Quantum Dots

Nanoparticles: From Theory to Application: Second Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 3-47

  Parak, Wolfgang Johann ^a   Manna, Liberato ^b   Simmel, Friedrich C ^c   Gerion, Daniele ^d   Alivisatos, Paul ^e  

^a PHILIPPS UNIVERSITY MARBURG   (Germany)

^b ISTITUTO ITALIANO DI TECNOLOGIA   (Italy)

^c TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH   (Germany)

^d LAWRENCE BERKELEY NATIONAL LABORATORY   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Artificial atoms; Colloidal nanoparticles; Nanotechnology; Quantized fluorescence; Quantum dots

Indexed keywords

EID: 84886535784     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9783527631544.ch2     Document Type: Chapter

References (172)

1. Lane, N. (2001) J. Nanopart. Res., 3, 95-103.
2. Service, R.F. (2000) Science, 290, 1526-1527.
3. Kingon, A.I., Maria, J.-P., and Streiffer, S.K. (2000) Nature, 406, 1032-1038.
4. Lloyd, S. (2000) Nature, 406, 1047-1054.
5. Ito, T. and Okazaki, S. (2000) Nature, 406, 1027-1031.
6. Peercy,P.S. (2000) Nature, 406, 1023-1026.
7. Cohen-Tannoudji, C., Diu, B., and Laloe, F. (1997) Quantum Mechanics, 1st edn, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
8. Yoffe, A.D. (2001) Adv. Phys., 50, 1-208.
9. Atkins, P.W. (1986) Physical Chemistry, 3rd edn, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
10. Karplus, M. and Porter, R.N. (1970) Atoms and Molecules, 1st edn, W. A. Benjamin, Inc., New York.
11. Alivisatos, A.P. (1997) Endeavour, 21, 56-60.
12. Harrison,W.A. (1989) Electronic Structure and the Properties of Solids: The Physics of the Chemical Bond, Dover Publications, Dover.
13. Kobayashi, A., Sankey, O.F., Volz, S.M., and Dow, J.D. (1983) Phys. Rev. B, 28, 935-945.
14. Burdett, J.K. (1984) Prog. Solid State Chem., 15, 173-255.
15. Kittel, C. (1989) Einf€uhrung in die Festk€orperphysik, 8th edn, R. Oldenbourg Verlag, M€unchen, Wien.
16. Ashcroft, N.W. and Mermin, N.D. (1976) Solid State Physics, Saunders College, Philadelphia.
17. Davies, J.H. (1998) The Physics of Low-Dimensional Semiconductors, Cambridge University Press,Cambridge.
18. Ando, T., Fowler, A.B., and Stern, F. (1982) Rev. Mod. Phys., 54, 437-672.
19. Moriarty, P. (2001) Rep. Prog. Phys., 64, 297-381.
20. Zhitenev, N.B., Fulton, T.A., Yacoby, A., Hess, H.F., Pfeiffer, L.N., andWest, K.W. (2000) Nature, 404, 473-476.
21. Suen, Y.W., Engel, L.W., Santos, M.B., Shayegan, M., and Tsui, D.C. (1992) Phys. Rev. Lett., 68, 1379-1382.
22. Stormer, H.L. (1998) Solid State Commun., 107, 617-622.
23. Stormer, H.L., Du, R.R., Kang, W., Tsui, D.C., Pfeiffer, L.N., Baldwin, K.W., and West, K.W. (1994) Semicond. Sci. Technol., 9, 1853-1858.
24. Wharam, D.A., Thornton, T.J., Newbury, R., Pepper, M., Ahmed, H., Frost, J.E.F., Hasko, D.G., Peacock, D.C., Ritchie, D.A., and Jones, G.A.C. (1988) J. Phys. C, 21, L209.
25. van Wees, B.J., Houten, H.v., Beenakker, C.W.J., Williams, J.G., Kouwenhoven, L.P., Marel, D.v.d., and Foxon, C.T. (1988) Phys. Rev. Lett., 60, 848.
26. Bumm, L.A., Arnold, J.J., Cygan, M.T., Dunbar, T.D., Burgin, T.P., Jones, L. II, Allara, D.L., Tour, J.M., and Weiss, P.S. (1996) Science, 271, 1705-1707.
27. Anantram, M.P., Datta, S., and Xue, Y.Q. (2000) Phys. Rev. B, 61, 14219-14224.
28. Cobden, D.H. (2001) Nature, 409, 32-33.
29. Freemantle, M. (2001) Chem. Eng. News, March 5, 38.
30. Cui, X.D., Primak, A., Zarate, X., Tomfohr, J., Sankey, O.F., Moore, A.L., Moore, T.A., Gust, D., Harris, G., and Lindsay, S.M. (2001) Science, 294, 571-574.
31. Reed, M.A. (2001) MRS Bull., 113-120.
32. Hu, J.T., Odom, T.W., and Lieber, C.M. (1999) Acc. Chem. Res., 32, 435-445.
33. Cui, Y., Duan, X.,Hu, J., and Lieber, C.M. (2000) J. Phys. Chem. B, 104, 5213-5216.
34. Rodrigues, V., Fuhrer, T., and Ugarte, D. (2000) Phys. Rev. Lett., 85, 4124-4127.
35. Rao, C.N.R., Kulkarni, G.U., Govindaraj, A., Satishkumar, B.C., and Thomas, P. (2000) J. PureAppl. Chem., 72, 21-33.
36. H€akkinen, H., Barnett, R.N., Scherbakov, A.G., and Landman, U. (2000) J. Phys. Chem. B, 104, 9063-9066.
37. Cui, Y. and Lieber, C.M. (2001) Science, 291, 851-853.
38. Reed, M.A., Zhou, C., Muller, C.J., Burgin, T.P., and Tour, J.M. (1997) Science, 278, 252-254.
39. van den Brom, H.E., Yanson, A.I., and Ruitenbeek, J.M. (1998) Physica B, 252, 69-75.
40. Xe, H.X., Li, C.Z., and Tao, N. (2001) J. Appl. Phys. Lett., 78, 811-813.
41. Tans, S.J., Devoret, M.H., Dai, H., Thess, A., Smalley, R.E., Geerligs, L.J., and Dekker, C. (1997) Nature, 386, 474-477.
42. Saito, S. (1997) Science, 278, 77-78.
43. McEuen, P.L., Bockrath, M., Cobden, D.H., and Lu, J.G. (1999) Microelectron. Eng., 47, 417-420.
44. Yao, Z., Postma, H.W.C., Balents, L., and Dekker, C. (1999) Nature, 402, 273-276.
45. Odom, T.W., Huang, J.-L., Kim, P., and Lieber, C.M. (2000) J. Phys. Chem. B, 104, 2794-2809.
46. McEuen, P.L. (2000) Phys. World, 31-36.
47. Jacoby, M. (2001) Chem. Eng. News, April 30, 13.
48. de Heer, W.A. et al. (1995) Science, 270, 1179.
49. Bastard, G. and Brum, J.A. (1986) IEEE J. Quantum Electron., 22, 1625-1644.
50. Petroff, P.M., Lorke, A., and Imamoglu, A. (2001) Phys. Today, 46-52.
51. Landau, L.D. and Lifschitz, E.M. (1979) Quantenmechnik, 9th edn, vol. 3 Akademie-Verlag, Berlin.
52. Schwabl, F. (1990) Quantenmechanik, 2nd edn, Springer Verlag, Berlin.
53. Messiah, A. (1976) Quantenmechanik (Band 1), Walter de Gruyter, Berlin.
54. Trindade, T., O'Brien, P., and Pickett, N.L. (2001) Chem. Mater., 13, 3843-3858.
55. Bawendi, M.G., Steigerwald, M.L., and Brus, L.E. (1990) Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem., 41, 477-496.
56. Brus, L.E. (1983) J. Chem. Phys., 79, 5566-5571.
57. Brus, L.E. (1984) J. Chem. Phys., 80, 4403-4409.
58. Brus, L. (1986) J. Phys. Chem., 90, 2555-2560.
59. Steigerwald, M.L. and Brus, L.E. (1990) Acc. Chem. Res., 23, 183-188.
60. Trindade, T., O'Brien, P., and Pickett, N.L. (2001) Nanocrystalline semiconductors: synthesis, properties, and perspectives. Chem. Mater., 13 (11), 3843-3858.
61. Gorska, M. and Nazarewicz, W. (1974) Application of the random-element isodisplacement model to longwavelength optical phonons in CdSexTe1-x mixed crystals. Phys. Status Solidi B, 65, 193-202.
62. Efros, A.L. and Rosen, M. (2000) Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci., 30, 475-521.
63. Fuhrer, A., L€uscher, S., Ihn, T., Heinzel, T., Ensslin, K.,Wegscheider,W., and Bichler, M. (2001) Nature, 413, 822-825.
64. Blick, R.H., Weide, D.W.v.d., Haug, R.J., and Eberl, K. (1998) Phys. Rev. Lett., 81, 689-692.
65. Kemerink, M. and Molenkamp, L.W. (1994) Appl. Phys. Lett., 65, 1012.
66. Waugh, F.R., Berry, M.J., Mar, D.J., Westervelt, R.M., Campman, K.L., and Gossard, A.C. (1995) Phys. Rev. Lett., 75, 705.
67. Hofmann, F. and Wharam, D.A. (1995) Adv. Solid State Phys., 35, 197.
68. Blick, R.H., Haug, R.J., Weis, J., Pfannkuche, D., Klitzing, K.v., and Eberl, K. (1996) Phys. Rev. B, 53, 7899-7902.
69. Bayer, M., Gutbrod, T., Reithmaier, J.P., Forchel, A., Reinecke, T.L., Knipp, P.A., Dremin, A.A., and Kulakovskii, V.D. (1998) Phys. Rev. Lett, 81, 2582-2585.
70. Tarucha, S., Austing, D.G., Honda, T., Hage, R.J.v.d., and Kouwenhoven, L.P. (1996) Phys. Rev. Lett., 77, 3613.
71. Goldhaber-Gordon, D., Shtrikman, H., Mahalu, D., Abusch-Magder, D., Meirav, U., and Kastner, M.A. (1998) Nature, 391, 156.
72. Cronenwett, S.M., Oosterkamp, T.H., and Kouwenhoven, L.P. (1998) Science, 281, 540.
73. Simmel, F., Blick, R.H., Kotthaus, J.P., Wegscheider, W., and Bichler, M. (1999) Phys. Rev. Lett., 83, 804.
74. Schmid, J., Weis, J., Eberl, K., and Klitzing, K.v. (2000) Phys. Rev. Lett., 84, 5824.
75. Cho, A.Y. (1999) J.Cryst.Growth, 202, 1-7.
76. Fafard, S., Leon, R., Leonard, D., Merz, J.L., and Petroff, P.M. (1994) Superlattices Microstruct., 16, 303-309.
77. Petroff, P.M. and DenBaars, S.P. (1994) Superlattices Microstruct., 15, 15-21.
78. Leon, R., Petroff, P.M., Leonard, D., and Fafard, S. (1995) Science, 267, 1966-1968.
79. Luyken, R.J., Lorke, A., Govorov, A.O., Kotthaus, J.P., Medeiros-Ribeiro, G., and Petroff, P.M. (1999) Appl. Phys. Lett, 74, 2486-2488.
80. Liu, Z.F., Shen, Z.Y., Zhu, T., Hou, S.F., Ying, L.Z., Shi, Z.J., and Gu, Z.N. (2000) Langmuir, 16, 3569-3573.
81. Paul, D. (1999) J. Adv. Mater., 11, 191-204.
82. Garcia, J.M., Medeiros-Ribeiro, G., Schmidt, K., Ngo, T., Feng, J.L., Lorke, A., Kotthaus, J., and Petroff, P.M. (1997) Appl. Phys. Lett., 71, 2014-2016.
83. Bayer, M., Stern, O., Hawrylak, P., Fafard, S., and Forchel, A. (2000) Nature, 405, 923-926.
84. Warburton, R.J., Sch€aflein, C., Haft, D., Bickel, F., Lorke, A., Karrai, K., Garcia, J.M., Schoenfeld, W., and Petroff, P.M. (2000) Nature, 405, 926-929.
85. Tarucha, S. (1998) MRS Bull., 23, 49-53.
86. Lorke, A. and Luyken, R. (1998) J. Phys. B: Condens. Matter, 256-258, 424-430.
87. Gammon, D. (2000) Nature, 405, 899-900.
88. Alivisatos, A.P. (1996) Science, 271, 933-937.
89. Murray, C.B., Norris, D.J., and Bawendi, M.G. (1993) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 115, 8706-8715.
90. Peng, X., Wickham, J., and Alivisatos, A.P. (1998) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 120, 5343-5344.
91. Dabbousi, B.O., Rodriguez-Viejo, J., Mikulec, F.V., Heine, J.R.,Mattoussi, H., Ober, R., Jensen, K.F., and Bawendi, M.G. (1997) J. Phys. Chem. B, 101, 9463-9475.
92. Peng, X., Schlamp, M.C., Kadavanich, A.V., and Alivisatos, A.P. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 119, 7019-7029.
93. Kudera, S., Carbone, L. et al. (2006) Phys. Status Solidi C, 203 (6), 1329-1336.
94. Cozzoli, P.D., Pellegrino, T. et al. (2006) Chem. Soc. Rev., 35 (11), 1195-1208.
95. Mirkin, C.A., Letsinger, R.L.,Mucic, R.C., and Storhoff, J. (1996) Nature, 382, 607-609.
96. Kr€uger, C., Agarwal, S. et al. (2008) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 130 (9), 2710-2711.
97. Zanchet, D., Micheel, C.M., Parak, W.J., Gerion, D., Williams, S.C., and Alivisatos, A.P. (2002) J. Phys. Chem. B, 106, 11758-11763.
98. Charvet, N., Reiss, P. et al. (2004) J. Mater. Chem., 14 (17), 2638-2642.
99. Parak, W.J., Pellegrino, T. et al. (2005) Nanotechnology, 16, R5-R25.
100. Wu, X. and Bruchez, M.P. (2004) Methods Cell Biol., 75, 171-183.
101. Klein, D.L., McEuen, P.L., Bowen-Katari, J.E., Roth, R., and Alivisatos, A.P. (1996) Appl. Phys. Lett., 68, 2574-2576.
102. Klein, D.L., Roth, R., Lim, A.K.L., Alivisatos, A.P., and McEuen, P.L. (1997) Nature, 389, 699-701.
103. Jaeckel, G. (1926) Z. Tech. Phys., 6, 301-304.
104. Gaponenko, S.V. (1998) Optical Properties of Semiconductor Nanocrystals, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
105. Klimov, V.I., McBranch, D.W., Leatherdale, C.A., and Bawendi, M.G. (1999) Phys. Rev. B-Condens. Matter, 60, 13740-13749.
106. Nirmal, M., Norris, D.J., Kuno, M., Bawendi, M.G., Efros, A.L., and Rosen, M. (1995) Phys. Rev., 75, 3728-3731.
107. Efros, A.L., Rosen, M., Kuno, M., Nirmal, M., Norris, D.J., and Bawendi, M. (1996) Phys. Rev. B, 54, 4843-4856.
108. Reboredo, F.A., Franceschetti, A., and Zunger, A. (2000) Phys. Rev. B, 61, 13073-13087.
109. Johnston-Halperin, E., Awschalom, D.D., Crooker, S.A., Efros, A.L., Rosen, M., Peng, X., and Alivisatos, A.P. (2001) Phys. Rev. B, 63, 205309-205323.
110. Dahan, M., Laurence, T., Pinaud, F., Chemla, D.S., Alivisatos, A.P., Sauer, M., and Weiss, S. (2001) Opt. Lett., 26, 825-827.
111. Empedocles, S.A., Norris, D.J., and Bawendi, M.G. (1996) Phys. Rev. Lett., 77, 3873-3876.
112. Empedocles, S. and Bawendi, M. (1999) Acc. Chem. Res., 32, 389-396.
113. Empedocles, S.A. and Bawendi, M.G. (1999) J. Phys. Chem. B, 103, 1826-1830.
114. Neuhauser, R.G., Shimizu, K.T., Woo, W.K., Empedocles, S.A., and Bawendi, M.G. (2000) Phys. Rev. Lett., 85, 3301-3304.
115. Basche, T. (1998) J. Lumin., 76-7, 263-269.
116. Nirmal, M., Dabbousi, B.O., Bawendi, M.G., Macklin, J.J., Trautman, J.K., Harris, T.D., and Brus, L.E. (1996) Nature, 383, 802-804.
117. Efros, A.L. and Rosen, M. (1997) Phys. Rev. Lett., 78, 1110-1113.
118. Kuno, M., Fromm, D.P., Hamann, H.F., Gallagher, A., and Nesbitt, D.J. (2000) J. Chem. Phys., 112, 3117-3120.
119. Dickson, R.M., Cubitt, A.B., Tsien, R.Y., and Moerner, W.E. (1997) Nature, 388, 355-358.
120. Nirmal, M. and Brus, L. (1999) Acc. Chem. Res., 32, 407-414.
121. Empedocles, S.A., Neuhauser, R., Shimizu, K., and Bawendi, M.G. (1999) Adv. Mater., 11, 1243-1256.
122. Hodak, J.H., Henglein, A., and Hartland, G.V. (2000) Pure Appl. Chem., 72, 189-197.
123. Mulvaney, P. (1996) Langmuir, 12, 788-800.
124. Ledentsov, N.N., Ustinov, V.M., Egorov, A.Y., Zhukov, A.E., Maksimov, M.V., Tabatadze, I.G., and Kop'ev, P.S. (1994) Semiconductors, 28, 832.
125. Kirstaedter, N., Ledentsov, N.N., Grundmann, M., Bimberg, D., Ustinov, V.M., Ruvimov, S.S., Maximov, M.V., Kop'ev, P.S., Alferov, Z.I., Richter, U., Werner, P., G€osele, U., and Heydenreich, J. (1994) Electron. Lett, 30 1416.
126. Bimberg, D., Grundmann, M., Heinrichsdorff, F., Ledentsov, N.N., Ustinov, V.M., Zhukov, A.E., Kovsh, A.R., Maximov, M.V., Shernyakov, Y.M., Volovik, B.V., Tsatsul'nikov, A.F., Kop'ev, P.S., and Alferov, Z.I. (2000) Thin Solid Films, 367, 235.
127. Klimov, V.I., Mikhailovsky, A.A., Xu, S., Malko, A., Hollingsworth, J.A., Leatherdale, C.A., Eisler, H.-J., and Bawendi, M.G. (2000) Science, 290, 314-317.
128. Michler, P., Imamoglu, A., Mason, M.D., Carson, P.J., Strouse, G.F., and Buratto, S.K. (2000) Nature, 406, 968-970.
129. Michler, P., Kiraz, A., Becher, C., Schoenfeld, W.V., Petroff, P.M., Zhang, L., Hu, E., and Imamoglu, A. (2000) Science, 290, 2282.
130. Michler, P., Imamoglu, A., Kiraz, A., Becher, C., Mason, M.D., Carson, P.J., Strouse, G.F., Buratto, S.K., Schoenfeld, W.V., and Petroff, P.M. (2002) Phys. Status Solidi B-Basic Res., 229, 399-405.
131. Zwiller, V., Blom, H., Jonsson, P., Panev, N., Jeppesen, S., Tsegaye, T., Goobar, E., Pistol, M.-E., Samuelson, L., and Bj€ork, G. (2001) Appl. Phys. Lett., 78, 2476.
132. Santori, C., Fattal, D., Vuckovic, J., Solomon, G.S., and Yamamoto, Y. (2002) Nature, 419, 594.
133. Lundstrom, T., Schoenfeld, W., Lee, H., and Petroff, P.M. (1999) Science, 286, 2312.
134. Colvin, V.L., Schlamp, M.C., and Alivisatos, A.P. (1994) Nature, 370, 354-357.
135. Rizzo, A., Li, Y.Q. et al. (2007) Appl. Phys. Lett., 90 (5), Article no. 051106.
136. Huynh, W.U., Dittmer, J.J., and Alivisatos, A.P. (2002) Science, 295, 2425-2427.
137. Huynh, W.U., Dittmer, J.J. et al. (2003) Phys. Rev. B, 67, 115326-1-115326-12.
138. Gorter, C. (1951) J. Phys., 17, 777.
139. Giaever, I. and Zeller, H.R. (1968) Phys. Rev. Lett., 20, 1504.
140. Zeller, H.R. and Giaever, I. (1969) Phys. Rev., 181, 791.
141. Lambe, J. and Jaklevic, R.C. (1969) Phys. Rev. Lett., 22, 1371.
142. Fulton, T.A. and Dolan, G. (1987) Phys. Rev. Lett., 59, 109-112.
143. Scott-Thomas, J.H.F., Field, S.B., Kastner, M.A., Smith, H.I., and Antoniadis, D.A. (1989) Phys. Rev. Lett., 62, 583.
144. Averin, D.V. and Likharev, K.K. (1991) Mesoscopic Phenomena in Solids (eds B.L. Altshuler, P.A. Lee, and R.A. Webb), Elsevier, Amsterdam.
145. Sch€on, G. (1998) Quantum Transport and Dissipation (eds T. Dittrich, P. H€anggi, G-.L. Ingold, B. Kramer, G. Sch€on, and W. Zwerger), Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.
146. van Houten, H., Beenakker, C.W.J., and Staring, A.A.M. (1991) Single Charge Tunneling, (NATO ASI Series B) (eds H. Grabert and M.H. Devoret), Plenum, New York.
147. Kouwenhoven, L.P., Marcus, C.M., McEuen, P.L., Tarucha, S., Westervelt, R.M., and Wingreen, N.S. (1997) Mesoscopic Electron Transport, (NATO ASI Series E) (eds L.L. Sohn and L.P. Kouwenhoven), Kluwer, Dordrecht.
148. Kastner, M.A. (1993) Phys. Today, 24-31.
149. Ashoori, R.C. (1996) Nature, 379, 413-419.
150. Reichl, L.E. (1998) A Modern Course in Statistical Physics, 2nd edn, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
151. Geerligs, L.J., Anderegg, V.F., Holweg, P.A.M., Mooij, J.E., Pothier, H., Esteve, D., Urbina, C., and Devoret, M.H. (1990) Phys. Rev. Lett., 64, 2691.
152. Keller, M.W., Martinis, J.M., Zimmerman, N.M., and Steinbach, A.H. (1996) Appl. Phys. Lett., 69, 1804.
153. Keller, M.W., Martinis, J.M., and Kautz, R.L. (1998) Phys. Rev. Lett., 80, 4313.
154. Keller, M.W., Eichenberger, A.L., Martinis, J.M., and Zimmerman, N.M. (1999) Science, 285, 1706.
155. Tucker, J.R. (1992) J. Appl. Phys., 72, 4399.
156. Chen, R.H., Korotkov, A.N., and Likharev, K.K. (1996) Appl. Phys. Lett., 68, 1954.
157. Amlani, I., Orlov, A.O., Toth, G., Bernstein, G.H., Lent, C.S., and Snider, G.L. (1999) Science, 284, 289.
158. Likharev, K.K. (1999) Proc. IEEE, 87, 606.
159. Chen, C.D., Nakamura, Y., and Tsai, J.S. (1997) Appl. Phys. Lett., 71, 2038.
160. Visscher, E.H., Lindeman, J., Verbrugh, S.M., Hadley, P., and Mooij, J.E. (1996) Appl. Phys. Lett., 68, 2014.
161. Krupenin, V.A., Presnov, D.E., Scherer, H., Zorin, A.B., and Niemeyer, J. (1998) J. Appl. Phys., 84, 3212.
162. Starmark, B., Henning, T., Claeson, T., Delsing, P., and Korotkov, A.N. (1999) J. Appl. Phys., 86, 2132.
163. Schoelkopf, R.P., Wahlgren, P., Kozhevnikov, A.A., Delsing, P., and Prober, D.E. (1998) Science, 280, 1238-1242.
164. Wei, Y.Y., Weis, J., Klitzing, K.v., and Eberl, K. (1998) Phys. Rev. Lett., 77, 1674.
165. Koltonyuk, M., Berman, D., Zhitenev, N.B., Ashoori, R.C., Pfeiffer, L.N., and West, K.W. (1999) Appl. Phys. Lett., 74, 555.
166. Yoo, M.J., Fulton, T.A., Hess, H.F., Willett, R.L., Dunkleberger, L.N., Chichester, R.J., Pfeiffer, L.N., and West, K.W. (1997) Science, 276, 579-582.
167. Komiyama, S., Astafiev, O., Antonov, V., Kutsuwa, T., and Hirai, H. (2000) Nature, 403, 405.
168. Devoret, M.H. and Schoelkopf, R. (2000) Nature, 406, 1039-1046.
169. Nielsen, M.A. and Chuang, I.L. (2000) Quantum Computation and Quantum Information,Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
170. Loss, D. and Di Vincenzo, D.P. (1998) Phys. Rev. A, 57, 120.
171. Bayer, M., Hawrylak, P., Hinzer, K., Fafard, S., Korkusinski, M., Wasilewski, Z.R., Stern, O., and Forchel, A. (2001) Science, 291, 451-453.
172. Holleitner, A.W., Blick, R.H., H€uttel, A.K., Eberl, K., and Kotthaus, J.P. (2002) Science, 297, 70.