Resistance to β-Lactam Antibiotics

Staphylococci in Human Disease: Second Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 170-192

  Berger Bächi, Brigitte ^a   Senn, Maria Magdalena ^a   Ender, Miriam ^a   Seidl, Kati ^a   Hübscher, Judith ^a   Schulthess, Bettina ^a   Heusser, Roni ^a   Stutzmann Meier, Patricia ^a   Mccallum, Nadine ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ZURICH   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

lactam resistance in Staphylococcus aureus; Antimicrobial resistance in staphylococci; Chromosomal genes modulating methicillin resistance; Heterogeneity of methicillin resistance; Mechanism of lactam action; Penicillinases; Regulation of mecA transcription; Resistance to lactam antibiotics; Surface adherence and methicillin resistance; Teichoic acid synthesis and murein hydrolase activity modulation

Indexed keywords

EID: 77954357893     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781444308464.ch8     Document Type: Chapter

References (228)

1. Levin BR, Rozen DE. Non-inherited antibiotic resistance. Nat Rev Microbiol 2006;4:556-62.
2. de Lencastre H, Sa Figueiredo AM, Urban C, Rahal J, Tomasz A. Multiple mechanisms of methicillin resistance and improved methods for detection in clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1991;35:632-9.
3. Chambers HF. The changing epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus? Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:178-82.
4. Livermore DM. Antibiotic resistance in staphylococci. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2001;16(suppl 1):3-10.
5. Robinson DA, Kearns AM, Holmes A et al. Re-emergence of early pandemic Staphylococcus aureus as a community-acquired meticillin-resistant clone. Lancet 2005;365:1256-8.
6. Dyke KGH, Richmond MH. Occurrence of various types of penicillinase plasmid among "hospital" staphylococci. J Clin Pathol 1967;20:75-9.
7. Rowland SJ, Dyke KG. Characterization of the staphylococcal beta-lactamase transposon Tn552. EMBO J 1989;8:2761-73.
8. Jevons MP, Coe AW, Parker MT. Methicillin resistance in staphylococci. Lancet 1963;i:904-7.
9. Chambers HF. Community-associated MRSA: resistance and virulence converge. N Engl J Med 2005;352:1485-7.
10. Huang YH, Tseng SP, Hu JM, Tsai JC, Hsueh PR, Teng LJ. Clonal spread of SCCmec type IV methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus between community and hospital. Clin Microbiol Infect 2007;13:717-24.
11. Deurenberg RH, Vink C, Kalenic S, Friedrich AW, Bruggeman CA, Stobberingh EE. The molecular evolution of methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Microbiol Infect 2007; 13:222-35.
12. Goffin C, Ghuysen J-M. Multimodular penicillin-binding proteins: an enigmatic family of orthologs and paralogs. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 1998;62:1079-93.
13. Giesbrecht P, Kersten T, Maidhof H, Wecke J. Staphylococcal cell wall: morphogenesis and fatal variations in the presence of penicillin. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 1998;62:1371-414.
14. Maidhof H, Johannsen L, Labischinski H, Giesbrecht P. Onset of penicillin-induced bacteriolysis in staphylococci is cell cycle dependent. J Bacteriol 1989;171:2252 -7.
15. Kuroda H, Kuroda M, Cui L, Hiramatsu K. Subinhibitory concentrations of beta-lactam induce haemolytic activity in Staphylococcus aureus through the SaeRS two-component system. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2007;268:98-105.
16. Ohlsen K, Ziebuhr W, Koller K-P, Hell W, Wichelhaus TA, Hacker J. Effects of subinhibitory concentrations of antibiotics on alpha-toxin (hla) gene expression of methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998;42:2817-23.
17. Utaida S, Dunman PM, Macapagal D et al. Genome-wide transcriptional profiling of the response of Staphylococcus aureus to cell-wall-active antibiotics reveals a cell-wall-stress stimulon. Microbiology 2003;149:2719-32.
18. McCallum N, Spehar G, Bischoff M, Berger-Bachi B. Strain dependence of the cell wall-damage induced stimulon in Staphylococcus aureus. Biochim Biophys Acta 2006;1760:1475- 81.
19. Kuroda M, Kuroda H, Oshima T, Takeuchi F, Mori H, Hiramatsu K. Two-component system VraSR positively modulates the regulation of cell-wall biosynthesis pathway in Staphylococcus aureus. Mol Microbiol 2003;49:807-21.
20. Yin S, Daum RS, Boyle-Vavra S. VraSR two-component regulatory system and its role in induction of pbp2 and vraSR expression by cell wall antimicrobials in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006;50:336-43.
21. Maiques E, Ubeda C, Campoy S et al. Beta-lactam antibiotics induce the SOS response and horizontal transfer of virulence factors in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 2006;188:2726-9.
22. Ida T, Okamoto R, Nonoyama M, Irinoda K, Kurazono M, Inoue M. Antagonism between aminoglycosides and betalactams in a methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolate involves induction of an aminoglycoside-modifying enzyme. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002;46:1516-21.
23. Nielsen J, Lampen J. Membrane-bound penicillinases in Grampositive bacteria. J Biol Chem 1982;257:4490-5.
24. Greenway DL, Dyke KG. The effect of membrane-bound betalactamase on linoleic acid sensitivity in Staphylococcus aureus. J Gen Microbiol 1983;129:2457-65.
25. Safo MK, Zhao Q, Ko T-P et al. Crystal structures of the BlaI repressor from Staphylococcus aureus and its complex with DNA: insights into transcriptional regulation of the bla and mec operons. J Bacteriol 2005;187:1833-44.
26. Wilke MS, Hills TL, Zhang H-Z, Chambers HF, Strynadka NCJ. Crystal structures of the apo and penicillin-acylated forms of the BlaR1 beta-lactam sensor of Staphylococcus aureus. J Biol Chem 2004;279:47278-87.
27. Birck C, Cha JY, Cross J et al. X-ray crystal structure of the acylated beta-lactam sensor domain of BlaR1 from Staphylococcus aureus and the mechanism of receptor activation for signal transduction. J Am Chem Soc 2004;126:13945-7.
28. Fuda C, Fisher JF, Mobashery S. Beta-lactam resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: the adaptive resistance of a plastic genome. Cell Mol Life Sci 2005;62:2617-33.
29. Zhang HZ, Hackbarth CJ, Chansky KM, Chambers HF. A proteolytic transmembrane signaling pathway and resistance to beta-lactams in staphylococci. Science 2001;291:1962-5.
30. Golemi-Kotra D, Cha JY, Meroueh SO, Vakulenko SB, Mobashery S. Resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics and its mediation by the sensor domain of the transmembrane BlaR signaling pathway in Staphylococcus aureus. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:18419-25.
31. Thumanu K, Cha J, Fisher JF, Perrins R, Mobashery S, Wharton C. Discrete steps in sensing of beta-lactam antibiotics by the BlaR1 protein of the methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacterium. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006;103:10630-5.
32. Cohen S, Sweeney HM. Constitutive penicillinase formation in Staphylococcus aureus owing to a mutation unlinked to the penicillinase plasmid. J Bacteriol 1968;95:1368-74.
33. Cohen S, Vernon EG, Sweeney HM. Differential depression of staphylococcal plasmid and chromosomal penicillinase genes by a class of unlinked chromosomal mutations (R2-). J Bacteriol 1970;103:616-21.
34. Pucci MJ, Dougherty TJ. Direct quantitation of the numbers of individual penicillin-binding proteins per cell in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 2002;184:588-91.
35. Wada A, Watanabe H. Penicillin-binding protein 1 of Staphylococcus aureus is essential for growth. J Bacteriol 1998;180:2759-65.
36. Pereira SFF, Henriques AO, Pinho MG, de Lencastre H, Tomasz A. Role of PBP1 in cell division of Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 2007;189:3525-31.
37. Lovering AL, de Castro LH, Lim D, Strynadka NCJ. Structural insight into the transglycosylation step of bacterial cell-wall biosynthesis. Science 2007;315:1402-5.
38. Wyke AW, Ward JB, Hayes MV, Curtis NA. A role in vivo for penicillin-binding protein-4 of Staphylococcus aureus. Eur J Biochem 1981;119:389-93.
39. Katayama Y, Zhang H-Z, Hong D, Chambers HF. Jumping the barrier to beta-lactam resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 2003;185:5465-72.
40. Pinho MG, de Lencastre H, Tomasz A. Cloning, characterization, and inactivation of the gene pbpC, encoding penicillinbinding protein 3 of Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 2000; 182:1074-9.
41. Scheffers D-J, Pinho MG. Bacterial cell wall synthesis: new insights from localization studies. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2005;69:585-607.
42. Hiramatsu K, Cui L, Kuroda M, Ito T. The emergence and evolution of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Trends Microbiol 2001;9:486-93.
43. de Lencastre H, Chung M, Westh H. Archaic strains of methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus: molecular and microbiological properties of isolates from 1960 in Denmark. Microb Drug Resist 2000;6:1-10.
44. Robinson DA, Enright MC. Multilocus sequence typing and the evolution of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Microbiol Infect 2004;10:92-7.
45. Ryffel C, Bucher R, Kayser FH, Berger-Bachi B. The Staphylococcus aureus mec determinant comprises an unusual cluster of direct repeats and codes for a gene product similar to the Escherichia coli sn-glycerophosphoryl diester phosphodiesterase. J Bacteriol 1991;173:7416-22.
46. Kondo Y, Ito T, Ma XX et al. Combination of multiplex PCRs for staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec type assignment: rapid identification system for mec, ccr, and major differences in junkyard regions. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007;51:264-74.
47. Enright MC, Robinson DA, Randle G, Feil EJ, Grundmann H, Spratt BG. The evolutionary history of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002; 99:7687-92.
48. Chongtrakool P, Ito T, Ma XX et al. Staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) typing of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated in 11 Asian countries: a proposal for a new nomenclature for SCCmec elements. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006;50:1001-12.
49. Trees DL, Iandolo JJ. Identification of a Staphylococcus aureus transposon (Tn4291) that carries the methicillin resistance gene(s). J Bacteriol 1988;170:149-54.
50. Qi W, Ender M, O'Brien F et al. Molecular epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Zurich, Switzerland (2003): prevalence of type IV SCCmec and a new SCCmec element associated with isolates from intravenous drug users. J Clin Microbiol 2005;43:5164-70.
51. Heusser R, Ender M, Berger-Bachi B, McCallum N. Mosaic staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec containing two recombinase loci and a new mec-complex, B2. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007;51:390-3.
52. Stephens AJ, Huygens F, Giffard PM. Systematic derivation of marker sets for staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec typing. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007;51:2954-64.
53. Deplano A, Tassios PT, Glupczynski Y, Godfroid E, Struelens MJ. In vivo deletion of the methicillin resistance mec region from the chromosome of Staphylococcus aureus strains. J Antimicrob Chemother 2000;46:617-20.
54. Reipert A, Ehlert K, Kast T, Bierbaum G. Morphological and genetic differences in two isogenic Staphylococcus aureus strains with decreased susceptibilities to vancomycin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003;47:568-76.
55. Adhikari RP, Scales GC, Kobayashi K, Smith JMB, Berger- Bachi B, Cook GM. Vancomycin-induced deletion of the methicillin resistance gene mecA in Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004;54:360-3.
56. Wada A, Katayama Y, Hiramatsu K, Yokota T. Southern hybridization analysis of the mecA deletion from methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus. Biochem Biophy Res Commun 1991;176:1319-25.
57. Miragaia M, Couto I, de Lencastre H. Genetic diversity among methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis (MRSE). Microb Drug Res 2005;11:83-93.
58. Miragaia M, Thomas JC, Couto I, Enright MC, de Lencastre H. Inferring a population structure for Staphylococcus epidermidis from multilocus sequence typing data. J Bacteriol 2007;189: 2540-52.
59. Suzuki E, Kuwahara-Arai K, Richardson JF, Hiramatsu K. Distribution of mec regulator genes in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus clinical strains. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993;37:1219-26.
60. Archer GL, Niemeyer DM. Origin and evolution of DNA associated with resistance to methicillin in staphylococci. Trends Microbiol 1994;2:343-7.
61. Hanssen A-M, Kjeldsen G, Sollid JUE. Local variants of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec in sporadic methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci: evidence of horizontal gene transfer? Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004;48:285-96.
62. Hanssen A-M, Ericson Sollid JU. SCCmec in staphylococci: genes on the move. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2006;46:8-20.
63. Song MD, Wachi M, Doi M, Ishino F, Matsuhashi M. Evolution of an inducible penicillin-target protein in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by gene fusion. FEBS Lett 1987;221:167-71.
64. Marrero A, Mallorqui-Fernandez G, Guevara T, Garcia- Castellanos R, Gomis-Ruth FX. Unbound and acylated structures of the MecR1 extracellular antibiotic-sensor domain provide insights into the signal-transduction system that triggers methicillin resistance. J Mol Biol 2006;361:506-21.
65. Ryffel C, Kayser FH, Berger-Bachi B. Correlation between regulation of mecA transcription and expression of methicillin resistance in staphylococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992;36:25-31.
66. Cha J, Vakulenko SB, Mobashery S. Characterization of the beta-lactam antibotic sensor domain of the MecR1 signal sensor/ transducer in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Biochemistry 2007;46:7822-31.
67. McKinney TK, Sharma VK, Craig WA, Archer GL. Transcription of the gene mediating methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus (mecA) is corepressed but not coinduced by cognate mecA and beta-lactamase regulators. J Bacteriol 2001; 183:6862-8.
68. Hiramatsu K, Suzuki E, Takayama H, Katayama Y, Yokota T. Role of penicillinase plasmids in the stability of the mecA gene in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1990;34:600-4.
69. Rosato AE, Kreiswirth BN, Craig WA, Eisner W, Climo MW, Archer GL. mecA-blaZ corepressors in clinical Staphylococcus aureus isolates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003;47:1460- 3.
70. Schnellmann C, Gerber V, Rossano A et al. Presence of new mecA and mph(C) variants conferring antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus spp. isolated from the skin of horses before and after clinic admission. J Clin Microbiol 2006;44:4444-54.
71. Couto I, de Lencastre H, Severina E et al. Ubiquitous presence of a mecA homologue in natural isolates of Staphylococcus sciuri. Microb Drug Resist 1996;2:377-91.
72. Fuda C, Suvorov M, Shi Q, Hesek D, Lee M, Mobashery S. Shared functional attributes between the mecA gene product of Staphylococcus sciuri and penicillin-binding protein 2a of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Biochemistry 2007; 46:8050-7.
73. Severin A, Wu SW, Tabei K, Tomasz A. High-level beta-lactam resistance and cell wall synthesis catalyzed by the mecA homologue of Staphylococcus sciuri introduced into Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 2005;187:6651-8.
74. Wu SW, de Lencastre H, Tomasz A. Recruitment of the mecA gene homologue of Staphylococcus sciuri into a resistance determinant and expression of the resistant phenotype in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 2001;183:2417-24.
75. Wu S, de Lencastre H, Tomasz A. Genetic organization of the mecA region in methicillin-susceptible and methicillin-resistant strains of Staphylococcus sciuri. J Bacteriol 1998;180:236-42.
76. Lim D, Strynadka NCJ. Structural basis for the beta-lactam resistance of PBP2a from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Nat Struct Biol 2002;9:870-6.
77. Fuda C, Suvorov M, Vakulenko SB, Mobashery S. The basis for resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics by penicillin-binding protein 2a of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Biol Chem 2004;279:40802-6.
78. Lu W-P, Sun Y, Bauer MD, Paule S, Koenigs PM, Kraft WG. Penicillin-binding protein 2a from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: kinetic characterization of its interactions with beta-lactams using electrospray mass spectrometry. Biochemistry 1999;38:6537-46.
79. Fuda C, Hesek D, Lee M, Morio K-I, Nowak T, Mobashery S. Activation for catalysis of penicillin-binding protein 2a from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by bacterial cell wall. J Am Chem Soc 2005;127:2056-7.
80. Pinho MG, de Lencastre H, Tomasz A. An acquired and a native penicillin-binding protein cooperate in building the cell wall of drug-resistant staphylococci. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98:10886-91.
81. Pinho MG, Filipe SR, de Lencastre H, Tomasz A. Complementation of the essential peptidoglycan transpeptidase function of penicillin-binding protein 2 (PBP2) by the drug resistance protein PBP2A in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 2001;183:6525- 31.
82. Pinho MG, Errington J. Recruitment of penicillin-binding protein PBP2 to the division site of Staphylococcus aureus is dependent on its transpeptidation substrates. Mol Microbiol 2005;55:799-807.
83. Gardete S, de Lencastre H, Tomasz A. A link in transcription between the native pbpB and the acquired mecA gene in a strain of Staphylococcus aureus. Microbiology 2006;152:2549-58.
84. Cohen S, Sweeney HM. Effect of the prophage and penicillinase plasmid of the recipient strain upon the transduction and the stability of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 1973;116:803-11.
85. Stewart GC, Rosenblum ED. Transduction of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: recipient effectiveness and beta-lactamase production. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1980;18:424-32.
86. Beck WD, Berger-Bachi B, Kayser FH. Additional DNA in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and molecular cloning of mec-specific DNA. J Bacteriol 1986;165:373-8.
87. de Jonge B, Chang Y, Gage D, Tomasz A. Peptidoglycan composition of a highly methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strain. The role of penicillin binding protein 2A. J Biol Chem 1992;267:11248-54.
88. Katayama Y, Robinson DA, Enright MC, Chambers HF. Genetic background affects stability of mecA in Staphylococcus aureus. J Clin Microbiol 2005;43:2380-3.
89. Christensen GD, Baddour LM, Madison BM et al. Colonial morphology of staphylococci on Memphis agar: phase variation of slime porduction, resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics, and virulence. J Infect Dis 1990;161:1153-69.
90. Mack D, Sabottke A, Dobinsky S, Rohde H, Horstkotte MA, Knobloch JK-M. Differential expression of methicillin resistance by different biofilm-negative Staphylococcus epidermidis transposon mutant classes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002;46:178-83.
91. Hososaka Y, Hanaki H, Endo H et al. Characterization of oxacillin-susceptible mecA-positive Staphylococcus aureus: a new type of MRSA. J Infect Chemother 2007;13:79-86.
92. Witte W, Pasemann B, Cuny C. Detection of low-level oxacillin resistance in mecA-positive Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Microbiol Infect 2007;13:408-12.
93. de Lencastre H, Figueiredo AM, Tomasz A. Genetic control of population structure in heterogeneous strains of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1993;12(suppl 1):S13-S18.
94. Traber K, Novick R. A slipped-mispairing mutation in agrA of laboratory strains and clinical isolates results in delayed activation of agr and failure to translate delta- and alphahaemolysins. Mol Microbiol 2006;59:1519-30.
95. Ryffel C, Strassle A, Kayser FH, Berger-Bachi B. Mechanisms of heteroresistance in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1994;38:724-8.
96. Ender M, McCallum N, Berger-Bächi B. Impact of mecA promoter mutations on mecA expression and ß-lactam resistance levels. Int J Med Microbiol 2008;298:607-17.
97. de Lencastre H, de Jonge BL, Matthews PR, Tomasz A. Molecular aspects of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother 1994;33:7-24.
98. Madiraju MV, Brunner DP, Wilkinson BJ. Effects of temperature, NaCl, and methicillin on penicillin-binding proteins, growth, peptidoglycan synthesis, and autolysis in methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1987;31:1727-33.
99. Brown DFJ, Kothari D. The reliability of methicillin sensitivity tests on four culture media. J Clin Pathol 1974;27:420-6.
100. Ender M, McCallum N, Adhikari R, Berger-Bachi B. Fitness cost of SCCmec and methicillin resistance levels in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004;48:2295-7.
101. Lee SM, Ender M, Adhikari R, Smith JMB, Berger-Bachi B, Cook GM. Fitness cost of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by way of continuous culture. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007;51: 1497-9.
102. Berger-Bachi B, Strassle A, Gustafson JE, Kayser FH. Mapping and characterization of multiple chromosomal factors involved in methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992;36:1367-73.
103. de Lencastre H, Wu SW, Pinho MG et al. Antibiotic resistance as a stress response: complete sequencing of a large number of chromosomal loci in Staphylococcus aureus strain COL that impact on the expression of resistance to oxacillin. Microb Drug Resist 1999;5:163-75.
104. de Lencastre H, Tomasz A. Reassessment of the number of auxiliary genes essential for expression of high-level methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1994;38:2590-8.
105. Suzuki J, Komatsuzawa H, Sugai M et al. Effects of various types of Triton X on the susceptibilities of methicillin-resistant staphylococci to oxacillin. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1997;153:327- 31.
106. Jolly L, Wu S, van Heijenoort J, de Lencastre H, Mengin- Lecreulx D, Tomasz A. The femR315 gene from Staphylococcus aureus, the interruption of which results in reduced methicillin resistance, encodes a phosphoglucosamine mutase. J Bacteriol 1997;179:5321-5.
107. Roos MHH. Das Murein von Staphylococcus aureus. Untersuchung des Einflusses von Antibiotikaresistenzdeterminanten auf die Feinstruktur des Peptidoglycan von Staphylococcus aureus. Thesis, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany, 1995.
108. Glanzmann P, Gustafson J, Komatsuzawa H, Ohta K, Berger- Bachi B. glmM operon and methicillin-resistant glmM suppressor mutants in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999;43:240-5.
109. Komatsuzawa H, Fujiwara T, Nishi H et al. The gate controlling cell wall synthesis in Staphylococcus aureus. Mol Microbiol 2004;53:1221-31.
110. Komatsuzawa H, Ohta K, Sugai M et al. Tn551-mediated insertional inactivation of the fmtB gene encoding a cell wall-associated protein abolishes methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother 2000;45:421-31.
111. Wu SW, de Lencastre H. Mrp: a new auxiliary gene essential for optimal expression of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Microb Drug Resist 1999;5:9-18.
112. Gill SR, Fouts DE, Archer GL et al. Insights on evolution of virulence and resistance from the complete genome analysis of an early methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strain and a biofilm-producing methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis strain. J Bacteriol 2005;187:2426-38.
113. Gardete S, Ludovice AM, Sobral RG, Filipe SR, de Lencastre H, Tomasz A. Role of murE in the expression of beta-lactam antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 2004; 186:1705-13.
114. Sobral RG, Ludovice AM, Gardete S, Tabei K, de Lencastre H, Tomasz A. Normally functioning murF is essential for the optimal expression of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Microb Drug Resist 2003;9:231-41.
115. Mwangi MM, Wu SW, Zhou Y et al. Tracking the in vivo evolution of multidrug resistance in Staphylococcus aureus by wholegenome sequencing. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2007;104:9451-6.
116. Gustafson J, Strassle A, Hachler H, Kayser FH, Berger-Bachi B. The femC locus of Staphylococcus aureus required for methicillin resistance includes the glutamine synthetase operon. J Bacteriol 1994;176:1460-7.
117. Sinha RK, Neuhaus FC. Biosynthesis of peptidoglycan in Gaffkya homari: on the target(s) of benzylpenicillin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1991;35:1753-9.
118. Stranden A, Roos M, Berger-Bachi B. Glutamine snythetase and heteroresistance in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Microb Drug Resist 1996;2:201-7.
119. Mazmanian SK, Ton-That H, Schneewind O. Sortase-catalysed anchoring of surface proteins to the cell wall of Staphylococcus aureus. Mol Microbiol 2001;40:1049-57.
120. Hegde SS, Shrader TE. FemABX family members are novel nonribosomal peptidyltransferases and important pathogenspecific drug targets. J Biol Chem 2001;276:6998-7003.
121. Schneider T, Senn MM, Berger-Bachi B, Tossi A, Sahl H-G, Wiedemann I. In vitro assembly of a complete, pentaglycine interpeptide bridge containing cell wall precursor (lipid II-Gly5) of Staphylococcus aureus. Mol Microbiol 2004;53:675- 85.
122. Maidhof H, Reinicke B, Blumel P, Berger-Bachi B, Labischinski H. femA, which encodes a factor essential for expression of methicillin resistance, affects glycine content of peptidoglycan in methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus strains. J Bacteriol 1991;173:3507-13.
123. Henze U, Sidow T, Wecke J, Labischinski H, Berger-Bachi B. Influence of femB on methicillin resistance and peptidoglycan metabolism in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 1993;175:1612-20.
124. Stranden A, Ehlert K, Labischinski H, Berger-Bachi B. Cell wall monoglycine cross-bridges and methicillin hypersusceptibility in a femAB null mutant of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 1997;179:9-16.
125. Rohrer S, Ehlert K, Tschierske M, Labischinski H, Berger-Bachi B. The essential Staphylococcus aureus gene fmhB is involved in the first step of peptidoglycan pentaglycine interpeptide formation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999;96:9351-6.
126. Vetting MW, S. de Carvalho LP, Yu M et al. Structure and functions of the GNAT superfamily of acetyltransferases. Arch Biochem Biophys 2005;433:212-26.
127. Ling B, Berger-Bachi B. Increased overall antibiotic susceptibility in Staphylococcus aureus femAB null mutants. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998;42:936-8.
128. Xiong YL, Fan XJ, Zhang L et al. Study on the correlation between resistance phaenotype and expression level of femA of Staphylococcus aureus. Sichuan Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban 2007;38:268-71.
129. Terrak M, Nguyen-Disteche M. Kinetic characterization of the monofunctional glycosyltransferase from Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 2006;188:2528-32.
130. Barrett D, Leimkuhler C, Chen L, Walker D, Kahne D, Walker S. Kinetic characterization of the glycosyltransferase module of Staphylococcus aureus PBP2. J Bacteriol 2005;187:2215-17.
131. Leski TA, Tomasz A. Role of penicillin-binding protein 2 (PBP2) in the antibiotic susceptibility and cell wall cross-linking of Staphylococcus aureus: evidence for the cooperative functioning of PBP2, PBP4, and PBP2A. J Bacteriol 2005;187:1815-24.
132. Katayama Y, Zhang H-Z, Chambers HF. Effect of disruption of Staphylococcus aureus PBP4 gene on resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. Microb Drug Resist 2003;9:329-36.
133. Memmi G, Filipe SR, Pinho MG, Fu Z, Cheung A. Staphylococcus aureus PBP4 is essential for ß-lactam resistance in communityacquired methicillin-resistant strains. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008;52:3955-66.
134. Yamada S, Sugai M, Komatsuzawa H et al. An autolysin ring associated with cell separation of Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 1996;178:1565-71.
135. Giesbrecht P, Labischinski H, Wecke J. A special morphogenetic defect and the subsequent activity of "murososmes" as the very reason for penicillin-induced bacteriolysis. Arch Microbiol 1985;141:315-24.
136. Sugai M, Yamada S, Nakashima S et al. Localized perforation of the cell wall by a major autolysin: atl gene products and the onset of penicillin-induced lysis of Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 1997;179:2958-62.
137. Oshida T, Tomasz A. Isolation and characterization of a Tn551-autolysis mutant of Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 1992;174:4952-9.
138. Takahashi J, Komatsuzawa H, Yamada S et al. Molecular characterization of an atl null mutant of Staphylococcus aureus. Microbiol Immunol 2002;46:601-12.
139. Fujimura T, Murakami K. Increase of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus caused by deletion of a gene whose product is homologous to lytic enzymes. J Bacteriol 1997;179:6294-301.
140. Fujimura T, Murakami K. Staphylococcus aureus clinical isolate with high-level methicillin resistance with an lytH mutation caused by IS1182 insertion. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008;52:643-7.
141. Patton TG, Yang S-J, Bayles KW. The role of proton motive force in expression of the Staphylococcus aureus cid and lrg operons. Mol Microbiol 2006;59:1395-404.
142. Brunskill E, Bayles K. Identification and molecular characterization of a putative regulatory locus that affects autolysis in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 1996;178:611-18.
143. Bayles KW. The bactericidal action of penicillin: new clues to an unsolved mystery. Trends Microbiol 2000;8:274-8.
144. Rice KC, Firek BA, Nelson JB, Yang S-J, Patton TG, Bayles KW. The Staphylococcus aureus cidAB operon: evaluation of its role in regulation of murein hydrolase activity and penicillin tolerance. J Bacteriol 2003;185:2635-43.
145. Yang S-J, Dunman PM, Projan SJ, Bayles KW. Characterization of the Staphylococcus aureus CidR regulon: elucidation of a novel role for acetoin metabolism in cell death and lysis. Mol Microbiol 2006;60:458-68.
146. Neuhaus FC, Baddiley J. A continuum of anionic charge: structures and functions of d-alanyl-teichoic acids in Gram-positive bacteria. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2003;67:686-723.
147. Fischer W, Rosel P, Koch HU. Effect of alanine ester substitution and other structural features of lipoteichoic acids on their inhibitory activity against autolysins of Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 1981;146:467-75.
148. Koch HU, Doker R, Fischer W. Maintenance of d-alanine ester substitution of lipoteichoic acid by reesterification in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 1985;164:1211-17.
149. Nakao A, Imai S-I, Takano T. Transposon-mediated insertional mutagenesis of the d-alanyl-lipoteichoic acid (dlt) operon raises methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Res Microbiol 2000;151:823-9.
150. O'Brien MJ, Kuhl SA, Starzyk MJ. Correlation of teichoic acid d-alanyl esterification with the expression of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Microbios 1955;83:119-37.
151. Meehl M, Herbert S, Gotz F, Cheung A. Interaction of the GraRS two-component system with the VraFG ABC-transporter to support vancomycin-intermediate resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007;51:2679-89.
152. Cui L, Lian J-Q, Neoh H-M, Reyes E, Hiramatsu K. DNA microarray-based identification of genes associated with glycopeptide resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005;49:3404-13.
153. Komatsuzawa H, Ohta K, Labischinski H, Sugai M, Suginaka H. Characterization of fmtA, a gene that modulates the expression of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999;43:2121-5.
154. Fan X, Liu Y, Smith D, Konermann L, Siu KWM, Golemi-Kotra D. Diversity of penicillin-binding proteins: resistance factor FmtA of Staphylococcus aureus. J Biol Chem 2007;282:35143-52.
155. Tu Quoc PH, Genevaux P, Pajunen M et al. Isolation and characterization of biofilm formation-defective mutants of Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun 2007;75:1079-88.
156. Komatsuzawa H, Sugai M, Ohta K et al. Cloning and characterization of the fmt gene which affects the methicillin resistance level and autolysis in the presence of triton X-100 in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997;41:2355-61.
157. Weidenmaier C, Kokai-Kun JF, Kristian SA et al. Role of teichoic acids in Staphylococcus aureus nasal colonization, a major risk factor in nosocomial infections. Nat Med 2004;10:243-5.
158. Maki H, Yamaguchi T, Murakami K. Cloning and characterization of a gene affecting the methicillin resistance level and the autolysis rate in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 1994;176:4993-5000.
159. Maki H, Murakami K. Formation of potent hybrid promoters of the mutant llm gene by IS256 transposition in methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 1997;179:6944-8.
160. Novick RP. Autoinduction and signal transduction in the regulation of staphylococcal virulence. Mol Microbiol 2003; 48:1429-49.
161. Bischoff M, Dunman P, Kormanec J et al. Microarray-based analysis of the Staphylococcus aureus sigmaB regulon. J Bacteriol 2004;186:4085-99.
162. Pane-Farre J, Jonas B, Forstner K, Engelmann S, Hecker M. The sigmaB regulon in Staphylococcus aureus and its regulation. Int J Med Microbiol 2006;296:237-58.
163. Wu S, de Lencastre H, Tomasz A. Sigma-B, a putative operon encoding alternate sigma factor of Staphylococcus aureus RNA polymerase: molecular cloning and DNA sequencing. J Bacteriol 1996;178:6036-42.
164. Meier S, Goerke C, Wolz C et al. sigmaB and the sigmaBdependent arlRS and yabJ-spoVG loci affect capsule formation in Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun 2007;75:4562-71.
165. Schulthess B, Meier S, Homerova D et al. Functional characterization of the SigB-dependent yabJ-spoVG operon in Staphylococcus aureus: role in methicillin and glycopeptide resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009;53:1832-9.
166. Novick RP, Projan SJ, Kornblum J et al. The agr P2 operon: an autocatalytic sensory transduction system in Staphyoloccus aureus. Mol Gen Genet 1995;248:446-58.
167. Piriz Duran S, Kayser FH, Berger-Bachi B. Impact of sar and agr on methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1996;141:255-60.
168. Titgemeyer F, Hillen W. Global control of sugar metabolism: a Gram-positive solution. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 2002; 82:59-71.
169. Seidl K, Bischoff M, Berger-Bachi B. CcpA mediates the catabolite repression of tst in Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun 2008;76:5093-9.
170. Seidl K, Goerke C, Wolz C, Mack D, Berger-Bachi B, Bischoff M. Staphylococcus aureus CcpA affects biofilm formation. Infect Immun 2008;76:2044-50.
171. Seidl K, Stucki M, Ruegg M et al. Staphylococcus aureus CcpA affects virulence determinant production and antibiotic resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006;50:1183-94.
172. Gardete S, Wu SW, Gill S, Tomasz A. Role of VraSR in antibiotic resistance and antibiotic-induced stress response in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006;50:3424- 34.
173. Ender M, Berger-Bachi B, McCallum N. A novel DNA binding protein modulating methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. BMC Microbiol 2009;9:15.
174. Schrader-Fischer G, Berger-Bachi B. The AbcA transporter of Staphylococcus aureus affects cell autolysis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001;45:407-12.
175. Truong-Bolduc QC, Hooper DC. The transcriptional regulators NorG and MgrA modulate resistance to both quinolones and beta-lactams in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 2007;189:2996- 3005.
176. Kristiansen MM, Leandro C, Ordway D et al. Thioridazine reduces resistance of methicillin-resistant Stapyhlococcus aureus by inhibiting a reserpine-sensitive efflux pump. In Vivo 2006; 20:361-6.
177. Singh VK, Moskovitz J. Multiple methionine sulfoxide reductase genes in Staphylococcus aureus: expression of activity and roles in tolerance of oxidative stress. Microbiology 2003;149:2739-47.
178. Hübscher J, Lüthy L, Berger-Bachi B, Stutzmann Meier P. Phylogenetic distribution and membrane topology of the LytR-CpsA-Psr protein family. BMC Genomics 2008;9:617.
179. Hübscher J, McCallum N, Sifri CD et al. MsrR contributes to cell surface characteristics and virulence in Staphylococcus aureus. FEMS Microbiol Lett [in press].
180. Rossi J, Bischoff M, Wada A, Berger-Bachi B. MsrR, a putative cell envelope-associated element involved in Staphylococcus aureus sarA attenuation. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47:2558-64.
181. Kondo N, Kuwahara-Arai K, Kuroda-Murakami H, Tateda- Suzuki E, Hiramatsu K. Eagle-type methicillin resistance: new phenotype of high methicillin resistance under mec regulator gene control. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001;45:815-24.
182. McDougal LK, Thornsberry C. The role of beta-lactamase in staphylococcal resistance to penicillinase-resistant penicillins and cephalosporins. J Clin Microbiol 1986;23:832-9.
183. Massidda O, Montanari MP, Mingoia M, Varaldo P. Cloning and expression of the penicillinase from a borderline methicillin- susceptible Staphylococcus aureus in Escherichia coli. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1994;119:263-9.
184. Massidda O, Montanari M, Mingoia M, Varaldo P. Borderline methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus strains have more in common than reduced susceptibility to penicillinase-resistant penicillins. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996;40:2769-74.
185. Gal Z, Kovacs F, Herndi F et al. Investigation of oxacillinhydrolyzing beta-lactamase in borderline methicillin-resistant clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. Chemotherapy 2001; 47:233-8.
186. Barg N, Chambers H, Kernodle D. Borderline susceptibility to antistaphylococcal penicillins is not conferred exclusively by the hyperproduction of beta-lactamase. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1991;35:1975-9.
187. Massidda O, Mingoia M, Fadda D, Whalen MB, Montanari MP, Varaldo PE. Analysis of the beta-lactamase plasmid of borderline methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus: focus on bla complex genes and cadmium resistance determinants cadD and cadX. Plasmid 2006;55:114-27.
188. Tomasz A, Drugeon HB, de Lencastre HM, Jabes D, McDougall L, Bille J. New mechanism for methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: clinical isolates that lack the PBP 2a gene and contain normal penicillin-binding proteins with modified penicillin-binding capacity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1989;33:1869-74.
189. Hackbarth C, Kocagoz T, Kocagoz S, Chambers H. Point mutations in Staphylococcus aureus PBP 2 gene affect penicillinbinding kinetics and are associated with resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995;39:103-6.
190. Nadarajah J, Lee MJS, Louie L et al. Identification of different clonal complexes and diverse amino acid substitutions in penicillin-binding protein 2 (PBP2) associated with borderline oxacillin resistance in Canadian Staphylococcus aureus isolates. J Med Microbiol 2006;55:1675-83.
191. Berger-Bachi B, Strassle A, Kayser FH. Natural methicillin resistance in comparison with that selected by in-vitro drug exposure in Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother 1989;23:179-88.
192. Henze U, Berger-Bachi B. Penicillin-binding protein 4 overproduction increases beta-lactam resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996;40:2121-5.
193. Yoshida R, Kuwahara-Arai K, Baba T, Cui L, Richardson JF, Hiramatsu K. Physiological and molecular analysis of a mecAnegative Staphylococcus aureus clinical strain that expresses heterogeneous methicillin resistance. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003;51:247-55.
194. Vaudaux P, Francois P, Bisognano C et al. Increased expression of clumping factor and fibronectin-binding proteins by hemB mutants of Staphylococcus aureus expressing small colony variant phenotypes. Infect Immun 2002;70:5428-37.
195. Senn MM, Bischoff M, von Eiff C, Berger-Bachi B. sigma B activity in a Staphylococcus aureus hemB mutant. J Bacteriol 2005;187:7397-406.
196. Proctor RA, von Eiff C, Kahl BC et al. Small colony variants: a pathogenic form of bacteria that facilitates persistent and recurrent infections. Nat Rev Microbiol 2006;4:295-305.
197. Baumert N, von Eiff C, Schaaff F, Peters G, Proctor RA, Sahl H-G. Physiology and antibiotic susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus small colony variants. Microb Drug Resist 2002;8:253-60.
198. Looney WJ. Small-colony variants of Staphylococcus aureus. Br J Biomed Sci 2000;57:317-22.
199. Beenken KE, Dunman PM, McAleese F et al. Global gene expression in Staphylococcus aureus biofilms. J Bacteriol 2004; 186:4665-84.
200. Resch A, Rosenstein R, Nerz C, Gotz F. Differential gene expression profiling of Staphylococcus aureus cultivated under biofilm and planktonic conditions. Appl Environ Microbiol 2005;71:2663-76.
201. Resch A, Leicht S, Saric M et al. Comparative proteome analysis of Staphylococcus aureus biofilm and planktonic cells and correlation with transcriptome profiling. Proteomics 2006;6: 1867-77.
202. Saginur R, St Denis M, Ferris W et al. Multiple combination bactericidal testing of staphylococcal biofilms from implantassociated infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006;50:55- 61.
203. Hola V, Ruzicka F, Votava M. Differences in antibiotic susceptibility in biofilm-positive and biofilm-negative Staphylococcus epidermidis isolates. Epidemiol Mikrobiol Imunol 2004;53:66-9.
204. Fux CA, Wilson S, Stoodley P. Detachment characteristics and oxacillin resistance of Staphyloccocus aureus biofilm emboli in an in vitro catheter infection model. J Bacteriol 2004;186:4486- 91.
205. Williams I, Venables W, Lloyd D, Paul F, Critchley I. The effects of adherence to silicone surfaces on antibiotic susceptibility in Staphylococcus aureus. Microbiology 1997;143:2407-13.
206. Arciola CR, Campoccia D, Montanaro L. Effects on antibiotic resistance of Staphylococcus epidermidis following adhesion to polymethylmethacrylate and to silicone surfaces. Biomaterials 2002;23:1495-502.
207. O'Neill E, Pozzi C, Houston P et al. Association between methicillin susceptibility and biofilm regulation in Staphylococcus aureus isolates from device-related infections. J Clin Microbiol 2007;45:1379-88.
208. Mempel M, Feucht H, Ziebuhr W, Endres M, Laufs R, Gruter L. Lack of mecA transcription in slime-negative phase variants of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1994;38:1251- 5.
209. Mempel M, Muller E, Hoffmann R, Feucht H, Laufs R, Gruter L. Variable degree of slime production is linked to different levels of beta-lactam susceptibility in Staphylococcus epidermidis phase variants. Med Microbiol Immunol 1995;184:109-13.
210. Sieradzki K, Tomasz A. Gradual alterations in cell wall structure and metabolism in vancomycin-resistant mutants of Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 1999;181:7566-70.
211. Bhateja P, Purnapatre K, Dube S, Fatma T, Rattan A. Characterisation of laboratory-generated vancomycin intermediate resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2006;27:201-11.
212. Sieradzki K, Wu SW, Tomasz A. Inactivation of the methicillin resistance gene mecA in vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Microb Drug Resist 1999;5:253-7.
213. Naimi TS, Anderson D, O'Boyle C et al. Vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus with phenotypic susceptibility to methicillin in a patient with recurrent bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis 2003;36:1609-12.
214. Pfeltz RF, Singh VK, Schmidt JL et al. Characterization of passage-selected vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains of diverse parental backgrounds. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000;44:294-303.
215. Howden BP, Johnson PD, Ward PB, Stinear TP, Davies JK. Isolates with low-level vancomycin resistance associated with persistent methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006;50:3039-47.
216. Boyle-Vavra S, Carey RB, Daum RS. Development of vancomycin and lysostaphin resistance in a methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolate. J Antimicrob Chemother 2001; 48:617-25.
217. Severin A, Tabei K, Tenover F, Chung M, Clarke N, Tomasz A. High level oxacillin and vancomycin resistance and altered cell wall composition in Staphylococcus aureus carrying the staphylococcal mecA and the enterococcal vanA gene complex. J Biol Chem 2004;279:3398-407.
218. Weigel LM, Clewell DB, Gill SR et al. Genetic analysis of a highlevel vancomycin-resistant isolate of Staphylococcus aureus. Science 2003;302:1569-71.
219. Climo MW, Patron RL, Archer GL. Combinations of vancomycin and beta-lactams are synergistic against staphylococci with reduced susceptibilities to vancomycin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999;43:1747- 53.
220. Howe RA, Wootton M, Bennett PM, MacGowan AP, Walsh TR. Interactions between methicillin and vancomycin in methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains displaying different phenotypes of vancomycin susceptibility. J Clin Microbiol 1999;37:3068-71.
221. Groicher KH, Firek BA, Fujimoto DF, Bayles KW. The Staphylococcus aureus lrgAB operon modulates murein hydrolase activity and penicillin tolerance. J Bacteriol 2000;182:1794- 801.
222. Ingavale SS, Van Wamel W, Cheung AL. Characterization of RAT, an autolysis regulator in Staphylococcus aureus. Mol Microbiol 2003;48:1451-66.
223. Peschel A, Jack RW, Otto M et al. Staphylococcus aureus resistance to human defensins and evasion of neutrophil killing via the novel virulence factor MprF is based on modification of membrane lipids with l-lysine. J Exp Med 2001;193:1067- 76.
224. Staubitz P, Neumann H, Schneider T, Wiedemann I, Peschel A. MprF-mediated biosynthesis of lysylphosphatidylglycerol, an important determinant in staphylococcal defensin resistance. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2004;231:67-71.
225. Komatsuzawa H, Ohta K, Fujiwara T, Choi GH, Labischinski H, Sugai M. Cloning and sequencing of the gene, fmtC, which affects oxacillin resistance in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2001;203:49-54.
226. Berger-Bachi B, Barberis-Maino L, Strässle A, Kayser FH. FemA, a host-mediated factor essential for methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: moleuclar cloning and characterization. Mol Gen Genet 1989;219:263-9.
227. Boyle-Vavra S, Yin S, Daum RS. The VraS/VraR two-component regulatory system required for oxacillin resistance in communityacquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2006;262:163-71.
228. Manna AC, Ingavale SS, Maloney M, van Wamel W, Cheung AL. Identification of sarV (SA2062), a new transcriptional regulator, is repressed by SarA and MgrA (SA0641) and involved in the regulation of autolysis in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 2004;186:5267-80.