessels and kidneys in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 28 Suppl. 4 2004 S58 S65
119. Y.C. Lee, H.H. Chang, and C.L. Chiang Role of perivascular adipose tissue-derived methyl palmitate in vascular tone regulation and pathogenesis of hypertension Circulation 124 2011 1160 1171
120. R.H. Unger Lipotoxicity in the pathogenesis of obesity-dependent NIDDM. Genetic and clinical implications Diabetes 44 1995 863 870
121. I.J. Goldberg, C.M. Trent, and P.C. Schulze Lipid metabolism and toxicity in the heart Cell Metab 15 2012 805 812
122. H.S. Sacks, and J.N. Fain Human epicardial adipose tissue: a review Am Heart J 153 2007 907 917
123. G. Iacobellis, D. Corradi, and A.M. Sharma Epicardial adipose tissue: anatomic, biomolecular and clinical relationships with the heart Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med 2 2005 536 543
124. P.M. Gorter, A.M. de Vos, and Y. van der Graaf Relation of epicardial and pericoronary fat to coronary atherosclerosis and coronary artery calcium in patients undergoing coronary angiography Am J Cardiol 102 2008 380 385
125. A.A. Mahabadi, N. Reinsch, and N. Lehmann Association of pericoronary fat volume with atherosclerotic plaque burden in the underlying coronary artery: a segment analysis Atherosclerosis 211 2010 195 199
126. G. Iacobellis, and F. Leonetti Epicardial adipose tissue and insulin resistance in obese subjects J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90 2005 6300 6302
127. M. Shimabukuro, Y. Hirata, and M. Tabata Epicardial adipose tissue volume and adipocytokine imbalance are strongly linked to human coronary atherosclerosis Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 33 2013 1077 1084
128. G. Iacobellis, E. Lonn, and A. Lamy Epicardial fat thickness and coronary artery disease correlate independently of obesity Int J Cardiol 146 2011 452 454
129. J.S. Yudkin, E. Eringa, and C.D. Stehouwer "Vasocrine" signalling from perivascular fat: a mechanism linking insulin resistance to vascular disease Lancet 365 2005 1817 1820
130. T. Mazurek, L. Zhang, and A. Zalewski Human epicardial adipose tissue is a source of inflammatory mediators Circulation 108 2003 2460 2466
131. M. Greif, A. Becker, and F. von Ziegler Pericardial adipose tissue determined by dual source CT is a risk factor for coronary atherosclerosis Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 29 2009 781 786
132. M. Kankaanpaa, H.R. Lehto, and J.P. Parkka Myocardial triglyceride content and epicardial fat mass in human obesity: relationship to left ventricular function and serum free fatty acid levels J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91 2006 4689 4695
133. S.W. Rabkin Epicardial fat: properties, function and relationship to obesity Obes Rev 8 2007 253 261
134. G. Iacobellis, and A.C. Bianco Epicardial adipose tissue: emerging physiological, pathophysiological and clinical features Trends Endocrinol Metab 22 2011 450 457
135. L.J. Rijzewijk, R.W. van der Meer, and J.W. Smit Myocardial steatosis is an independent predictor of diastolic dysfunction in type 2 diabetes mellitus J Am Coll Cardiol 52 2008 1793 1799
136. W. Utz, S. Engeli, and S. Haufe Myocardial steatosis, cardiac remodelling and fitness in insulin-sensitive and insulin-resistant obese women Heart 97 2011 1585 1589
137. J.W. Jeong, M.H. Jeong, and K.H. Yun Echocardiographic epicardial fat thickness and coronary artery disease Circ J 71 2007 536 539
138. C.S. Fox, P. Gona, and U. Hoffmann Pericardial fat, intrathoracic fat, and measures of left ventricular structure and function: the Framingham Heart Study Circulation 119 2009 1586 1591
139. T.H. Kim, S.H. Yu, and S.H. Choi Pericardial fat amount is an independent risk factor of coronary artery stenosis assessed by multidetector-row computed tomography: the Korean Atherosclerosis Study 2 Obesity (Silver Spring) 19 2011 1028 1034
140. S. Fluchter, D. Haghi, and D. Dinter Volumetric assessment of epicardial adipose tissue with cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging Obesity (Silver Spring) 15 2007 870 878
141. G. Thanassoulis, J.M. Massaro, and C.J. O'Donnell Pericardial fat is associated with prevalent atrial fibrillation: the Framingham Heart Study Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol 3 2010 345 350
142. E. Henrichot, C.E. Juge-Aubry, and A. Pernin Production of chemokines by perivascular adipose tissue: a role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis? Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 25 2005 2594 2599
143. C.H. Yun, T.Y. Lin, and Y.J. Wu Pericardial and thoracic peri-aortic adipose tissues contribute to systemic inflammation and calcified coronary atherosclerosis independent of body fat composition, anthropometric measures and traditional cardiovascular risks Eur J Radiol 81 2012 749 756
144. D.J. Pennell Cardiovascular magnetic resonance Circulation 121 2010 692 705
145. S.J. Lehman, J.M. Massaro, and C.L. Schlett Peri-aortic fat, cardiovascular disease risk factors, and aortic calcification: the Framingham Heart Study Atherosclerosis 210 2010 656 661
146. E.C. Eringa, W. Bakker, and V.W. van Hinsbergh Paracrine regulation of vascular tone, inflammation and insulin sensitivity by perivascular adipose tissue Vascul Pharmacol 56 2012 204 209
147. A.S. Greenstein, K. Khavandi, and S.B. Withers Local inflammation and hypoxia abolish the protective anticontractile properties of perivascular fat in obese patients Circulation 119 2009 1661 1670
148. H.L. Chughtai, T.M. Morgan, and M. Rocco Renal sinus fat and poor blood pressure control in middle-aged and elderly individuals at risk for cardiovascular events Hypertension 56 2010 901 906
149. T.M. Dwyer, H.L. Mizelle, and K. Cockrell Renal sinus lipomatosis and body composition in hypertensive, obese rabbits Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 19 1995 869 874
150. E. Reisin, and A.V. Jack Obesity and hypertension: mechanisms, cardio-renal consequences, and therapeutic approaches Med Clin North Am 93 2009 733 751
151. M.C. Foster, Q. Yang, and S.J. Hwang Heritability and genome-wide association analysis of renal sinus fat accumulation in the Framingham Heart Study BMC Med Genet 12 2011 148
152. M.C. Foster, S.J. Hwang, and S.A. Porter Fatty kidney, hypertension, and chronic kidney disease: the Framingham Heart Study Hypertension 58 2011 784 790
153. R.W. van der Meer, H.J. Lamb, and J.W. Smit MR imaging evaluation of cardiovascular risk in metabolic syndrome Radiology 264 2012 21 37
154. P. Lee, J.T. Zhao, and M.M. Swarbrick High prevalence of brown adipose tissue in adult humans J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96 2011 2450 2455
155. D. Wormser, S. Kaptoge, and A.E. Di Separate and combined associations of body-mass index and abdominal adiposity with cardiovascular disease: collaborative analysis of 58 prospective studies Lancet 377 2011 1085 1095
156. A. Thorne, F. Lonnqvist, and J. Apelman A pilot study of long-term effects of a novel obesity treatment: omentectomy in connection with adjustable gastric banding Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 26 2002 193 199
157. C.J. Chou, M. Haluzik, and C. Gregory WY14,643, a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) agonist, improves hepatic and muscle steatosis and reverses insulin resistance in lipoatrophic A-ZIP/F-1 mice J Biol Chem 277 2002 24484 24489
158. E.A. Oral, V. Simha, and E. Ruiz Leptin-replacement therapy for lipodystrophy N Engl J Med 346 2002 570 578
159. K.F. Petersen, E.A. Oral, and S. Dufour Leptin reverses insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis in patients with severe lipodystrophy J Clin Invest 109 2002 1345 1350
160. D.C. Lee, X. Sui, and T.S. Church Changes in fitness and fatness on the development of cardiovascular disease risk factors hypertension, metabolic syndrome, and hypercholesterolemia J Am Coll Cardiol 59 2012 665 672
161. H. Petursson, J.A. Sigurdsson, and C. Bengtsson Body configuration as a predictor of mortality: comparison of five anthropometric measures in a 12 year follow-up of the Norwegian HUNT 2 Study PLoS One 6 2011 e26621
162. A.A. Mahabadi, J.M. Massaro, and G.A. Rosito Association of pericardial fat, intrathoracic fat, and visceral abdominal fat with cardiovascular disease burden: the Framingham Heart Study Eur Heart J 30 2009 850 856
163. A.P. Rossi, N.L. Watson, and A.B. Newman Effects of body composition and adipose tissue distribution on respiratory function in elderly men and women: the Health, Aging, and Body Composition Study J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 66 2011 801 808
164. A.J. Hanley, L.E. Wagenknecht, and J.M. Norris Insulin resistance, beta cell dysfunction and visceral adiposity as predictors of incident diabetes: the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (IRAS) Family Study Diabetologia 52 2009 2079 2086
165. L.E. Wagenknecht, C.D. Langefeld, and A.L. Scherzinger Insulin sensitivity, insulin secretion, and abdominal fat: the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (IRAS) Family Study Diabetes 52 2003 2490 2496
166. A.T. Turer, J.D. Browning, and C.R. Ayers Adiponectin as an independent predictor of the presence and degree of hepatic steatosis in the Dallas Heart Study J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97 2012 E982 E986
167. S.R. Das, M.H. Drazner, and D.L. Dries Impact of body mass and body composition on circulating levels of natriuretic peptides: results from the Dallas Heart Study Circulation 112 2005 2163 2168
168. C. Miao, S. Chen, and J. Ding The association of pericardial fat with coronary artery plaque index at MR imaging: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) Radiology 261 2011 109 115
169. E.Z. Soliman, J. Ding, and F.C. Hsu Association between carotid intima-media thickness and pericardial fat in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 19 2010 58 65
170. S. Lim, J.H. Kim, and J.W. Yoon Sarcopenic obesity: prevalence and association with metabolic syndrome in the Korean Longitudinal Study on Health and Aging (KLoSHA) Diabetes Care 33 2010 1652 1654
171. Y. Lee, H. Shin, and J.L. Vassy Comparison of regional body composition and its relation with cardiometabolic risk between BMI-matched young and old subjects Atherosclerosis 224 2012 258 265
172. J. Liu, C.S. Fox, and D.A. Hickson Pericardial fat and echocardiographic measures of cardiac abnormalities: the Jackson Heart Study Diabetes Care 34 2011 341 346
173. J. Liu, C.S. Fox, and D. Hickson Fatty liver, abdominal visceral fat, and cardiometabolic risk factors: the Jackson Heart Study Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 31 2011 2715 2722