Targeting Parkinson's - Tyrosine hydroxylase and oxidative stress as points of interventions

CNS and Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets

Volumn 11, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 369-380

  Khan, Mohd Shahnawaz ^a   Tabrez, Shams ^b   Priyadarshini, Medha ^c   Priyamvada, Shubha ^d   Khan, Mohd M ^e  

^a KING SAUD UNIVERSITY   (Saudi Arabia)

^b KING ABDULAZIZ UNIVERSITY   (Saudi Arabia)

^c ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY   (India)

^d UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND BALTIMORE COUNTY   (United States)

Author keywords

Oxidative stress; Parkinson's disease; Phytochemicals; Tyrosine hydroxylase

Indexed keywords

ALPHA SYNUCLEIN; AMINE OXIDASE (FLAVIN CONTAINING) ISOENZYME B; AROMATIC LEVO AMINO ACID DECARBOXYLASE; CABERGOLINE; CATALASE; CURCUMIN; DJ 1 PROTEIN; DOPAMINE BETA MONOOXYGENASE; GLIAL CELL LINE DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; GLIAL FIBRILLARY ACIDIC PROTEIN; GLUTAMATE DECARBOXYLASE; GLUTATHIONE; GLUTATHIONE PEROXIDASE; IMMUNOLIPOSOME; INDUCIBLE NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; INTERLEUKIN 1BETA; INTERLEUKIN 6; LEVODOPA; MESSENGER RNA; MYELOPEROXIDASE; NEURTURIN; PARVOVIRUS VECTOR; REDUCED NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE; SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE; TRANSFERRIN RECEPTOR; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; TYROSINE 3 MONOOXYGENASE; UBIDECARENONE; WITHANIA SOMNIFERA EXTRACT; ZONISAMIDE;

ARTICLE; BONE MARROW CELL; BRAIN DEPTH STIMULATION; BRAIN TRANSPLANTATION; CELL THERAPY; DOPAMINE METABOLISM; DOPAMINERGIC NERVE CELL; DRUG EFFICACY; DYSKINESIA; ENZYME ACTIVITY; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION; GENE THERAPY; GENETIC ENGINEERING; HUMAN; LONG TERM CARE; LOSS OF FUNCTION MUTATION; MESENCHYMAL STROMA CELL; MOTOR PERFORMANCE; NERVE CELL CULTURE; NERVE CELL DEGENERATION; NITRATION; NITROSATIVE STRESS; NONHUMAN; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PARKINSON DISEASE; PROTEIN AGGREGATION; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; RISK FACTOR; RNA SPLICING; SUBSTANTIA NIGRA; SURGICAL APPROACH;

EID: 84862588042     PISSN: 18715273     EISSN: 19963181     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/187152712800792848     Document Type: Article

References (103)

1. Tufekci, K.U.; Genc, S.; Genc, K. The endotoxin-induced neuroinflammation model of Parkinson's disease. Parkinson's Dis., 2011, 487-450.
2. Sherwood, N.J.; Paternoster, R., Parkinson, J. An Essay on the Shaking Palsy. 1817.
3. Alves, G.; Forsaa, E.B.; Pedersen, K.F.; Dreetz Gjerstad, M.; Larsen, J.P. Epidemiology of Parkinson's disease. J. Neurol., 2008, 255(5), 18-32.
4. Thomas, B. Parkinson's disease: from molecular pathways in disease to therapeutic approaches. Antioxid. Redox Signal., 2009, 11(9), 2077-2082.
5. Thomas, B.; Beal, M.F. Parkinson's disease. Hum. Mol. Gen., 2007, 2, R183-R194.
6. Nagatsu, T.; Sawada, M. Biochemistry of postmortem brains in Parkinson's disease: historical overview and future prospects. J. Neural Transm., 2007, 72, 113-120.
7. Kobayashi, K.; Nagatsu, T. Molecular genetics of tyrosine 3-monooxygenase and inherited diseases. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 2005, 338(1), 267-270.
8. Zafeiriou, D.I.; Willemsen, M.A.; Verbeek, M.M.; Vargiami, E.; Ververi, A.; Wevers, R. Tyrosine hydroxylase deficiency with severe clinical course. Mol. Genet. Metab., 2009, 97(1), 18-20.
9. Braak, H.; Del Tredici, K.; Rub, U.; de Vos, R.A.; Jansen Steur, E.N.; Braak, E. Staging of brain pathology related to sporadic Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol. Aging, 2003, 24, 197-121.
10. Schupbach, W.M.; Maltete, D.; Houeto, J.L.; du Montcel, S.T.; Mallet, L.; Welter, M.L.; Gargiulo, M.; Béhar, C.; Bonnet, A.M.; Czernecki, V.; Pidoux, B.; Navarro, S.; Dormont, D.; Cornu, P.; Agid, Y. Neurosurgery at an earlier stage of Parkinson disease: a randomized, controlled trial. Neurology, 2007, 68(4), 267-271.
11. Feng, L.R.; Maguire-Zeiss, K.A. Gene therapy in parkinson's disease: rationale and current status. CNS Drugs, 2010, 24(3), 177-192.
12. Wang, S.; Qi, X.J.; Han, D. Effect of electroacupuncture scalppoint-through-point therapy on the expression of tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine transporter mRNAs in substantia nigra of Parkinson's disease model rats. Zhongguo Zhen Jiu, 2009, 29(5), 391-394.
13. Polanski, W.; Reichmann, H.; Gille, G. Stimulation, protection and regeneration of dopaminergic neurons by 9-methyl-β-carboline: a new anti-Parkinson drug? Expert Rev. Neurother., 2011, 11(6), 845-860.
14. Li, W.W.; Yang, R.; Cai, D.F. Protective effects of Cistanche total glycosides on dopaminergic neuron in substantia nigra of model mice of Parkinson's disease. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi, 2008, 28(3), 248-251.
15. Stork, O.; Hashimoto, T.; Obata, K. Increase of tyrosine hydroxylase and its mRNA in the rat substantia nigra pars reticulate by diazepam and picrotoxin. Neurosci. Res., 1994, 19(1), 73-80.
16. Yano, R.; Yokoyama, H.; Kuroiwa, H.; Kato, H.; Araki, T. A novel anti-Parkinsonian agent, zonisamide, attenuates MPTP-induced neurotoxicity in mice. J. Mol. Neurosci., 2009, 39(1-2), 211-219.
17. Murata, M. Therapy of Parkinson's disease--up to date. Rinsho Shinkeigaku, 2008, 48(11), 986-988.
18. Asanuma, M.; Miyazaki, I.; Diaz-Corrales, F.J.; Kimoto, N.; Kikkawa, Y.; Takeshima, M.; Miyoshi, K.; Murata, M. Neuroprotective effects of zonisamide target astrocyte. Ann. Neurol., 2010, 67(2), 239-249.
19. Halme, D.G.; Kessler, D.A. FDA regulation of stem-cell based therapies. New Engl. J. Med., 2006, 355, 1730-1735.
20. Levy, Y.S.; Stroomza, M.; Melamed, E.; Offen, D. Embryonic and adult stem cells as a source for cell therapy in Parkinson's disease. J. Mol. Neurosci., 2004, 24(3), 353-386.
21. Lindvall, O. Stem cells for cell therapy in Parkinson's disease. Pharmacol. Res., 2003, 47(4), 279-287.
22. Correia, A.S.; Anisimov, S.V.; Li, J.Y.; Brundin, P. Stem cellbased therapy for Parkinson's disease. Ann. Med., 2005, 37(7), 487-498.
23. Emborg, M.E.; Ebert, A.D.; Moirano, J.; Peng, S.; Suzuki, M.; Capowski, E.; Joers, V.; Roitberg, B.Z.; Aebischer, P.; Svendsen, C.N. GDNF-secreting human neural progenitor cells increase tyrosine hydroxylase and VMAT2 expression in MPTP treated cynomolgusmoneys. Cell Transplant., 2008, 17, 383-395.
24. Mandel, R.J.; Burger, C.; Snyder, R.O. Viral vectors for in vivo gene transfer in Parkinson's disease: properties and clinical grade production. Exp. Neurol., 2008, 209(1), 58-71.
25. Bueler, H. Adeno-associated viral vectors for gene transfer and gene therapy. Biol. Chem., 1999, 380(6), 613-622.
26. Jakobsson, J.; Lundberg, C. Lentiviral vectors for use in the central nervous system. Mol. Ther., 2006, 13(3), 484-493.
27. Bankiewicz, K.S.; Forsayeth, J.; Eberling, J.L.; Sanchez-Pernaute, R.; Pivirotto, P.; Bringas, J.; Herscovitch, P.; Carson, R.E.; Eckelman, W.; Reutter, B.; Cunningham, J. Longterm clinical improvement in MPTP-lesioned primates after gene therapy with AAV-hAADC. Mol. Ther., 2006, 14(4), 564-570.
28. Bankiewicz, K.S.; Eberling, J.L, Kohutnicka, M.; Jagust, W.; Pivirotto, P.; Bringas, J.; Cunningham, J.; Budinger, T.F.; Harvey-White, J. Convectionenhanced delivery of AAV vector inparkinsonian monkeys; in vivo detection of gene expression band restoration of dopaminergic function using pro-drug approach. Exp. Neurol., 2000, 164(1), 2-14.
29. Daadi, M.M.; Pivirotto, P.; Bringas, J.; Cunningham, J.; Forsayeth, J.; Eberling, J.; Bankiewicz, K.S. Distribution of AAV2-hAADCtransduced cells after 3 years in Parkinsonian monkeys. Neuroreport, 2006, 17(2), 201-204.
30. Luo, J.; Kaplitt, M.G.; Fitzsimons, H.L.; Zuzga, D.S.; Liu, Y.; Oshinsky, M.L.; During, M.J. Subthalamic GAD gene therapy in a Parkinson's disease rat model. Science, 2002, 298(5592), 425-429.
31. Barker, R.A. Continuing trials of GDNF in Parkinson's disease. Lancet Neurol., 2006, 5(4), 285-286.
32. Kotzbauer, P.T.; Lampe, P.A.; Heuckeroth, R.O.; Golden, J.P.; Creedon, D.J.; Johnson, E.M.; Milbrandt, J. Neurturin, a relative of glial-cell-line-derived neurotrophic factor. Nature, 1996, 384(6608), 467-470.
33. Bartus, R.T.; Herzog, C.D.; Bishop, K.; Ostrove, J.M.; Tuszynski, M.; Kordower, J.H.; Gasmi, M. Issues regarding gene therapy products for Parkinson's disease: the development of CERE-120 (AAV-NTN) as one reference point. Parkinsonism Relat. Disord., 2007, 13(Suppl 3), S469-S477.
34. Zhang, Y.; Calon, F.; Zhu, C.; Boado, R.J.; Pardridge, W.M. Intravenous nonviral gene therapy causes normalization of striatal tyrosine hydroxylase and reversal of motor impairment in experimental Parkinsonism. Hum. Gene Ther., 2003, 14(1), 1-12.
35. Beal, M.F. Mitochondria, oxidative damage, and inflammation in Parkinson's disease. Ann. NY Acad. Sci., 2003, 991, 120-131.
36. Jenner, P.; Olanow, C.W. Oxidative stress and the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Neurology, 1996, 47(6 Suppl 3), S161-S170.
37. Giasson, B.I.; Duda, J.E.; Murray, I.V.; Chen, Q.; Souza, J.M.; Hurtig, H.I.; Ischiropoulos, H.; Trojanowski, J.Q.; Lee, V.M. Oxidative damage linked to neurodegeneration by selective alphasynuclein nitration in synucleinopathy lesions. Science, 2000, 290(5493), 985-989.
38. Ostrerova-Golts, N.; Petrucelli, L.; Hardy, J.; Lee, J.M.; Farer, M.; Wolozin, B. The A53T alpha-synuclein mutation increases irondependent aggregation and toxicity. J. Neurosci., 2000, 20, 6048-6054.
39. Souza, J.M.; Giasson, B.I.; Chen, Q.; Lee, V.M.; Ischiropoulos, H. Dityrosine cross-linking promotes formation of stable alphasynuclein polymers. Implication of nitrative and oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative synucleinopathies. J. Biol. Chem., 2000, 275, 18344-1834.
40. Kones, R. Parkinson's disease: Mitochondrial molecular pathology, inflammation, statins, and therapeutic neuroprotective nutrition. Nutr. Clin. Pract., 2010, 25(4), 371-389.
41. Shults, C.W. Therapeutic role of coenzyme Q10 in Parkinson's disease. Pharmacol. Therap., 2005, 107, 120-130.
42. Przedborski, S.; Jackson-Lewis, V.; Naini, A.B.; Jakowec, M.; Petzinger, G.; Miller, R.; Akram, M. The parkinsonian toxin 1- methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP): a technical review of its utility and safety. J. Neurochem., 2001, 76(5), 1265-1274.
43. Przedborski, S.; Jackson-Lewis, V. Mechanisms of MPTP toxicity. Mov. Disord., 1998, 13(Suppl 1), 35-38.
44. Chung, Y.C.; Kim, S.R.; Park, J.Y.; Chung, E.S.; Park, K.W.; Won, S.Y.; Bok, E.; Jin, M.; Park, E.S.; Yoon, S.H.; Ko, H.W.; Kim, Y.S.; Jin, B.K. Fluoxetine prevents MPTP-induced loss of dopaminergic neurons by inhibiting micriglial activation. Neuropharmacology, 2011, 60(6), 963-974.
45. Huh, S.H.; Chung, Y.C.; Piao, Y.; Jin, M.Y.; Son, H.J.; Yoon, N.S.; Hong, J.Y.; Pak, Y.K.; Kim, Y.S.; Hong, J.K.; Hwang, O.; Jin, B.K. Ethyl pyruvate rescues nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons by regulating glial activation in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease. J. Immunol., 2011, 187(2), 960-969.
46. Chung, Y.C.; Kim, S.R.; Jin, B.K. Paroxetine Prevents loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons by inhibiting brain inflammation and oxidative stress in an experimental model of parkinson's disease. J. Immunol., 2010, 185, 1230-1237.
47. Choi, H.J.; Lee, S.Y.; Cho, Y.; No, H.; Kim, S.W.; Hwang, O. Tetrahydrobiopterin causes mitochondrial dysfunction in dopaminergic cells: Implications for parkinson's disease. Neurochem. Intl., 2006, 48, 255-262.
48. Liu, G.P.; Qiang, M.A.; Nian, S. Tyrosine hydroxylase as a target for deltamethrin in the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway. Biomed. Environ. Sci., 2006, 19, 27-34.
49. Datla, K.P.; Blunt, S.B.; Dexter, D.T. Chronic L-DOPA administration is not toxic to the remaining dopaminergic nigrostriatal neurons, but instead may promote their Functional recovery, in rats with partial 6-OHDA or FeCl3 nigrostriatal lesions. Movement Disord., 2001, 16(3), 424-434.
50. Olanow, C.W.; Jenner, P.; Beal, M.F. Cell death and neuroprotection in Parkinson's disease. Ann. Neurol., 1998, 44(Suppl.), S1-S196.
51. Muralikrishnan, D.; Mohanakumar, K.P. Neuroprotection by bromocriptine against 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-induced neurotoxicity in mice. FASEB J., 1998, 12(10), 905-912.
52. +-induced oxidative stress. Oxidat. Med. Cell. Longevity, 2008, 1(1), 54-62.
53. Haavik, J.; Almås, B.; Flatmark, T. Generation of reactive oxygen species by tyrosine hydroxylase: a possible contribution to the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons? J. Neurochem., 1997, 68, 328-332.
54. Haavik, J.; Toska, K. Tyrosine hydroxylase and Parkinson's disease. Mol. Neurobiol., 1998, 16, 285-309.
55. Alcaraz-Zubeldia, M.; Boll-Woehrlen, M.C.; Montes-López, S.; Pérez-Severiano, F.; Martínez-Lazcano, J.C.; Díaz-Ruiz, A.; Ríos, C. Copper sulfate prevents tyrosine hydroxylase reduced activity and motor deficits in a Parkinson's disease model in mice. Revista de Investigacion Clinica, 2009, 61(5), 405-411.
56. Ara, J.; Przedborski, S.; Naini, A.B.; Jackson-Lewis, V.; Trifiletti, R.R.; Horwitz, J.; Ischiropoulos, H. Inactivation of tyrosine hydroxylase by nitration following exposure to peroxynitrite and 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 1998, 95(13), 7659-7663.
57. Goldstein, D.S.; Holmes, C.; Li, S.T.; Bruce, S.; Metman, L.V.; Cannon, R.O. Cardiac sympathetic denervation in Parkinson disease. Ann. Intern. Med., 2000, 133, 338-347.
58. Takatsu, H.; Nishida, H.; Matsuo, H.; Watanabe, S.; Nagashima, K.; Wada, H.; Noda, T.; Nishigaki, K.; Fujiwara, H. Cardiac sympathetic denervation from the early stage of Parkinson's disease: clinical and experimental studies with radio labeled MIBG. J. Nucl. Med., 2000, 41, 71-77.
59. Kuhn, D.M.; Sakowski, S.A.; Sadidi, M.; Geddes, T.J. Nitrotyrosine as a marker for peroxynitrite-induced neurotoxicity: the beginning or the end of the end of dopamine neurons? J. Neurochem., 1999, 89, 529-536.
60. Franco, J.L., Posser, T.; Gordon, S.L.; Bobrovskaya, L.; Schneider, J.J.; Farina, M.; Dafre, A.L.; Dickson, P.L.; Dunkley, P.R. Expression of tyrosine hydroxylase increases the resistance of human neuroblastoma cells to oxidative insults. Toxicol. Sci., 2010, 113(1), 150-157.
61. Posser, T.; Dunkley, P.R.; Dickson, P.W.; Franco, J.L. Human neuroblastoma cells transfected with tyrosine hydroxylase gain increased resistance to methylmercury-induced cell death. Toxicol. in vitro, 2010, 24(6), 1498-1503.
62. Waragai, M.; Wei, J.; Fujita, M.; Nakai, M.; Ho, G.J.; Masliah, E.; Akatsu, H.; Yamada, T.; Hashimoto, M. Increased level of DJ-1 in the cerebrospinal fluids of sporadic Parkinson's disease. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 2006, 345, 967-972.
63. Yamaguchi, H.; Shen, J. Absence of dopaminergic neuronal degeneration and oxidative damage in aged DJ-1-deficient mice. Mol. Neurodegener., 2007, 2, 10.
64. Yokota, T.; Sugawara, K.; Itom, K.; Takahashi, R.; Ariga, H.; Mizusawa, H. Down regulation of DJ-1 enhances cell death by oxidative stress, ER stress, and proteasome inhibition. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 2003, 312, 1342-1348.
65. Inden, M.; Taira, T.; Kitamura, Y.; Yanagida, T.; Tsuchiya, D.; Takata, K.; Yanagisawa, D.; Nishimura, K.; Taniguchi, T.; Kiso, Y.; Yoshimoto, K.; Agatsuma, T.; Koide-Yoshida, S.; Iguchi-Ariga, S.M.; Shimohama, S.; Ariga, H. PARK7 DJ-1 protects against degeneration of nigral dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease rat model. Neurobiol. Dis., 2006, 24(1), 144-158.
66. Yang, Y.; Gehrke, S.; Haque, M.E.; Imai, Y.; Kosek, J.; Yang, L.; Beal, M.F.; Nishimura, I.; Wakamatsu, K.; Ito, S.; Takahashi, R.; Lu, B. Inactivation of Drosophila DJ-1 leads to impairments of oxidative stress response and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt signaling. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2005, 102, 13670-13675.
67. Kim, R.H.; Smith, P.D.; Aleyasin, H.; Hayley, S.; Mount, M.P.; Pownall, S.; Wakeham, A.; You-Ten, A.J.; Kalia, S.K.; Horne, P.; Westaway, D.; Lozano, A.M.; Anisman, H.; Park, D.S.; Mak, T.W. Hypersensitivity of DJ-1-deficient mice to 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyrindine (MPTP) and oxidative stress. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2005, 102, 5215-5220.
68. Sharpe, M.A.; Ollosson, R.; Stewart, V.C.; Clark, J.B. Oxidation of nitric oxide by oxomanganese-salen complexes:a new mechanism for cellular protection by superoxide dismutase/catalase mimetics. Biochem. J., 2002, 366, 97-107.
69. Ferrante, R.J.; Hantraye, P.; Brouillet, E.; Beal, M.F. Increased nitrotyrosine immunoreactivity in substantia nigra neurons in MPTP treated baboons is blocked by inhibition of neuronal nitric oxide synthase. Brain Res., 1999, 823, 177-182.
70. Pong, K.; Doctrow, S.R.; Baudry, M. Prevention of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium- and 6-hydroxydopamine-induced nitration of tyrosine hydroxylase and neurotoxicity by EUK-134, a superoxide dismutase and catalase mimetic, in cultured dopaminergic neurons. Brain Res., 2000, 881, 182-189.
71. Osman, R.; Basch, H. On the mechanism of action of superoxidedismutase - a theoretical-study. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1984, 106, 5710-5714.
72. Pong, K.; Doctrow, S.R.; Baudry, M. Prevention of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium- and 6-hydroxydopamine-induced nitration of tyrosine hydroxylase and neurotoxicity by EUK-134, a superoxide dismutase and catalase mimetic, in cultured dopaminergic neurons. Brain Res., 2000, 881, 182-189.
73. Rong, Y., Doctrow, S.R.; Tocco, G.; Baudry, M. EUK-134, a synthetic superoxide dismutase and catalase mimetic, prevents oxidative stress and attenuates kainate-induced neuropathology. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1999, 96, 9897-9902.
74. Szabó, C.; Ischiropoulos, H.; Radi, R. Peroxynitrite: biochemistry, pathophysiology and development of therapeutics. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov., 2007, 6, 662-680.
75. Chung, Y.C.; Kim, S.R.; Jin, B.K. Paroxetine Prevents loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons by inhibiting brain inflammation and oxidative stress in an experimental model of Parkinson's disease. J. Immunol., 2010, 185, 1230-1237.
76. +) neurotoxicity in rats. Neurosci. Lett., 1998, 245, 61-64.
77. Chung, F.L.; Wang, M.; Rivenson, A.; Iatropoulos, M.J.; Reinhardt, J.C, Pittman, B.; Ho, C.T.; Amin, S.G. Inhibition of lung carcinogenesis by black tea in Fischer rats treated with a tobacco-specific carcinogen: caffeine as an important constituent. Cancer Res., 1998, 58(18), 4096-4101.
78. Khan, S.A.; Priyamvada, S.; Farooq, N.; Khan, S.; Khan, M.W.; Yusufi, A.N. Protective effect of green tea extract on gentamicininduced nephrotoxicity and oxidative damage in rat kidney. Pharmacol. Res., 2009, 59, 254-262.
79. Guo, Q.; Zhao, B.L.; Li, M.F.; Shen, S.R.; Xin, W.J. Studies on protective mechanisms of four components of green tea polyphenols (GTP) against lipid peroxidation in synaptosomes. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1996, 1304, 210-222.
80. Guo, Q.; Zhao, B.L.; Hou, J.W.; Xin, W.J. ESR study on the structure-antioxidant activity relationship of tea catechins and their epimers. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1999, 1427, 13-23.
81. Zhao, B.L.; Guo, Q.; Xin, W.J. Free radical scavenging by green tea polyphenols. Methods Enzymol., 2001, 335, 217-231.
82. Nie, G.J.; Wei, T.T.; Zhao, B.L. Polyphenol protection of DNA against damage. Methods Enzymol., 2001, 335, 232-244.
83. Inanami, O.; Watanabe, Y.; Syuto, B.; Nakano, M.; Tsuji, M.; Kuwabara, M. Oral administration of (-) catechin protects against ischemia-reperfusion-induced neuronal death in the gerbil. Free Radic. Res., 1998, 29, 359-365.
84. Yoneda, T.; Hiramatsu, M.; Skamoto, N.; Togasaki, K.; Komatsu, M.; Yamaguchi, K. Antioxidant effects of "b catechin". Biochem. Mol. Biol. Int., 1995, 35, 995-1008.
85. Levites, Y.; Amit, T.; Youdim, M.B.; Mandel, S. Involvement of protein kinase C activation and cell survival/ cell cycle genes in green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin 3-gallate neuroprotective action. J. Biol. Chem., 2002, 277, 30574-30580.
86. Levites, Y.; Weinreb, O.; Maor, G.; Youdim, M.B.H.; Mandel, S. Green tea polyphenol epigallocatechin-3-gallate prevents MPTP induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration. J. Neurochem., 2001, 78, 1073-1082.
87. Guo, S.; Yan, J.; Bezard, E.; Yang, T.; Yang, X.; Zhao, B. Protective effects of green tea polyphenols in the 6-OHDA rat model of Parkinson's disease through inhibition of ROS-NO pathway. Biol. Psychiatry, 2007, 62, 1353-1362.
88. Rajasankar, S.; Manivasagam, T.; Surendran, S. Ashwagandha leaf extract: a potential agent in treating oxidative damage and physiological abnormalities seen in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease. Neurosci. Lett., 2009, 454, 11-15.
89. Ganguli, M.; Chandra, V.; Kamboh, M.I.; Johnston, J.M.; Dodge, H.H.; Thelma, B.K.; Juyal, R.C.; Pandav, R.; Belle, S.H.; De-Kosky, S.T. Apolipoprotein E polymorphism and Alzheimer's disease: The Indo-US cross-national Dementia study. Arch. Neurol., 2000, 57, 824-830.
90. Robak, R.; Gryglewski, R.J. Flavonoids are scavengers of superoxide anions. Biochem. Pharmacol., 1988, 37, 837-841.
91. Zbarsky, V.; Datla, P.K.; Parker, S.; Rai, D.K.; Aruoma, O.I.; Dexter, D.T. Neuroprotective properties of the natural phenolic antioxidants curcumin and naringenin but not quercetin and fisetin in a 6-OHDA model of Parkinson's disease. Free Radic. Res., 2005, 39(10), 1119-1125.
92. Yu, S.; Zheng, W.; Xin, N.; Chi, Z.H.; Wang, N.Q.; Nie, Y.X.; Feng, W.Y.; Wang, Z.Y. Curcumin prevents dopaminergic neuronal death through inhibition of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway. Rejuvenation Res., 2010, 13(1), 55-64.
93. Yang, M.H.; Wang, H.M.; Liu, Y. Effect of Bushen Huoxue Decoction on the orphan receptor and tyrosine hydroxylase in the brain of rats with Parkinson's disease. Chin. J. Integr. Med., 2011, 17(1), 43-47.
94. Lagouge, M.; Argmann, C.; Gerhart-Hines, Z.; Meziane, H.; Lerin, C.; Daussin, F.; Messadeq, N.; Milne, J.; Lambert, P.; Elliott, P.; Geny, B.; Laakso, M.; Puigserver, P.; Auwerx, J. Resveratrol improves mitochondrial function and protects against metabolic disease by activating SIRT1 and PGC-1a. Cell, 2006, 127, 1109-1122.
95. Lu, K.T.; Ko, M.C.; Chen, B.Y.; Huang, J.C.; Hsieh, C.W.; Lee, M.C.; Chiou, R.Y.; Wung, B.S.; Peng, C.H.; Yang, Y.L. Neuroprotective effects of resveratrol on MPTP-induced neuron loss mediated by free radical scavenging. J. Agric. Food Chem., 2008, 56, 6910-6913.
96. Khan, M.M.; Ahmad, A.; Ishrat, T.; Khan, M.B.; Hoda, M.N.; Khuwaja, G.; Raza, S.S.; Khan, A.; Jawed, H.; Vaibhav, K.; Islam, F. Resveratrol attenuates 6-hydroxydopamine-induced oxidative damage and dopamine depletion in rat model of Parkinson's disease. Brain Res., 2010, 1328, 139-151.
97. McCarthy, S.; Somayajulu, M.; Sikorska, M.; Borowy-Borowski, H.; Pandey, S. Paraquat induces oxidative stress and neuronal cell death; neuroprotection by water-soluble coenzyme Q10. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 2004, 201, 21-31.
98. Beal, M.F.; Matthews, R.T.; Tieleman, A.; Shults, C.W. Coenzyme Q10 attenuates the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) induced loss of striatal dopamine and dopaminergic axons in aged mice. Brain Res., 1998, 783, 109-114.
99. Horvath, T.L.; Diano, S.; Leranth, C.; Garcia-Segura, L.M.; Cowley, M.A.; Shanabrough, M.; Elsworth, J.D.; Sotonyi, P.; Roth, R.H.; Dietrich, E.H.; Matthews, R.T.; Barnstable, C.J.; Redmond, D.E., Jr. Coenzyme Q induces nigral mitochondrial uncoupling and prevents nigral cell loss in a primate model of Parkinson's disease. Endocrinology, 2003, 144, 2757-2760.
100. Shults, C.W.; Oakes, D.; Kieburtz, K.; Beal, M.F.; Haas, R.; Plumb, S.; Juncos, J.L.; Nutt, J.; Shoulson, I.; Carter, J.; Kompoliti, K.; Perlmutter, J.S.; Reich, S.; Stern, M.; Watts, R.L.; Kurlan, R.; Molho, E.; Harrison, M.; Lew, M.; Parkinson Study Group. Effects of coenzyme Q10 in early Parkinson disease: evidence of slowing of the functional decline. Arch. Neurol., 2002, 59, 1541-1550.
101. Lamartiniere, C.A.; Fritz, W.A. Genistein: chemoprevention, in vivo mechanism of action, and bioavailability. Korea Soybean Dig., 1998, 15, 60-80.
102. Petkov, V. Effect of ginseng on the brain biogenic monoamines and 39, 59-AMP system. Experiments on rats. Arzneimittelforschung, 1978, 28, 388-393.
103. Morens, D.M.; Grandinetti, A.; Reed, D.; White, L.R.; Ross, G.W. Cigarette smoking and protection from Parkinson's disease: false association or etiologic clue? Neurology, 1995, 45(6), 1041-1051.