Bioreactivity of the crystalline silica polymorphs, quartz and cristobalite, and implications for occupational exposure limits (OELs)

Critical Reviews in Toxicology

Volumn 43, Issue 8, 2013, Pages 632-660

  Mossman, Brooke T ^a   Glenn, Robert E ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b Glenn Consulting Group   (United States)

Author keywords

Cell; Cell cultures; Epidemiology; Inhalation; Mineralogy; Pneumoconiosis; signaling; Silicosis; Surface reactivity; Toxicity; Workplace standards

Indexed keywords

ANTIOXIDANT; CRYOPYRIN; CXCL3 CHEMOKINE; CYCLIN D1; CYCLIN DEPENDENT KINASE 4; I KAPPA B KINASE ALPHA; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; INFUSORIAL EARTH; INTERLEUKIN 1BETA; INTERLEUKIN 6; INTERLEUKIN 8; KERATINOCYTE DERIVED CHEMOKINE; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE P38; MONOCYTE CHEMOTACTIC PROTEIN 1; NITRIC OXIDE; PHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOL 3 KINASE; PROTEIN C JUN; PROTEIN FOS; PROTEIN KINASE B; PROTEIN KINASE C ALPHA; PROTEIN KINASE C EPSILON; PROTEIN P53; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; SILICON DIOXIDE; STRESS ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE; STRESS ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE 1; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR AP 1; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY; ASPIRATION; CELL CULTURE; CELL DEATH; CELL MEMBRANE; CELL NUCLEUS MEMBRANE; CELLULAR STRESS RESPONSE; COCULTURE; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; DRUG INSTILLATION; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; FIBROGENESIS; FOLLOW UP; GENE EXPRESSION; GOVERNMENT; HUMAN; INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE; INHALATION; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION; INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING; ITALY; LUNG CANCER; LUNG INJURY; MEDICAL LITERATURE; MINER; MINING; NONHUMAN; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE LIMIT; OCCUPATIONAL HAZARD; OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY; OCCUPATIONAL TOXICOLOGY; PEER REVIEW; PNEUMONIA; PROTECTION; PROTEIN PHOSPHORYLATION; REVIEW; SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE; SILICOSIS; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY; UNITED STATES; WORKPLACE;

ANIMALS; CELLS, CULTURED; CRYSTALLIZATION; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; HUMANS; INHALATION EXPOSURE; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; QUARTZ; RISK ASSESSMENT; SILICON DIOXIDE; SILICOSIS; THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES; UNITED STATES; UNITED STATES OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION; WORKPLACE;

EID: 84883378501     PISSN: 10408444     EISSN: 15476898     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2013.818617     Document Type: Review

References (190)

1. ACGIH. (1946). Proceedings of the 8th Annual Meeting. Chicago, IL: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
2. ACGIH. (1957). Threshold limit values for 1957. Adopted at the 13th Annual Meeting of ACGIH. St. Louis, MO: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
3. ACGIH. (1960). Threshold limit values for chemical substances in the work environment. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
4. ACGIH. (1961). Threshold Limit Values for 1961. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 22:32-8.
5. ACGIH. (1972). Threshold limit values for chemical substances in the work environment. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
6. ACGIH. (1986). Threshold limit values for chemical substances in the work environment. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
7. ATS. (1997). Adverse effects of crystalline silica exposure. American Thoracic Society Committee of the Scientific Assembly on Environmental and Occupational Health. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 155:761-8.
8. Absher M, Sjostrand M, Baldor LC, et al. (1993). Patterns of secretion of transforming growth factor-alpha (TGF-alpha) in experimental silicosis. Acute and subacute effects of cristobalite exposure in the rat. Reg Immunol 5:225-31.
9. Absher MP, Trombley L, Hemenway DR, et al. (1989). Biphasic cellular and tissue response of rat lungs after eight-day aerosol exposure to the silicon dioxide cristobalite. Am J Pathol 134:1243-51.
10. Albrecht C, Borm PJ, Adolf B, et al. (2002). In vitro and in vivo activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases by coal dusts and quartz silica. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 184:37-45.
11. Amabile JC, Leuraud K, Vacquier B, et al. (2009). Multifactorial study of the risk of lung cancer among French uranium miners: Radon, smoking and silicosis. Health Phys 97:613-21.
12. Amandus H, Costello J. (1991). Silicosis and lung cancer in U.S. metal miners. Arch Environ Health 46:82-9.
13. Ashe HB, Bergstrom DE. (1964). Twenty-six years? experience with dust control in the Vermont granite industry. Ind Med Surg 33:73-8.
14. Askling J, Grunewald J, Eklund A, et al. (1999). Increased risk for cancer following sarcoidosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 160:1668-72.
15. Aubry MC, Myers JL, Douglas WW, et al. (2002). Primary pulmonary carcinoma in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Mayo Clin Proc 77:763-70.
16. Ayer HE. (1995). Origin of the US respirable mass silica standard. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 10:1027-30.
17. Beamer CA, Migliaccio CT, Jessop F, et al. (2010). Innate immune processes are sufficient for driving silicosis in mice. J Leukoc Biol 88: 547-57.
18. Berry G. (1996). Crystalline silica: Health impacts and possible lung cancer risks. J Occup Health Saf Aust NZ 12:157-68.
19. Berry G, Rogers A, Yeung P. (2004). Silicosis and lung cancer: A mortality study of compensated men with silicosis in New South Wales, Australia. Occup Med (Lond) 54:387-94.
20. Bin J, Bernatsky S, Gordon C, et al. (2007). Lung cancer in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lung Cancer 56:303-6.
21. Bjornadal L, Lofstrom B, Yin L, et al. (2002). Increased cancer incidence in a Swedish cohort of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Scand J Rheumatol 31:66-71.
22. Borm P, Brown T, Donaldson K, Rushton L. (2009). Review and hazard assessment of the health effects of respirable crystalline silica (RCS) exposure to inform classification and labelling under the global harmonised system: Overview report. Brussels Ed.: European Association of Industrial Silica Producers.
23. Bouros D, Hatzakis K, Labrakis H, Zeibecoglou K. (2002). Association of malignancy with diseases causing interstitial pulmonary changes. Chest 121:1278-89.
24. Brincker H, Wilbek E. (1974). [The incidence of malignant tumors in patients with sarcoidosis]. Ugeskr Laeger 136:2192-5.
25. Brown DM, Wilson MR, Macnee W, et al. (2001). Size-dependent proinflammatory effects of ultrafine polystyrene particles: A role for surface area and oxidative stress in the enhanced activity of ultrafines. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 175:191-9.
26. Brown JM, Swindle EJ, Kushnir-Sukhov NM, et al. (2007). Silicadirected mast cell activation is enhanced by scavenger receptors. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 36:43-52.
27. Carter JM, Driscoll KE. (2001). The role of inflammation, oxidative stress, and proliferation in silica-induced lung disease: A species comparison. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol 20 Suppl 1:33-43.
28. Cassel SL, Eisenbarth SC, Iyer SS, et al. (2008). The Nalp3 inflammasome is essential for the development of silicosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105:9035-40.
29. Castranova V, Porter D, Millecchia L, et al. (2002). Effect of inhaled crystalline silica in a rat model: Time course of pulmonary reactions. Mol Cell Biochem 234-235:177-84.
30. Castranova V, Vallyathan V. (2000). Silicosis and coal workers? pneumoconiosis. Environ Health Perspect 108 Suppl 4:675-84.
31. Checkoway H, Franzblau A. (2000). Is silicosis required for silicaassociated lung cancer? Am J Ind Med 37:252-9.
32. Chen W, Zhuang Z, Attfield MD, et al. (2001). Exposure to silica and silicosis among tin miners in China: Exposure-response analyses and risk assessment. Occup Environ Med 58:31-7.
33. Cherry N, Burgess G, Turner S, Mcdonald J. (1998). Crystalline silica and risk of lung cancer in the potteries. Occup Environ Med 55: 779-85.
34. Clouter A, Brown D, Hohr D, et al. (2001). Inflammatory effects of respirable quartz collected in workplaces versus standard DQ12 quartz: particle surface correlates. Toxicol Sci 63:90-8.
35. Cooper WC. (1970). Roentgenographic follow-up of workers in the diatomite industry. Presented at the American Industrial Hygiene Association Conference, May 14.
36. Cooper WC, Cralley LJ. (1958). Pneumoconiosis in diatomite mining and processing. US Public Health Service publication No. 601: US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Occupational Health Program.
37. Cooper WC, Jacobson G. (1977). A 21-year radiographic follow-up of workers in the diatomite industry. J Occup Med 19:563-6.
38. Cooper WC, Sargent EN. (1984). A 26-year radiographic follow-up of workers in a diatomite mine and mill. J Occup Med 26:456-60.
39. Costantini LM, Gilberti RM, Knecht DA. (2011). The phagocytosis and toxicity of amorphous silica. PLoS One 6:e14647.
40. Cox Jr LA. (2011). An exposure-response threshold for lung diseases and lung cancer caused by crystalline silica. Risk Anal 31: 1543-60.
41. Cralley L, Cooper W, Caplan P. A ten-year epidemiologic follow-up of workers in the diatomite industry in the United States. Proceedings of the 15th International Congress on Occupational Health, Vienna, 1966. 19-24.
42. Dalal NS, Shi XL, Vallyathan V. (1990). Role of free radicals in the mechanisms of hemolysis and lipid peroxidation by silica: Comparative ESR and cytotoxicity studies. J Toxicol Environ Health 29:307-316.
43. Davis GS, Holmes CE, Pfeiffer LM, Hemenway DR. (2001). Lymphocytes, lymphokines, and silicosis. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol 20:53-65.
44. Davis GS, Pfeiffer LM, Hemenway DR, Rincon M. (2006). Interleukin- 12 is not essential for silicosis in mice. Part Fibre Toxicol 3:2.
45. Davis MJ, Swanson JA. (2010). Technical advance: Caspase-1 activation and IL-1beta release correlate with the degree of lysosome damage, as illustrated by a novel imaging method to quantify phagolysosome damage. J Leukoc Biol 88:813-22.
46. de Klerk NH, Musk AW. (1998). Silica, compensated silicosis, and lung cancer in Western Australian goldminers. Occup Environ Med 55: 243-8.
47. Desaki M, Takizawa H, Kasama T, et al. (2000). Nuclear factor-kappa b activation in silica-induced interleukin 8 production by human bronchial epithelial cells. Cytokine 12:1257-60.
48. Deshpande A, Narayanan PK, Lehnert BE. (2002). Silica-induced generation of extracellular factor(s) increases reactive oxygen species in human bronchial epithelial cells. Toxicol Sci 67:275-83.
49. Ding M, Huang C, Lu Y, et al. (2006). Involvement of protein kinase C in crystalline silica-induced activation of the MAP kinase and AP-1 pathway. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 290:L291-7.
50. Ding M, Shi X, Lu Y, et al. (2001). Induction of activator protein-1 through reactive oxygen species by crystalline silica in JB6 cells. J Biol Chem 276:9108-14.
51. Dostert C, Petrilli V, Van Bruggen R, et al. (2008). Innate immune activation through Nalp3 inflammasome sensing of asbestos and silica. Science 320:674-7.
52. Driscoll KE. (1995). The toxicology of crystalline silica studied in vitro. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 10:1118-25.
53. Driscoll KE, Howard BW, Carter JM, et al. (2001). Mitochondrialderived oxidants and quartz activation of chemokine gene expression. Adv Exp Med Biol 500:489-96.
54. Driscoll KE, Lindenschmidt RC, Maurer JK, et al. (1990). Pulmonary response to silica or titanium dioxide: Inflammatory cells, alveolar macrophage-derived cytokines, and histopathology. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2:381-90.
55. Erren TC, Glende CB, Morfeld P, Piekarski C. (2009). Is exposure to silica associated with lung cancer in the absence of silicosis? A metaanalytical approach to an important public health question. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 82:997-1004.
56. Farhat SC, Silva CA, Orione MA, et al. (2011). Air pollution in autoimmune rheumatic diseases: A review. Autoimmun Rev 11:14-21.
57. Fenoglio I, Prandi L, Tomatis M, Fubini B. (2001). Free radical generation in the toxicity of inhaled mineral particles: The role of iron speciation at the surface of asbestos and silica. Redox Rep 6:235-41.
58. Finkelstein MM. (2000). Silica, silicosis, and lung cancer: A risk assessment. Am J Ind Med 38:8-18.
59. Forastiere F, Lagorio S, Michelozzi P, et al. (1986). Silica, silicosis and lung cancer among ceramic workers: A case-referent study. Am J Ind Med 10:363-70.
60. Fubini B, Zanetti G, Altilia S, et al. (1999). Relationship between surface properties and cellular responses to crystalline silica: Studies with heat-treated cristobalite. Chem Res Toxicol 12:737-45.
61. Fulton WB, Butters FE, Dooley AE, et al. (1941). A study of silicosis in the silica brick industry. Harrisburg, PA: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Department of Health, Bureau of Industrial Hygiene.
62. Gambelli F, Di P, Niu X, et al. (2004). Phosphorylation of tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (p55) protects macrophages from silica-induced apoptosis. J Biol Chem 279:2020-9.
63. Gao HS, Rong X, Peng D, et al. (2011). Cross-talk of the related bioactivity mediators in serum after injection of soluble TNF-alpha receptor on silicosis model of rats. Toxicol Ind Health 27:607-16.
64. Ghiazza M, Scherbart AM, Fenoglio I, et al. (2011). Surface iron inhibits quartz-induced cytotoxic and inflammatory responses in alveolar macrophages. Chem Res Toxicol 24:99-110.
65. Gibbs GW, Pauley C. (2003). Cristobalite contents of airborne respirable dust in the diatomaceous earth industry in California. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 18:805-7.
66. Goldsmith DF. (1998). Uses of workers? compensation data in epidemiology research. Occup Med 13:389-415.
67. Graham WG, Ashikaga T, Hemenway D, et al. (1991). Radiographic abnormalities in Vermont granite workers exposed to low levels of granite dust. Chest 100:1507-14.
68. Graham WG, Vacek PM, Morgan WK, et al. (2001). Radiographic abnormalities in long-tenure Vermont granite workers and the permissible exposure limit for crystalline silica. J Occup Environ Med 43:412-17.
69. Greim H. (1999). Silica, crystalline: Quartz dust, cristobalite dust and tridymite dust (respirable fraction). Weinheim: The MAK Collection for Occupational Health and Safety: Verlag Wiley-VCH.
70. Greim H. (2000). Occupational toxicants: Critical data evaluation for MAK values and classification of carcinogens. Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. Kommission zur Pru?fung Gesundheitsscha?dlicher Arbeitsstoffe: John Wiley & Sons.
71. Guthrie Jr. GD,, Heaney PJ. (1995). Mineralogical characteristics of silica polymorphs in relation to their biological activities. Scand J Work Environ Health 21:5-8.
72. HSE. (2002). Respirable crystalline silica-phase 1. Variability in fibrogenic potency and exposureresponse relationships for silicosis. Suffolk, Sudbury, UK: Health & Safety Executive.
73. HSE. (2003). Respirable crystalline silica-phase 2. Carcinogenicity. Hazard Assessment. Suffolk, Sudbury, UK: Health & Safety Executive, 1-66.
74. Haberzettl P, Schins RP, Hohr D, et al. (2008). Impact of the FcgammaIIreceptor on quartz uptake and inflammatory response by alveolar macrophages. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 294:L1137-48.
75. Hayashi H, Miura Y, Maeda M, et al. (2010). Reductive alteration of the regulatory function of the CD4(?)CD25(?) T cell fraction in silicosis patients. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 23:1099-109.
76. Hemenway DR, Absher MP, Trombley L, Vacek PM. (1990). Comparative clearance of quartz and cristobalite from the lung. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 51:363-9.
77. Herseth JI, Volden V, Schwarze PE, et al. (2008). IL-1beta differently involved in IL-8 and FGF-2 release in crystalline silica-treated lung cell co-cultures. Part Fibre Toxicol 5:16.
78. Hessel PA, Gamble JF, Nicolich M. (2003). Relationship between silicosis and smoking. Scand J Work Environ Health 29:329-36.
79. Hetland RB, Schwarze PE, Johansen BV, et al. (2001). Silica-induced cytokine release from A549 cells: Importance of surface area versus size. Hum Exp Toxicol 20:46-55.
80. Hill CL, Nguyen AM, Roder D, Roberts-Thomson P. (2003). Risk of cancer in patients with scleroderma: A population based cohort study. Ann Rheum Dis 62:728-31.
81. Hnizdo E, Sluis-Cremer GK. (1993). Risk of silicosis in a cohort of white South African gold miners. Am J Ind Med 24:447-457.
82. Holley JA, Janssen YM, Mossman BT, Taatjes DJ. (1992). Increased manganese superoxide dismutase protein in type II epithelial cells of rat lungs after inhalation of crocidolite asbestos or cristobalite silica. Am J Pathol 141:475-85.
83. Horwell CJ, Williamson BJ, Donaldson K, et al. (2012). The structure of volcanic cristobalite in relation to its toxicity; relevance for the variable crystalline silica hazard. Part Fibre Toxicol 9:44.
84. Hosey AD, Trasko VM, Ashe HB, et al. (1957). Control of silicosis in Vermont granite industry. Washington, DC: US Department of health, Eduication and Welfare, Public, Health Service.
85. Housley DG, Berube KA, Jones TP, et al. (2002). Pulmonary epithelial response in the rat lung to instilled Montserrat respirable dusts and their major mineral components. Occup Environ Med 59:466-72.
86. Hughes JM, Weill H, Checkoway H, et al. (1998). Radiographic evidence of silicosis risk in the diatomaceous earth industry. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 158:807-14.
87. IARC. (1987). Silica and some silicates. International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization.
88. IARC. (1997). Silica, some silicates, coal dust and para-aramid fibrils. International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization.
89. IARC. (2011). Arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts. International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization.
90. ILSI. (2000). The relevance of the rat lung response to particle overload for human risk assessment: A workshop consensus report. ILSI Risk Science Institute Workshop Participants. Inhal. Toxicol. 12:1-17.
91. Janssen YM, Marsh JP, Absher MP, et al. (1992). Expression of antioxidant enzymes in rat lungs after inhalation of asbestos or silica. J Biol Chem 267:10625-30.
92. Janssen YM, Marsh JP, Driscoll KE, et al. (1994). Increased expression of manganese-containing superoxide dismutase in rat lungs after inhalation of inflammatory and fibrogenic minerals. Free Radic Biol Med 16:315-22.
93. Jia X, Liu B, Shi X, et al. (2011). Roles of the ERK, JNK/AP-1/cyclin D1-CDK4 pathway in silica-induced cell cycle changes in human embryo lung fibroblast cells. Cell Biol Int 35:697-704.
94. Jia X, Liu B, Ye M, et al. (2010). Silica induces cell cycle changes through PI-3K/AP-1 pathway in human embryo lung fibroblast cells. Cell Biochem Funct 28:613-19.
95. Johnston CJ, Driscoll KE, Finkelstein JN, et al. (2000). Pulmonary chemokine and mutagenic responses in rats after subchronic inhalation of amorphous and crystalline silica. Toxicol Sci 56: 405-13.
96. Kadey Jr FL. (1975). Diatomite. In: Lefond, SJ, ed. Industrial Minerals and Rocks. New York: American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers, 605-35.
97. Kang JL, Lee HS, Pack IS, et al. (2003). Phosphoinositide 3-kinase activity leads to silica-induced NF-kappaB activation through interacting with tyrosine-phosphorylated I(kappa)B-alpha and contributing to tyrosine phosphorylation of p65 NF-kappaB. Mol Cell Biochem 248:17-24.
98. Kang JL, Lee K, Castranova V. (2000a). Nitric oxide up-regulates DNA-binding activity of nuclear factor-kappaB in macrophages stimulated with silica and inflammatory stimulants. Mol Cell Biochem 215:1-9.
99. Kang JL, Pack IS, Hong SM, et al. (2000b). Silica induces nuclear factorkappa B activation through tyrosine phosphorylation of I kappa B-alpha in RAW264.7 macrophages. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 169: 59-65.
100. Kang KY, Yim HW, Kim IJ, et al. (2009). Incidence of cancer among patients with systemic sclerosis in Korea: Results from a single centre. Scand J Rheumatol 38:299-303.
101. Khurana R, Wolf R, Berney S, et al. (2008). Risk of development of lung cancer is increased in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: A large case control study in US veterans. J Rheumatol 35:1704-8.
102. King EJ, Mohanty GP, Harrison CV, Nagelschmidt G. (1953). The action of different forms of pure silica on the lungs of rats. Br J Ind Med 10: 9-17.
103. Kreiss K, Zhen B. (1996). Risk of silicosis in a Colorado mining community. Am J Ind Med 30:529-39.
104. Kurihara N, Wada O. (2004). Silicosis and smoking strongly increase lung cancer risk in silica-exposed workers. Ind Health 42:303-14.
105. Kuroda E, Ishii KJ, Uematsu S, et al. (2011). Silica crystals and aluminum salts regulate the production of prostaglandin in macrophages via NALP3 inflammasome-independent mechanisms. Immunity 34:514-26.
106. Lacasse Y, Martin S, Gagne D, Lakhal L. (2009). Dose-response meta-analysis of silica and lung cancer. Cancer Causes Control 20: 925-33.
107. Lacasse Y, Martin S, Simard S, Desmeules M. (2005). Meta-analysis of silicosis and lung cancer. Scand J Work Environ Health 31:450-8.
108. Langley RJ, Kalra R, Mishra NC, et al. (2004). A biphasic response to silica: I. Immunostimulation is restricted to the early stage of silicosis in lewis rats. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 30:823-9.
109. Langley RJ, Mishra NC, Pena-Philippides JC, et al. (2010). Granuloma formation induced by low-dose chronic silica inhalation is associated with an anti-apoptotic response in Lewis rats. J Toxicol Environ Health A 73:669-83.
110. Langley RJ, Mishra NC, Pena-Philippides JC, et al. (2011). Fibrogenic and redox-related but not proinflammatory genes are upregulated in Lewis rat model of chronic silicosis. J Toxicol Environ Health A 74: 1261-79.
111. Le Jeune I, Gribbin J, West J, et al. (2007). The incidence of cancer in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and sarcoidosis in the UK. Respir Med 101:2534-40.
112. Lee S, Hayashi H, Maeda M, et al. (2012). Environmental factors producing autoimmune dysregulation-chronic activation of T cells caused by silica exposure. Immunobiology 217:743-8.
113. Legge RT, Rosencrantz E. (1932). Observations and studies on silicosis by diatomaceous silica. Am J Public Health 22:1055-60.
114. Leung CC, Yu IT, Chen W. (2012). Silicosis. Lancet 379:2008-18.
115. Liu F, Liu J, Weng D, Chen Y, et al. (2010). CD4?CD25?Foxp3? regulatory T cells depletion may attenuate the development of silicainduced lung fibrosis in mice. PLoS One 5:e15404.
116. Love RG, Waclawski ER, Maclaren WM, et al. (1994). Cross-sectional study of risks of respiratory disease in relation to exposures of airborne quartz in the heavy clay industry. IOM Report TM/94/07.
117. Love RG, Waclawski ER, Maclaren WM, et al. (1999). Risks of respiratory disease in the heavy clay industry. Occup Environ Med 56: 124-33.
118. Marinaccio A, Scarselli A, Gorini G, et al. (2006). Retrospective mortality cohort study of Italian workers compensated for silicosis. Occup Environ Med 63:762-5.
119. Mastrangelo G, Zambon P, Simonato L, Rizzi P. (1988). A case-referent study investigating the relationship between exposure to silica dust and lung cancer. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 60:299-302.
120. McDonald C. (1995). Silica, silicosis, and lung cancer: An epidemiological update. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 10:1056-63.
121. Mehnert WH, Staneczek W, Mohner M, et al. (1990). A mortality study of a cohort of slate quarry workers in the German Democratic Republic. IARC Sci Publ 97:55-64.
122. Mellemkjaer L, Linet MS, Gridley G, et al. (1996). Rheumatoid arthritis and cancer risk. Eur J Cancer 32A:1753-7.
123. Meyer JD, Islam SS, Ducatman AM, Mccunney RJ. (1997). Prevalence of small lung opacities in populations unexposed to dusts. A literature analysis. Chest 111:404-10.
124. Migliaccio CT, Buford MC, Jessop F, Holian A. (2008). The IL-4Ralpha pathway in macrophages and its potential role in silica-induced pulmonary fibrosis. J Leukoc Biol 83:630-9.
125. Miller BG, Hagen S, Love RG, et al. (1995). A follow-up study of coalminers exposed to unusual concentrations of quartz. IOM Report TM/95/03.
126. Monteiller C, Tran L, Macnee W, et al. (2007). The pro-inflammatory effects of low-toxicity low-solubility particles, nanoparticles and fine particles, on epithelial cells in vitro: The role of surface area. Occup Environ Med 64:609-15.
127. Mossman BT, Lippmann M, Hesterberg TW, et al. (2011). Pulmonary endpoints (lung carcinomas and asbestosis) following inhalation exposure to asbestos. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev 14:76-121.
128. Muir DC, Julian JA, Shannon HS, et al. (1989b). Silica exposure and silicosis among Ontario hardrock miners: III. Analysis and risk estimates. Am J Ind Med 16:29-43.
129. Muir DC, Shannon HS, Julian JA, et al. (1989a). Silica exposure and silicosis among Ontario hardrock miners: I. Methodology. Am J Ind Med 16:5-11.
130. N.I.O.S.H. (1974). Criteria for a recommended standard: Occupational exposure to crystalline silica. Cincinnati, OH: DHEW Publication No. 75-120.
131. NIOSH. (1977). Review, summarization, and evaluation of literature to support the update and revision of criteria documents. X. Silica. Syracuse Research Corporation: Contract No. 210-76-0167.
132. NIOSH. (1980). Update of the literature: Crystalline silica. US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control.
133. NIOSH. (2002). Hazard review: Health effects of occupational exposure to respirable crystalline silica. Cincinnati, OH: DHHS Publication No. 2002-129.
134. Nagai A, Chiyotani A, Nakadate T, Konno K. (1992). Lung cancer in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Tohoku J Exp Med 167: 231-7.
135. Ng TP, Chan SL. (1994). Quantitative relations between silica exposure and development of radiological small opacities in granite workers. Ann Occup Hyg 38:857-63.
136. Oberdorster G. (2002). Toxicokinetics and effects of fibrous and nonfibrous particles. Inhal Toxicol 14:29-56.
137. Otsuki T, Hayashi H, Nishimura Y, et al. (2011). Dysregulation of autoimmunity caused by silica exposure and alteration of Fasmediated apoptosis in T lymphocytes derived from silicosis patients. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 24:11S-16S.
138. Ovrevik J, Lag M, Schwarze P, Refsnes M. (2004). p38 and Src-ERK1/2 pathways regulate crystalline silica-induced chemokine release in pulmonary epithelial cells. Toxicol Sci 81:480-90.
139. Ovrevik J, Myran T, Refsnes M, et al. (2005). Mineral particles of varying composition induce differential chemokine release from epithelial lung cells: Importance of physico-chemical characteristics. Ann Occup Hyg 49:219-31.
140. Parikh-Patel A, White RH, Allen M, Cress R. (2008). Cancer risk in a cohort of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in California. Cancer Causes Control 19:887-94.
141. Parikh-Patel A, White RH, Allen M, Cress R. (2009). Risk of cancer among rheumatoid arthritis patients in California. Cancer Causes Control 20:1001-10.
142. Park J, Kim DS, Shim TS, et al. (2001). Lung cancer in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Eur Respir J 17:1216-19.
143. Peeters PM, Perkins TN, Wouters EF, et al. (2013). Silica induces NLRP3 inflammasome activation in human lung epithelial cells. Part Fibre Toxicol 10:3.
144. Pelucchi C, Pira E, Piolatto G, et al. (2006). Occupational silica exposure and lung cancer risk: A review of epidemiological studies 1996-2005. Ann Oncol 17:1039-50.
145. Perkins TN, Shukla A, Peeters PM, et al. (2012). Differences in gene expression and cytokine production by crystalline vs. amorphous silica in human lung epithelial cells. Part Fibre Toxicol 9:6.
146. Pilkington A, Maclaren W, Searl A, et al. (1995). Scientific opinion on the health effects of airborne crystalline silica. IOM Report TM/95/08.
147. Porter DW, Barger M, Robinson VA, et al. (2002a). Comparison of low doses of aged and freshly fractured silica on pulmonary inflammation and damage in the rat. Toxicology 175:63-71.
148. Porter DW, Hubbs AF, Mercer R, et al. (2004). Progression of lung inflammation and damage in rats after cessation of silica inhalation. Toxicol Sci 79:370-80.
149. Porter DW, Millecchia LL, Willard P, et al. (2006). Nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species production causes progressive damage in rats after cessation of silica inhalation. Toxicol Sci 90:188-97.
150. Porter DW, Ramsey D, Hubbs AF, et al. (2001). Time course of pulmonary response of rats to inhalation of crystalline silica: Histological results and biochemical indices of damage, lipidosis, and fibrosis. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol 20:1-14.
151. Porter DW, Ye J, Ma J, et al. (2002b). Time course of pulmonary response of rats to inhalation of crystalline silica: NF-kappa B activation, inflammation, cytokine production, and damage. Inhal Toxicol 14:349-67.
152. Rabolli V, Lo Re S, Uwambayinema F, et al. (2011). Lung fibrosis induced by crystalline silica particles is uncoupled from lung inflammation in NMRI mice. Toxicol Lett 203:127-34.
153. Ramsey-Goldman R, Mattai SA, et al. (1998). Increased risk of malignancy in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Investig Med 46:217-22.
154. Rao KM, Porter DW, Meighan T, Castranova V. (2004). The sources of inflammatory mediators in the lung after silica exposure. Environ Health Perspect 112:1679-86.
155. Riteau N, Baron L, Villeret B, et al. (2012). ATP release and purinergic signaling: A common pathway for particle-mediated inflammasome activation. Cell Death Dis 3:e403.
156. Rosenman KD, Reilly MJ, Rice C, et al. (1996). Silicosis among foundry workers. Implication for the need to revise the OSHA standard. Am J Epidemiol 144:890-900.
157. Rosenthal AK, Mclaughlin JK, Gridley G, Nyren O. (1995). Incidence of cancer among patients with systemic sclerosis. Cancer 76:910-14.
158. Roursgaard M, Jensen KA, Poulsen SS, et al. (2011). Acute and subchronic airway inflammation after intratracheal instillation of quartz and titanium dioxide agglomerates in mice. ScientificWorldJournal 11:801-25.
159. Roursgaard M, Poulsen SS, Poulsen LK, et al. (2010). Time-response relationship of nano and micro particle induced lung inflammation. Quartz as reference compound. Hum Exp Toxicol 29:915-33.
160. Russell AE. (1941) The Health of Workers in Dusty Trades. VII. Restudy of a Group of Granite Workers. Pub. Health Bull. No. 269. Federal Security Agency, US Public Health Service.
161. Russell AE, Britten RH, Thompson LR, Bloomfield JJ. (1929). The Health of Workers in Dusty Trades. II. Exposure to Siliceous Dust (Granite Industry). Public Health bulletin No 187. US Treasury Dept, Public Health Service.
162. SCOEL. (2002). Recommendation from the scientific committee on occupational exposure limits for silica, crystalline (respirable dust). SCOEL/SUM/94-final.
163. Sato T, Shimosato T, Alvord WG, Klinman DM. (2008). Suppressive oligodeoxynucleotides inhibit silica-induced pulmonary inflammation. J Immunol 180:7648-54.
164. Scabilloni JF, Wang L, Antonini JM, et al. (2005). Matrix metalloproteinase induction in fibrosis and fibrotic nodule formation due to silica inhalation. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 288: L709-17.
165. Seixas NS, Heyer NJ, Welp EA, Checkoway H. (1997). Quantification of historical dust exposures in the diatomaceous earth industry. Ann Occup Hyg 41:591-604.
166. Shimbori C, Shiota N, Okunishi H. (2010). Involvement of leukotrienes in the pathogenesis of silica-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice. Exp Lung Res 36:292-301.
167. Shimbori C, Shiota N, Okunishi H. (2012). Pranlukast, a cysteinyl leukotriene type 1 receptor antagonist, attenuates the progression but not the onset of silica-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 158:241-51.
168. Shukla A, Timblin CR, Hubbard AK, et al. (2001). Silica-induced activation of c-Jun-NH2-terminal amino kinases, protracted expression of the activator protein-1 proto-oncogene, fra-1, and Sphase alterations are mediated via oxidative stress. Cancer Res 61: 1791-5.
169. Silicosis and Silicate Disease Committee. (1988). Diseases associated with exposure to silica and nonfibrous silicate minerals. Silicosis and Silicate Disease Committee. Arch Pathol Lab Med 112:673-720.
170. Smart RH, Anderson WM. (1952). Pneumoconiosis due to diatomaceous earth; clinical and x-ray aspects. Ind Med Surg 21:509-18.
171. Smitten AL, Simon TA, Hochberg MC, Suissa S. (2008). A metaanalysis of the incidence of malignancy in adult patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Res Ther 10:R45.
172. Spigno F, Mortara V, Vitto V, et al. (2007). Lung cancer in subjects suffering from silicosis in the Province of Genoa from 1979 to 2004. G Ital Med Lav Ergon 29:898-902.
173. Steenland K, Brown D. (1995). Silicosis among gold miners: Exposure- response analyses and risk assessment. Am J Public Health 85: 1372-7.
174. Steenland K, Stayner L. (1997). Silica, asbestos, man-made mineral fibers, and cancer. Cancer Causes Control 8:491-503.
175. Takayanagi N, Tokunaga D, Tsuchiya Y, et al. (2008). [Lung cancer associated with rheumatoid arthritis and usual interstitial pneumonia]. Nihon Kokyuki Gakkai Zasshi 46:438-42.
176. Thakur SA, Hamilton Jr. R,, Pikkarainen T, Holian A. (2009). Differential binding of inorganic particles to MARCO. Toxicol Sci 107:238-46.
177. Thomas E, Brewster DH, Black RJ, Macfarlane GJ. (2000). Risk of malignancy among patients with rheumatic conditions. Int J Cancer 88:497-502.
178. Tsuda T, Mino Y, Babazono A, et al. (2002). A case-control study of lung cancer in relation to silica exposure and silicosis in a rural area in Japan. Ann Epidemiol 12:288-94.
179. Verma DK, Sebestyen A, Julian JA, et al. (1989). Silica exposure and silicosis among Ontario hard rock miners: II. Exposure estimates. Am J Ind Med 16:13-18.
180. Vigliani EC, Mottura G. (1948). Diatomaceous earth silicosis. Br J Ind Med 5:148-160.
181. Wagner WD, Fraser DA, Wright PG, et al. (1968). Experimental evaluation of the threshold limit of cristobalite-calcined diatomaceous earth. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 29:211-21.
182. Wang L, Bowman L, Lu Y, et al. (2005). Essential role of p53 in silicainduced apoptosis. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 288: L488-96.
183. Warheit DB. (2001). Inhaled amorphous silica particulates: What do we know about their toxicological profiles? J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol 20:133-41.
184. Weill H, Mcdonald JC. (1996). Exposure to crystalline silica and risk of lung cancer: The epidemiological evidence. Thorax 51:97-102.
185. Winkelmann RK, Flach DB, Unni KK. (1988). Lung cancer and scleroderma. Arch Dermatol Res 280:S15-18.
186. Yamada T, Nakajima A, Inoue E, et al. (2011). Incidence of malignancy in Japanese patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatol Int 31: 1487-92.
187. Yamaguchi M, Odaka M, Hosoda Y, et al. (1991). Excess death of lung cancer among sarcoidosis patients. Sarcoidosis 8:51-5.
188. Yang HZ, Wang JP, Mi S, et al. (2012). TLR4 activity is required in the resolution of pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis after acute and chronic lung injury. Am J Pathol 180:275-92.
189. Zeidler PC, Roberts JR, Castranova V, et al. (2003). Response of alveolar macrophages from inducible nitric oxide synthase knockout or wildtype mice to an in vitro lipopolysaccharide or silica exposure. J Toxicol Environ Health A 66:995-1013.
190. Zhang DD, Hartsky MA, Warheit DB. (2002). Time course of quartz and TiO(2) particle-induced pulmonary inflammation and neutrophil apoptotic responses in rats. Exp Lung Res 28:641-70.