Genetics and epigenetics of cutaneous malignant melanoma: A concert out of tune

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta - Reviews on Cancer

Volumn 1826, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 89-102

  van den Hurk, Karin ^a,b   Niessen, Hanneke E C ^a,b   Veeck, Jürgen ^a,b,c   van den Oord, Joost J ^d   van Steensel, Maurice A M ^a,b   zur Hausen, Axel ^a,b   van Engeland, Manon ^a,b   Winnepenninckx, Véronique J L ^a,b  

^a MAASTRICHT UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

^b MAASTRICHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^c UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL RWTH AACHEN   (Germany)

^d UNIVERSITY OF LEUVEN   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Chromatin remodeling; DNA methylation; Epigenetics; Genetics; Melanoma; MicroRNA

Indexed keywords

5 AZA 2' DEOXYCYTIDINE; ARF PROTEIN; CYCLIN DEPENDENT KINASE INHIBITOR 2A; CYCLIN DEPENDENT KINASE INHIBITOR 2B; MICROPHTHALMIA ASSOCIATED TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR; POLYCOMB GROUP PROTEIN; TEMOZOLOMIDE; UNTRANSLATED RNA;

ARF GENE; CANCER GENETICS; CARCINOGENESIS; CHROMATIN ASSEMBLY AND DISASSEMBLY; CPG ISLAND; CUTANEOUS MALIGNANT MELANOMA; CUTANEOUS MELANOMA; DNA METHYLATION; EPIGENETICS; GENE; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION; GENE INTERACTION; GENE MUTATION; HISTONE MODIFICATION; HUMAN; INK4A GENE; INK4B GENE; MITF GENE; PHASE 2 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

CHROMATIN ASSEMBLY AND DISASSEMBLY; DNA METHYLATION; EPIGENESIS, GENETIC; GENE EXPRESSION; HUMANS; MELANOMA; MICRORNAS; SKIN NEOPLASMS;

EID: 84859911648     PISSN: 0304419X     EISSN: 18792561     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2012.03.011     Document Type: Review

References (270)

1. Dupin E., Le Douarin N.M. Development of melanocyte precursors from the vertebrate neural crest. Oncogene 2003, 22:3016-3023.
2. Houghton A.N., Polsky D. Focus on melanoma. Cancer Cell 2002, 2:275-278.
3. MacKie R.M., Hauschild A., Eggermont A.M. Epidemiology of invasive cutaneous melanoma. Ann. Oncol. 2009, 20(Suppl. 6):vi1-vi7.
4. Ferlay J., Shin H.R., Bray F., Forman D., Mathers C., Parkin D.M. Estimates of worldwide burden of cancer in 2008: GLOBOCAN 2008. Int. J. Cancer 2010, 127:2893-2917.
5. McGovern V.J., Mihm M.C., Bailly C., Booth J.C., Clark W.H., Cochran A.J., Hardy E.G., Hicks J.D., Levene A., Lewis M.G., Little J.H., Milton G.W. The classification of malignant melanoma and its histologic reporting. Cancer 1973, 32:1446-1457.
6. Clark W.H., From L., Bernardino E.A., Mihm M.C. The histogenesis and biologic behavior of primary human malignant melanomas of the skin. Cancer Res. 1969, 29:705-727.
7. Vidwans S.J., Flaherty K.T., Fisher D.E., Tenenbaum J.M., Travers M.D., Shrager J. A melanoma molecular disease model. PLoS One 2011, 6:e18257.
8. Scolyer R.A., Long G.V., Thompson J.F. Evolving concepts in melanoma classification and their relevance to multidisciplinary melanoma patient care. Mol. Oncol. 2011, 5:124-136.
9. Clark W.H., Elder D.E., Guerry D.t., Epstein M.N., Greene M.H., Van Horn M. A study of tumor progression: the precursor lesions of superficial spreading and nodular melanoma. Hum. Pathol. 1984, 15:1147-1165.
10. Miller A.J., Mihm M.C. Melanoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 2006, 355:51-65.
11. Balch C.M., Gershenwald J.E., Soong S.J., Thompson J.F., Atkins M.B., Byrd D.R., Buzaid A.C., Cochran A.J., Coit D.G., Ding S., Eggermont A.M., Flaherty K.T., Gimotty P.A., Kirkwood J.M., McMasters K.M., Mihm M.C., Morton D.L., Ross M.I., Sober A.J., Sondak V.K. Final version of 2009 AJCC melanoma staging and classification. J. Clin. Oncol. 2009, 27:6199-6206.
12. Gray-Schopfer V., Wellbrock C., Marais R. Melanoma biology and new targeted therapy. Nature 2007, 445:851-857.
13. Bedikian A.Y., Millward M., Pehamberger H., Conry R., Gore M., Trefzer U., Pavlick A.C., DeConti R., Hersh E.M., Hersey P., Kirkwood J.M., Haluska F.G. Bcl-2 antisense (oblimersen sodium) plus dacarbazine in patients with advanced melanoma: the Oblimersen Melanoma Study Group. J. Clin. Oncol. 2006, 24:4738-4745.
14. Avril M.F., Aamdal S., Grob J.J., Hauschild A., Mohr P., Bonerandi J.J., Weichenthal M., Neuber K., Bieber T., Gilde K., Guillem Porta V., Fra J., Bonneterre J., Saiag P., Kamanabrou D., Pehamberger H., Sufliarsky J., Gonzalez Larriba J.L., Scherrer A., Menu Y. Fotemustine compared with dacarbazine in patients with disseminated malignant melanoma: a phase III study. J. Clin. Oncol. 2004, 22:1118-1125.
15. Chapman P.B., Einhorn L.H., Meyers M.L., Saxman S., Destro A.N., Panageas K.S., Begg C.B., Agarwala S.S., Schuchter L.M., Ernstoff M.S., Houghton A.N., Kirkwood J.M. Phase III multicenter randomized trial of the Dartmouth regimen versus dacarbazine in patients with metastatic melanoma. J. Clin. Oncol. 1999, 17:2745-2751.
16. Eggermont A.M., Kirkwood J.M. Re-evaluating the role of dacarbazine in metastatic melanoma: what have we learned in 30 years?. Eur. J. Cancer 2004, 40:1825-1836.
17. Middleton M.R., Grob J.J., Aaronson N., Fierlbeck G., Tilgen W., Seiter S., Gore M., Aamdal S., Cebon J., Coates A., Dreno B., Henz M., Schadendorf D., Kapp A., Weiss J., Fraass U., Statkevich P., Muller M., Thatcher N. Randomized phase III study of temozolomide versus dacarbazine in the treatment of patients with advanced metastatic malignant melanoma. J. Clin. Oncol. 2000, 18:158-166.
18. Atkins M.B., Lotze M.T., Dutcher J.P., Fisher R.I., Weiss G., Margolin K., Abrams J., Sznol M., Parkinson D., Hawkins M., Paradise C., Kunkel L., Rosenberg S.A. High-dose recombinant interleukin 2 therapy for patients with metastatic melanoma: analysis of 270 patients treated between 1985 and 1993. J. Clin. Oncol. 1999, 17:2105-2116.
19. Atkins M.B., Kunkel L., Sznol M., Rosenberg S.A. High-dose recombinant interleukin-2 therapy in patients with metastatic melanoma: long-term survival update. Cancer J. Sci. Am. 2000, 6(Suppl. 1):S11-S14.
20. Rosenberg S.A., Yang J.C., Topalian S.L., Schwartzentruber D.J., Weber J.S., Parkinson D.R., Seipp C.A., Einhorn J.H., White D.E. Treatment of 283 consecutive patients with metastatic melanoma or renal cell cancer using high-dose bolus interleukin 2. JAMA 1994, 271:907-913.
21. Pectasides D., Dafni U., Bafaloukos D., Skarlos D., Polyzos A., Tsoutsos D., Kalofonos H., Fountzilas G., Panagiotou P., Kokkalis G., Papadopoulos O., Castana O., Papadopoulos S., Stavrinidis E., Vourli G., Ioannovich J., Gogas H. Randomized phase III study of 1 month versus 1 year of adjuvant high-dose interferon alfa-2b in patients with resected high-risk melanoma. J. Clin. Oncol. 2009, 27:939-944.
22. Kirkwood J.M., Strawderman M.H., Ernstoff M.S., Smith T.J., Borden E.C., Blum R.H. Interferon alfa-2b adjuvant therapy of high-risk resected cutaneous melanoma: the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group Trial EST 1684. J. Clin. Oncol. 1996, 14:7-17.
23. Kirkwood J.M., Manola J., Ibrahim J., Sondak V., Ernstoff M.S., Rao U. A pooled analysis of eastern cooperative oncology group and intergroup trials of adjuvant high-dose interferon for melanoma. Clin. Cancer Res. 2004, 10:1670-1677.
24. Eggermont A.M., Suciu S., Santinami M., Testori A., Kruit W.H., Marsden J., Punt C.J., Sales F., Gore M., Mackie R., Kusic Z., Dummer R., Hauschild A., Musat E., Spatz A., Keilholz U. Adjuvant therapy with pegylated interferon alfa-2b versus observation alone in resected stage III melanoma: final results of EORTC 18991, a randomised phase III trial. Lancet 2008, 372:117-126.
25. Hodi F.S., O'Day S.J., McDermott D.F., Weber R.W., Sosman J.A., Haanen J.B., Gonzalez R., Robert C., Schadendorf D., Hassel J.C., Akerley W., van den Eertwegh A.J., Lutzky J., Lorigan P., Vaubel J.M., Linette G.P., Hogg D., Ottensmeier C.H., Lebbe C., Peschel C., Quirt I., Clark J.I., Wolchok J.D., Weber J.S., Tian J., Yellin M.J., Nichol G.M., Hoos A., Urba W.J. Improved survival with ipilimumab in patients with metastatic melanoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 2010, 363:711-723.
26. Robert C., Thomas L., Bondarenko I., O'Day S., D.J.M, Garbe C., Lebbe C., Baurain J.F., Testori A., Grob J.J., Davidson N., Richards J., Maio M., Hauschild A., Miller W.H., Gascon P., Lotem M., Harmankaya K., Ibrahim R., Francis S., Chen T.T., Humphrey R., Hoos A., Wolchok J.D. Ipilimumab plus dacarbazine for previously untreated metastatic melanoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 2011, 364:2517-2526.
27. Flaherty K.T., Yasothan U., Kirkpatrick P. Vemurafenib. Nat. Rev. 2011, 10:811-812.
28. Chapman P.B., Hauschild A., Robert C., Haanen J.B., Ascierto P., Larkin J., Dummer R., Garbe C., Testori A., Maio M., Hogg D., Lorigan P., Lebbe C., Jouary T., Schadendorf D., Ribas A., O'Day S.J., Sosman J.A., Kirkwood J.M., Eggermont A.M., Dreno B., Nolop K., Li J., Nelson B., Hou J., Lee R.J., Flaherty K.T., McArthur G.A. Improved survival with vemurafenib in melanoma with BRAF V600E mutation. N. Engl. J. Med. 2011, 364:2507-2516.
29. Carvajal R.D., Antonescu C.R., Wolchok J.D., Chapman P.B., Roman R.A., Teitcher J., Panageas K.S., Busam K.J., Chmielowski B., Lutzky J., Pavlick A.C., Fusco A., Cane L., Takebe N., Vemula S., Bouvier N., Bastian B.C., Schwartz G.K. KIT as a therapeutic target in metastatic melanoma. JAMA 2011, 305:2327-2334.
30. Guo J., Si L., Kong Y., Flaherty K.T., Xu X., Zhu Y., Corless C.L., Li L., Li H., Sheng X., Cui C., Chi Z., Li S., Han M., Mao L., Lin X., Du N., Zhang X., Li J., Wang B., Qin S. Phase II, open-label, single-arm trial of imatinib mesylate in patients with metastatic melanoma harboring c-Kit mutation or amplification. J. Clin. Oncol. 2011, 29:2904-2909.
31. Bogenrieder T., Herlyn M. The molecular pathology of cutaneous melanoma. Cancer Biomark. 2011, 9:267-286.
32. Govindarajan B., Bai X., Cohen C., Zhong H., Kilroy S., Louis G., Moses M., Arbiser J.L. Malignant transformation of melanocytes to melanoma by constitutive activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MAPKK) signaling. J. Biol. Chem. 2003, 278:9790-9795.
33. Cohen C., Zavala-Pompa A., Sequeira J.H., Shoji M., Sexton D.G., Cotsonis G., Cerimele F., Govindarajan B., Macaron N., Arbiser J.L. Mitogen-actived protein kinase activation is an early event in melanoma progression. Clin. Cancer Res. 2002, 8:3728-3733.
34. Beadling C., Jacobson-Dunlop E., Hodi F.S., Le C., Warrick A., Patterson J., Town A., Harlow A., Cruz F., Azar S., Rubin B.P., Muller S., West R., Heinrich M.C., Corless C.L. KIT gene mutations and copy number in melanoma subtypes. Clin. Cancer Res. 2008, 14:6821-6828.
35. Curtin J.A., Busam K., Pinkel D., Bastian B.C. Somatic activation of KIT in distinct subtypes of melanoma. J. Clin. Oncol. 2006, 24:4340-4346.
36. Woenckhaus C., Giebel J., Failing K., Fenic I., Dittberner T., Poetsch M. Expression of AP-2alpha, c-kit, and cleaved caspase-6 and -3 in naevi and malignant melanomas of the skin. A possible role for caspases in melanoma progression?. J. Pathol. 2003, 201:278-287.
37. Willmore-Payne C., Holden J.A., Hirschowitz S., Layfield L.J. BRAF and c-kit gene copy number in mutation-positive malignant melanoma. Hum. Pathol. 2006, 37:520-527.
38. Willmore-Payne C., Holden J.A., Tripp S., Layfield L.J. Human malignant melanoma: detection of BRAF- and c-kit-activating mutations by high-resolution amplicon melting analysis. Hum. Pathol. 2005, 36:486-493.
39. van't Veer L.J., Burgering B.M., Versteeg R., Boot A.J., Ruiter D.J., Osanto S., Schrier P.I., Bos J.L. N-ras mutations in human cutaneous melanoma from sun-exposed body sites. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1989, 9:3114-3116.
40. Albino A.P., Nanus D.M., Mentle I.R., Cordon-Cardo C., McNutt N.S., Bressler J., Andreeff M. Analysis of ras oncogenes in malignant melanoma and precursor lesions: correlation of point mutations with differentiation phenotype. Oncogene 1989, 4:1363-1374.
41. Ball N.J., Yohn J.J., Morelli J.G., Norris D.A., Golitz L.E., Hoeffler J.P. Ras mutations in human melanoma: a marker of malignant progression. J. Investig. Dermatol. 1994, 102:285-290.
42. Davies H., Bignell G.R., Cox C., Stephens P., Edkins S., Clegg S., Teague J., Woffendin H., Garnett M.J., Bottomley W., Davis N., Dicks E., Ewing R., Floyd Y., Gray K., Hall S., Hawes R., Hughes J., Kosmidou V., Menzies A., Mould C., Parker A., Stevens C., Watt S., Hooper S., Wilson R., Jayatilake H., Gusterson B.A., Cooper C., Shipley J., Hargrave D., Pritchard-Jones K., Maitland N., Chenevix-Trench G., Riggins G.J., Bigner D.D., Palmieri G., Cossu A., Flanagan A., Nicholson A., Ho J.W., Leung S.Y., Yuen S.T., Weber B.L., Seigler H.F., Darrow T.L., Paterson H., Marais R., Marshall C.J., Wooster R., Stratton M.R., Futreal P.A. Mutations of the BRAF gene in human cancer. Nature 2002, 417:949-954.
43. Gray-Schopfer V.C., da Rocha Dias S., Marais R. The role of B-RAF in melanoma. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 2005, 24:165-183.
44. Pollock P.M., Harper U.L., Hansen K.S., Yudt L.M., Stark M., Robbins C.M., Moses T.Y., Hostetter G., Wagner U., Kakareka J., Salem G., Pohida T., Heenan P., Duray P., Kallioniemi O., Hayward N.K., Trent J.M., Meltzer P.S. High frequency of BRAF mutations in nevi. Nat. Genet. 2003, 33:19-20.
45. Bauer J., Curtin J.A., Pinkel D., Bastian B.C. Congenital melanocytic nevi frequently harbor NRAS mutations but no BRAF mutations. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2007, 127:179-182.
46. Ross A.L., Sanchez M.I., Grichnik J.M. Molecular nevogenesis. Dermatol. Res. Pract. 2011, 2011:463184.
47. Maldonado J.L., Fridlyand J., Patel H., Jain A.N., Busam K., Kageshita T., Ono T., Albertson D.G., Pinkel D., Bastian B.C. Determinants of BRAF mutations in primary melanomas. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2003, 95:1878-1890.
48. Michaloglou C., Vredeveld L.C., Soengas M.S., Denoyelle C., Kuilman T., van der Horst C.M., Majoor D.M., Shay J.W., Mooi W.J., Peeper D.S. BRAFE600-associated senescence-like cell cycle arrest of human naevi. Nature 2005, 436:720-724.
49. Platz A., Hansson J., Mansson-Brahme E., Lagerlof B., Linder S., Lundqvist E., Sevigny P., Inganas M., Ringborg U. Screening of germline mutations in the CDKN2A and CDKN2B genes in Swedish families with hereditary cutaneous melanoma. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1997, 89:697-702.
50. Stone S., Dayananth P., Jiang P., Weaver-Feldhaus J.M., Tavtigian S.V., Cannon-Albright L., Kamb A. Genomic structure, expression and mutational analysis of the P15 (MTS2) gene. Oncogene 1995, 11:987-991.
51. Flores J.F., Pollock P.M., Walker G.J., Glendening J.M., Lin A.H., Palmer J.M., Walters M.K., Hayward N.K., Fountain J.W. Analysis of the CDKN2A, CDKN2B and CDK4 genes in 48 Australian melanoma kindreds. Oncogene 1997, 15:2999-3005.
52. Matsumura Y., Nishigori C., Yagi T., Imamura S., Takebe H. Mutations of p16 and p15 tumor suppressor genes and replication errors contribute independently to the pathogenesis of sporadic malignant melanoma. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 1998, 290:175-180.
53. Kamb A., Shattuck-Eidens D., Eeles R., Liu Q., Gruis N.A., Ding W., Hussey C., Tran T., Miki Y., Weaver-Feldhaus J., et al. Analysis of the p16 gene (CDKN2) as a candidate for the chromosome 9p melanoma susceptibility locus. Nat. Genet. 1994, 8:23-26.
54. Hussussian C.J., Struewing J.P., Goldstein A.M., Higgins P.A., Ally D.S., Sheahan M.D., Clark W.H., Tucker M.A., Dracopoli N.C. Germline p16 mutations in familial melanoma. Nat. Genet. 1994, 8:15-21.
55. Sharpless E., Chin L. The INK4a/ARF locus and melanoma. Oncogene 2003, 22:3092-3098.
56. Goldstein A.M., Chan M., Harland M., Gillanders E.M., Hayward N.K., Avril M.F., Azizi E., Bianchi-Scarra G., Bishop D.T., Bressac-de Paillerets B., Bruno W., Calista D., Cannon Albright L.A., Demenais F., Elder D.E., Ghiorzo P., Gruis N.A., Hansson J., Hogg D., Holland E.A., Kanetsky P.A., Kefford R.F., Landi M.T., Lang J., Leachman S.A., Mackie R.M., Magnusson V., Mann G.J., Niendorf K., Newton Bishop J., Palmer J.M., Puig S., Puig-Butille J.A., de Snoo F.A., Stark M., Tsao H., Tucker M.A., Whitaker L., Yakobson E. High-risk melanoma susceptibility genes and pancreatic cancer, neural system tumors, and uveal melanoma across GenoMEL. Cancer Res. 2006, 66:9818-9828.
57. Helsing P., Nymoen D.A., Ariansen S., Steine S.J., Maehle L., Aamdal S., Langmark F., Loeb M., Akslen L.A., Molven A., Andresen P.A. Population-based prevalence of CDKN2A and CDK4 mutations in patients with multiple primary melanomas. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 2008, 47:175-184.
58. Bastian B.C., LeBoit P.E., Hamm H., Brocker E.B., Pinkel D. Chromosomal gains and losses in primary cutaneous melanomas detected by comparative genomic hybridization. Cancer Res. 1998, 58:2170-2175.
59. Curtin J.A., Fridlyand J., Kageshita T., Patel H.N., Busam K.J., Kutzner H., Cho K.H., Aiba S., Brocker E.B., LeBoit P.E., Pinkel D., Bastian B.C. Distinct sets of genetic alterations in melanoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 2005, 353:2135-2147.
60. Muthusamy V., Hobbs C., Nogueira C., Cordon-Cardo C., McKee P.H., Chin L., Bosenberg M.W. Amplification of CDK4 and MDM2 in malignant melanoma. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 2006, 45:447-454.
61. Walker G.J., Palmer J.M., Walters M.K., Hayward N.K. A genetic model of melanoma tumorigenesis based on allelic losses. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 1995, 12:134-141.
62. Isshiki K., Elder D.E., Guerry D., Linnenbach A.J. Chromosome 10 allelic loss in malignant melanoma. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 1993, 8:178-184.
63. Isshiki K., Seng B.A., Elder D.E., Guerry D., Linnenbach A.J. Chromosome 9 deletion in sporadic and familial melanomas in vivo. Oncogene 1994, 9:1649-1653.
64. Herbst R.A., Weiss J., Ehnis A., Cavenee W.K., Arden K.C. Loss of heterozygosity for 10q22-10qter in malignant melanoma progression. Cancer Res. 1994, 54:3111-3114.
65. Healy E., Belgaid C., Takata M., Harrison D., Zhu N.W., Burd D.A., Rigby H.S., Matthews J.N., Rees J.L. Prognostic significance of allelic losses in primary melanoma. Oncogene 1998, 16:2213-2218.
66. Jonsson G., Dahl C., Staaf J., Sandberg T., Bendahl P.O., Ringner M., Guldberg P., Borg A. Genomic profiling of malignant melanoma using tiling-resolution arrayCGH. Oncogene 2007, 26:4738-4748.
67. Garraway L.A., Widlund H.R., Rubin M.A., Getz G., Berger A.J., Ramaswamy S., Beroukhim R., Milner D.A., Granter S.R., Du J., Lee C., Wagner S.N., Li C., Golub T.R., Rimm D.L., Meyerson M.L., Fisher D.E., Sellers W.R. Integrative genomic analyses identify MITF as a lineage survival oncogene amplified in malignant melanoma. Nature 2005, 436:117-122.
68. Gerami P., Jewell S.S., Pouryazdanparast P., Wayne J.D., Haghighat Z., Busam K.J., Rademaker A., Morrison L. Copy number gains in 11q13 and 8q24 [corrected] are highly linked to prognosis in cutaneous malignant melanoma. J. Mol. Diagn. 2011, 13:352-358.
69. Tsao H., Zhang X., Benoit E., Haluska F.G. Identification of PTEN/MMAC1 alterations in uncultured melanomas and melanoma cell lines. Oncogene 1998, 16:3397-3402.
70. Wu H., Goel V., Haluska F.G. PTEN signaling pathways in melanoma. Oncogene 2003, 22:3113-3122.
71. Stahl J.M., Sharma A., Cheung M., Zimmerman M., Cheng J.Q., Bosenberg M.W., Kester M., Sandirasegarane L., Robertson G.P. Deregulated Akt3 activity promotes development of malignant melanoma. Cancer Res. 2004, 64:7002-7010.
72. Tsao H., Goel V., Wu H., Yang G., Haluska F.G. Genetic interaction between NRAS and BRAF mutations and PTEN/MMAC1 inactivation in melanoma. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2004, 122:337-341.
73. Downward J. Targeting RAS signalling pathways in cancer therapy. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2003, 3:11-22.
74. Hemesath T.J., Steingrimsson E., McGill G., Hansen M.J., Vaught J., Hodgkinson C.A., Arnheiter H., Copeland N.G., Jenkins N.A., Fisher D.E. microphthalmia, a critical factor in melanocyte development, defines a discrete transcription factor family. Genes Dev. 1994, 8:2770-2780.
75. McGill G.G., Horstmann M., Widlund H.R., Du J., Motyckova G., Nishimura E.K., Lin Y.L., Ramaswamy S., Avery W., Ding H.F., Jordan S.A., Jackson I.J., Korsmeyer S.J., Golub T.R., Fisher D.E. Bcl2 regulation by the melanocyte master regulator Mitf modulates lineage survival and melanoma cell viability. Cell 2002, 109:707-718.
76. Loercher A.E., Tank E.M., Delston R.B., Harbour J.W. MITF links differentiation with cell cycle arrest in melanocytes by transcriptional activation of INK4A. J. Cell Biol. 2005, 168:35-40.
77. Carreira S., Goodall J., Aksan I., La Rocca S.A., Galibert M.D., Denat L., Larue L., Goding C.R. Mitf cooperates with Rb1 and activates p21Cip1 expression to regulate cell cycle progression. Nature 2005, 433:764-769.
78. Du J., Widlund H.R., Horstmann M.A., Ramaswamy S., Ross K., Huber W.E., Nishimura E.K., Golub T.R., Fisher D.E. Critical role of CDK2 for melanoma growth linked to its melanocyte-specific transcriptional regulation by MITF. Cancer Cell 2004, 6:565-576.
79. Cronin J.C., Wunderlich J., Loftus S.K., Prickett T.D., Wei X., Ridd K., Vemula S., Burrell A.S., Agrawal N.S., Lin J.C., Banister C.E., Buckhaults P., Rosenberg S.A., Bastian B.C., Pavan W.J., Samuels Y. Frequent mutations in the MITF pathway in melanoma. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2009, 22:435-444.
80. Bertolotto C., Lesueur F., Giuliano S., Strub T., de Lichy M., Bille K., Dessen P., d'Hayer B., Mohamdi H., Remenieras A., Maubec E., de la Fouchardiere A., Molinie V., Vabres P., Dalle S., Poulalhon N., Martin-Denavit T., Thomas L., Andry-Benzaquen P., Dupin N., Boitier F., Rossi A., Perrot J.L., Labeille B., Robert C., Escudier B., Caron O., Brugieres L., Saule S., Gardie B., Gad S., Richard S., Couturier J., Teh B.T., Ghiorzo P., Pastorino L., Puig S., Badenas C., Olsson H., Ingvar C., Rouleau E., Lidereau R., Bahadoran P., Vielh P., Corda E., Blanche H., Zelenika D., Galan P., Aubin F., Bachollet B., Becuwe C., Berthet P., Bignon Y.J., Bonadona V., Bonafe J.L., Bonnet-Dupeyron M.N., Cambazard F., Chevrant-Breton J., Coupier I., Dalac S., Demange L., d'Incan M., Dugast C., Faivre L., Vincent-Fetita L., Gauthier-Villars M., Gilbert B., Grange F., Grob J.J., Humbert P., Janin N., Joly P., Kerob D., Lasset C., Leroux D., Levang J., Limacher J.M., Livideanu C., Longy M., Lortholary A., Stoppa-Lyonnet D., Mansard S., Mansuy L., Marrou K., Mateus C., Maugard C., Meyer N., Nogues C., Souteyrand P., Venat-Bouvet L., Zattara H., Chaudru V., Lenoir G.M., Lathrop M., Davidson I., Avril M.F., Demenais F., Ballotti R., Bressac-de Paillerets B. A SUMOylation-defective MITF germline mutation predisposes to melanoma and renal carcinoma. Nature 2011, 480:94-98.
81. Yokoyama S., Woods S.L., Boyle G.M., Aoude L.G., MacGregor S., Zismann V., Gartside M., Cust A.E., Haq R., Harland M., Taylor J.C., Duffy D.L., Holohan K., Dutton-Regester K., Palmer J.M., Bonazzi V., Stark M.S., Symmons J., Law M.H., Schmidt C., Lanagan C., O'Connor L., Holland E.A., Schmid H., Maskiell J.A., Jetann J., Ferguson M., Jenkins M.A., Kefford R.F., Giles G.G., Armstrong B.K., Aitken J.F., Hopper J.L., Whiteman D.C., Pharoah P.D., Easton D.F., Dunning A.M., Newton-Bishop J.A., Montgomery G.W., Martin N.G., Mann G.J., Bishop D.T., Tsao H., Trent J.M., Fisher D.E., Hayward N.K., Brown K.M. A novel recurrent mutation in MITF predisposes to familial and sporadic melanoma. Nature 2011, 480:99-103.
82. Wellbrock C., Marais R. Elevated expression of MITF counteracts B-RAF-stimulated melanocyte and melanoma cell proliferation. J. Cell Biol. 2005, 170:703-708.
83. Goding C.R. Mitf from neural crest to melanoma: signal transduction and transcription in the melanocyte lineage. Genes Dev. 2000, 14:1712-1728.
84. Du J., Miller A.J., Widlund H.R., Horstmann M.A., Ramaswamy S., Fisher D.E. MLANA/MART1 and SILV/PMEL17/GP100 are transcriptionally regulated by MITF in melanocytes and melanoma. Am. J. Pathol. 2003, 163:333-343.
85. Miller A.J., Du J., Rowan S., Hershey C.L., Widlund H.R., Fisher D.E. Transcriptional regulation of the melanoma prognostic marker melastatin (TRPM1) by MITF in melanocytes and melanoma. Cancer Res. 2004, 64:509-516.
86. Takeuchi H., Kuo C., Morton D.L., Wang H.J., Hoon D.S. Expression of differentiation melanoma-associated antigen genes is associated with favorable disease outcome in advanced-stage melanomas. Cancer Res. 2003, 63:441-448.
87. Duncan L.M., Deeds J., Hunter J., Shao J., Holmgren L.M., Woolf E.A., Tepper R.I., Shyjan A.W. Down-regulation of the novel gene melastatin correlates with potential for melanoma metastasis. Cancer Res. 1998, 58:1515-1520.
88. Widlund H.R., Horstmann M.A., Price E.R., Cui J., Lessnick S.L., Wu M., He X., Fisher D.E. Beta-catenin-induced melanoma growth requires the downstream target microphthalmia-associated transcription factor. J. Cell Biol. 2002, 158:1079-1087.
89. Shtutman M., Zhurinsky J., Simcha I., Albanese C., D'Amico M., Pestell R., Ben-Ze'ev A. The cyclin D1 gene is a target of the beta-catenin/LEF-1 pathway. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1999, 96:5522-5527.
90. Katoh M. Network of WNT and other regulatory signaling cascades in pluripotent stem cells and cancer stem cells. Curr. Pharm. Biotechnol. 2011, 12:160-170.
91. Tucci M.G., Lucarini G., Brancorsini D., Zizzi A., Pugnaloni A., Giacchetti A., Ricotti G., Biagini G. Involvement of E-cadherin, beta-catenin, Cdc42 and CXCR4 in the progression and prognosis of cutaneous melanoma. Br. J. Dermatol. 2007, 157:1212-1216.
92. Hsu M.Y., Wheelock M.J., Johnson K.R., Herlyn M. Shifts in cadherin profiles between human normal melanocytes and melanomas. J. Investig. Dermatol. Symp. Proc. 1996, 1:188-194.
93. Jaeger J., Koczan D., Thiesen H.J., Ibrahim S.M., Gross G., Spang R., Kunz M. Gene expression signatures for tumor progression, tumor subtype, and tumor thickness in laser-microdissected melanoma tissues. Clin. Cancer Res. 2007, 13:806-815.
94. Esteller M. Epigenetics in cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 2008, 358:1148-1159.
95. Nguyen T., Kuo C., Nicholl M.B., Sim M.S., Turner R.R., Morton D.L., Hoon D.S. Downregulation of microRNA-29c is associated with hypermethylation of tumor-related genes and disease outcome in cutaneous melanoma. Epigenetics 2011, 6:388-394.
96. Deng T., Kuang Y., Wang L., Li J., Wang Z., Fei J. An essential role for DNA methyltransferase 3a in melanoma tumorigenesis. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2009, 387:611-616.
97. Hou P., Liu D., Dong J., Xing M. The BRAFV600E causes widespread alterations in gene methylation in the genome of melanoma cells. Cell Cycle 2012, 11.
98. van Doorn R., Gruis N.A., Willemze R., van der Velden P.A., Tensen C.P. Aberrant DNA methylation in cutaneous malignancies. Semin. Oncol. 2005, 32:479-487.
99. Sigalotti L., Coral S., Nardi G., Spessotto A., Cortini E., Cattarossi I., Colizzi F., Altomonte M., Maio M. Promoter methylation controls the expression of MAGE2, 3 and 4 genes in human cutaneous melanoma. J. Immunother. 2002, 25:16-26.
100. Furuta J., Umebayashi Y., Miyamoto K., Kikuchi K., Otsuka F., Sugimura T., Ushijima T. Promoter methylation profiling of 30 genes in human malignant melanoma. Cancer Sci. 2004, 95:962-968.
101. Simpson A.J., Caballero O.L., Jungbluth A., Chen Y.T., Old L.J. Cancer/testis antigens, gametogenesis and cancer. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2005, 5:615-625.
102. Klenova E.M., Morse H.C., Ohlsson R., Lobanenkov V.V. The novel BORIS+CTCF gene family is uniquely involved in the epigenetics of normal biology and cancer. Semin. Cancer Biol. 2002, 12:399-414.
103. Robertson K.D. DNA methylation and human disease. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2005, 6:597-610.
104. Vatolin S., Abdullaev Z., Pack S.D., Flanagan P.T., Custer M., Loukinov D.I., Pugacheva E., Hong J.A., Morse H., Schrump D.S., Risinger J.I., Barrett J.C., Lobanenkov V.V. Conditional expression of the CTCF-paralogous transcriptional factor BORIS in normal cells results in demethylation and derepression of MAGE-A1 and reactivation of other cancer-testis genes. Cancer Res. 2005, 65:7751-7762.
105. Kholmanskikh O., Loriot A., Brasseur F., De Plaen E., De Smet C. Expression of BORIS in melanoma: lack of association with MAGE-A1 activation. Int. J. Cancer 2008, 122:777-784.
106. Rothhammer T., Bosserhoff A.K. Epigenetic events in malignant melanoma. Pigment Cell Res. 2007, 20:92-111.
107. Howell P.M., Liu S., Ren S., Behlen C., Fodstad O., Riker A.I. Epigenetics in human melanoma. Cancer Control 2009, 16:200-218.
108. Richards H.W., Medrano E.E. Epigenetic marks in melanoma. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2009, 22:14-29.
109. Schinke C., Mo Y., Yu Y., Amiri K., Sosman J., Greally J., Verma A. Aberrant DNA methylation in malignant melanoma. Melanoma Res. 2010, 20:253-265.
110. Sigalotti L., Covre A., Fratta E., Parisi G., Colizzi F., Rizzo A., Danielli R., Nicolay H.J., Coral S., Maio M. Epigenetics of human cutaneous melanoma: setting the stage for new therapeutic strategies. J. Transl. Med. 2010, 8:56.
111. Herman J.G., Baylin S.B. Gene silencing in cancer in association with promoter hypermethylation. N. Engl. J. Med. 2003, 349:2042-2054.
112. Hoon D.S., Spugnardi M., Kuo C., Huang S.K., Morton D.L., Taback B. Profiling epigenetic inactivation of tumor suppressor genes in tumors and plasma from cutaneous melanoma patients. Oncogene 2004, 23:4014-4022.
113. Liu S., Ren S., Howell P., Fodstad O., Riker A.I. Identification of novel epigenetically modified genes in human melanoma via promoter methylation gene profiling. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2008, 21:545-558.
114. Tanemura A., Terando A.M., Sim M.S., van Hoesel A.Q., de Maat M.F., Morton D.L., Hoon D.S. CpG island methylator phenotype predicts progression of malignant melanoma. Clin. Cancer Res. 2009, 15:1801-1807.
115. Mori T., O'Day S.J., Umetani N., Martinez S.R., Kitago M., Koyanagi K., Kuo C., Takeshima T.L., Milford R., Wang H.J., Vu V.D., Nguyen S.L., Hoon D.S. Predictive utility of circulating methylated DNA in serum of melanoma patients receiving biochemotherapy. J. Clin. Oncol. 2005, 23:9351-9358.
116. Spugnardi M., Tommasi S., Dammann R., Pfeifer G.P., Hoon D.S. Epigenetic inactivation of RAS association domain family protein 1 (RASSF1A) in malignant cutaneous melanoma. Cancer Res. 2003, 63:1639-1643.
117. Lahtz C., Stranzenbach R., Fiedler E., Helmbold P., Dammann R.H. Methylation of PTEN as a prognostic factor in malignant melanoma of the skin. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2010, 130:620-622.
118. Kohonen-Corish M.R., Cooper W.A., Saab J., Thompson J.F., Trent R.J., Millward M.J. Promoter hypermethylation of the O(6)-methylguanine DNA methyltransferase gene and microsatellite instability in metastatic melanoma. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2006, 126:167-171.
119. Marini A., Mirmohammadsadegh A., Nambiar S., Gustrau A., Ruzicka T., Hengge U.R. Epigenetic inactivation of tumor suppressor genes in serum of patients with cutaneous melanoma. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2006, 126:422-431.
120. Rietschel P., Wolchok J.D., Krown S., Gerst S., Jungbluth A.A., Busam K., Smith K., Orlow I., Panageas K., Chapman P.B. Phase II study of extended-dose temozolomide in patients with melanoma. J. Clin. Oncol. 2008, 26:2299-2304.
121. Mori T., Martinez S.R., O'Day S.J., Morton D.L., Umetani N., Kitago M., Tanemura A., Nguyen S.L., Tran A.N., Wang H.J., Hoon D.S. Estrogen receptor-alpha methylation predicts melanoma progression. Cancer Res. 2006, 66:6692-6698.
122. Faller W.J., Rafferty M., Hegarty S., Gremel G., Ryan D., Fraga M.F., Esteller M., Dervan P.A., Gallagher W.M. Metallothionein 1E is methylated in malignant melanoma and increases sensitivity to cisplatin-induced apoptosis. Melanoma Res. 2010, 20:392-400.
123. Toyota M., Ahuja N., Ohe-Toyota M., Herman J.G., Baylin S.B., Issa J.P. CpG island methylator phenotype in colorectal cancer. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1999, 96:8681-8686.
124. Issa J.P. CpG island methylator phenotype in cancer. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2004, 4:988-993.
125. Hughes L.A., Khalid-de Bakker C.A., Smits K.M., van den Brandt P.A., Jonkers D., Ahuja N., Herman J.G., Weijenberg M.P., van Engeland M. The CpG island methylator phenotype in colorectal cancer: Progress and problems. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2012, 1825:77-85.
126. Gallagher W.M., Bergin O.E., Rafferty M., Kelly Z.D., Nolan I.M., Fox E.J., Culhane A.C., McArdle L., Fraga M.F., Hughes L., Currid C.A., O'Mahony F., Byrne A., Murphy A.A., Moss C., McDonnell S., Stallings R.L., Plumb J.A., Esteller M., Brown R., Dervan P.A., Easty D.J. Multiple markers for melanoma progression regulated by DNA methylation: insights from transcriptomic studies. Carcinogenesis 2005, 26:1856-1867.
127. Muthusamy V., Duraisamy S., Bradbury C.M., Hobbs C., Curley D.P., Nelson B., Bosenberg M. Epigenetic silencing of novel tumor suppressors in malignant melanoma. Cancer Res. 2006, 66:11187-11193.
128. Nobeyama Y., Okochi-Takada E., Furuta J., Miyagi Y., Kikuchi K., Yamamoto A., Nakanishi Y., Nakagawa H., Ushijima T. Silencing of tissue factor pathway inhibitor-2 gene in malignant melanomas. Int. J. Cancer 2007, 121:301-307.
129. Bonazzi V.F., Irwin D., Hayward N.K. Identification of candidate tumor suppressor genes inactivated by promoter methylation in melanoma. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 2009, 48:10-21.
130. Mithani S.K., Smith I.M., Califano J.A. Use of integrative epigenetic and cytogenetic analyses to identify novel tumor-suppressor genes in malignant melanoma. Melanoma Res. 2011, 21:298-307.
131. Furuta J., Nobeyama Y., Umebayashi Y., Otsuka F., Kikuchi K., Ushijima T. Silencing of peroxiredoxin 2 and aberrant methylation of 33 CpG islands in putative promoter regions in human malignant melanomas. Cancer Res. 2006, 66:6080-6086.
132. Koga Y., Pelizzola M., Cheng E., Krauthammer M., Sznol M., Ariyan S., Narayan D., Molinaro A.M., Halaban R., Weissman S.M. Genome-wide screen of promoter methylation identifies novel markers in melanoma. Genome Res. 2009, 19:1462-1470.
133. Conway K., Edmiston S.N., Khondker Z.S., Groben P.A., Zhou X., Chu H., Kuan P.F., Hao H., Carson C., Berwick M., Olilla D.W., Thomas N.E. DNA-methylation profiling distinguishes malignant melanomas from benign nevi. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2011, 24:352-360.
134. Bonazzi V.F., Nancarrow D.J., Stark M.S., Moser R.J., Boyle G.M., Aoude L.G., Schmidt C., Hayward N.K. Cross-platform array screening identifies COL1A2, THBS1, TNFRSF10D and UCHL1 as genes frequently silenced by methylation in melanoma. PLoS One 2011, 6:e26121.
135. Irizarry R.A., Ladd-Acosta C., Wen B., Wu Z., Montano C., Onyango P., Cui H., Gabo K., Rongione M., Webster M., Ji H., Potash J.B., Sabunciyan S., Feinberg A.P. The human colon cancer methylome shows similar hypo- and hypermethylation at conserved tissue-specific CpG island shores. Nat. Genet. 2009, 41:178-186.
136. Maunakea A.K., Nagarajan R.P., Bilenky M., Ballinger T.J., D'Souza C., Fouse S.D., Johnson B.E., Hong C., Nielsen C., Zhao Y., Turecki G., Delaney A., Varhol R., Thiessen N., Shchors K., Heine V.M., Rowitch D.H., Xing X., Fiore C., Schillebeeckx M., Jones S.J., Haussler D., Marra M.A., Hirst M., Wang T., Costello J.F. Conserved role of intragenic DNA methylation in regulating alternative promoters. Nature 2010, 466:253-257.
137. Shenker N., Flanagan J.M. Intragenic DNA methylation: implications of this epigenetic mechanism for cancer research. Br. J. Cancer 2011, 106:248-253.
138. van Vlodrop I.J., Niessen H.E., Derks S., Baldewijns M.M., van Criekinge W., Herman J.G., van Engeland M. Analysis of promoter CpG island hypermethylation in cancer: location, location, location!. Clin. Cancer Res. 2011, 17:4225-4231.
139. Ambros V. microRNAs: tiny regulators with great potential. Cell 2001, 107:823-826.
140. Bartel D.P. MicroRNAs: genomics, biogenesis, mechanism, and function. Cell 2004, 116:281-297.
141. He L., Hannon G.J. MicroRNAs: small RNAs with a big role in gene regulation. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2004, 5:522-531.
142. Kim V.N. Small RNAs: classification, biogenesis, and function. Mol. Cells 2005, 19:1-15.
143. Mueller D.W., Bosserhoff A.K. Role of miRNAs in the progression of malignant melanoma. Br. J. Cancer 2009, 101:551-556.
144. Bonazzi V.F., Stark M.S., Hayward N.K. MicroRNA regulation of melanoma progression. Melanoma Res. 2012, 22:101-113.
145. Mueller D.W., Bosserhoff A.K. The evolving concept of 'melano-miRs'-microRNAs in melanomagenesis. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2010, 23:620-626.
146. Mueller D.W., Rehli M., Bosserhoff A.K. miRNA expression profiling in melanocytes and melanoma cell lines reveals miRNAs associated with formation and progression of malignant melanoma. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2009, 129:1740-1751.
147. Caramuta S., Egyhazi S., Rodolfo M., Witten D., Hansson J., Larsson C., Lui W.O. MicroRNA expression profiles associated with mutational status and survival in malignant melanoma. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2010, 130:2062-2070.
148. Chen J., Feilotter H.E., Pare G.C., Zhang X., Pemberton J.G., Garady C., Lai D., Yang X., Tron V.A. MicroRNA-193b represses cell proliferation and regulates cyclin D1 in melanoma. Am. J. Pathol. 2010, 176:2520-2529.
149. Glud M., Rossing M., Hother C., Holst L., Hastrup N., Nielsen F.C., Gniadecki R., Drzewiecki K.T. Downregulation of miR-125b in metastatic cutaneous malignant melanoma. Melanoma Res. 2010, 20:479-484.
150. Leidinger P., Keller A., Borries A., Reichrath J., Rass K., Jager S.U., Lenhof H.P., Meese E. High-throughput miRNA profiling of human melanoma blood samples. BMC Cancer 2010, 10:262.
151. Philippidou D., Schmitt M., Moser D., Margue C., Nazarov P.V., Muller A., Vallar L., Nashan D., Behrmann I., Kreis S. Signatures of microRNAs and selected microRNA target genes in human melanoma. Cancer Res. 2010, 70:4163-4173.
152. Segura M.F., Belitskaya-Levy I., Rose A.E., Zakrzewski J., Gaziel A., Hanniford D., Darvishian F., Berman R.S., Shapiro R.L., Pavlick A.C., Osman I., Hernando E. Melanoma MicroRNA signature predicts post-recurrence survival. Clin. Cancer Res. 2010, 16:1577-1586.
153. Stark M.S., Tyagi S., Nancarrow D.J., Boyle G.M., Cook A.L., Whiteman D.C., Parsons P.G., Schmidt C., Sturm R.A., Hayward N.K. Characterization of the melanoma miRNAome by deep sequencing. PLoS One 2010, 5:e9685.
154. Dar A.A., Majid S., de Semir D., Nosrati M., Bezrookove V., Kashani-Sabet M. miRNA-205 suppresses melanoma cell proliferation and induces senescence via regulation of E2F1 protein. J. Biol. Chem. 2011, 286:16606-16614.
155. Chan E., Patel R., Nallur S., Ratner E., Bacchiocchi A., Hoyt K., Szpakowski S., Godshalk S., Ariyan S., Sznol M., Halaban R., Krauthammer M., Tuck D., Slack F.J., Weidhaas J.B. MicroRNA signatures differentiate melanoma subtypes. Cell Cycle 2011, 10:1845-1852.
156. Xu Y., Brenn T., Brown E.R., Doherty V., Melton D.W. Differential expression of microRNAs during melanoma progression: miR-200c, miR-205 and miR-211 are downregulated in melanoma and act as tumour suppressors. Br. J. Cancer 2012, 106:553-561.
157. Sand M., Gambichler T., Sand D., Altmeyer P., Stuecker M., Bechara F.G. Immunohistochemical expression patterns of the microRNA-processing enzyme Dicer in cutaneous malignant melanomas, benign melanocytic nevi and dysplastic melanocytic nevi. Eur. J. Dermatol. 2011, 21:18-21.
158. Bemis L.T., Chen R., Amato C.M., Classen E.H., Robinson S.E., Coffey D.G., Erickson P.F., Shellman Y.G., Robinson W.A. MicroRNA-137 targets microphthalmia-associated transcription factor in melanoma cell lines. Cancer Res. 2008, 68:1362-1368.
159. Haflidadottir B.S., Bergsteinsdottir K., Praetorius C., Steingrimsson E. miR-148 regulates Mitf in melanoma cells. PLoS One 2010, 5:e11574.
160. Segura M.F., Hanniford D., Menendez S., Reavie L., Zou X., Alvarez-Diaz S., Zakrzewski J., Blochin E., Rose A., Bogunovic D., Polsky D., Wei J., Lee P., Belitskaya-Levy I., Bhardwaj N., Osman I., Hernando E. Aberrant miR-182 expression promotes melanoma metastasis by repressing FOXO3 and microphthalmia-associated transcription factor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2009, 106:1814-1819.
161. Ozsolak F., Poling L.L., Wang Z., Liu H., Liu X.S., Roeder R.G., Zhang X., Song J.S., Fisher D.E. Chromatin structure analyses identify miRNA promoters. Genes Dev. 2008, 22:3172-3183.
162. Roush S., Slack F.J. The let-7 family of microRNAs. Trends Cell Biol. 2008, 18:505-516.
163. Schultz J., Lorenz P., Gross G., Ibrahim S., Kunz M. MicroRNA let-7b targets important cell cycle molecules in malignant melanoma cells and interferes with anchorage-independent growth. Cell Res. 2008, 18:549-557.
164. Muller D.W., Bosserhoff A.K. Integrin beta 3 expression is regulated by let-7a miRNA in malignant melanoma. Oncogene 2008, 27:6698-6706.
165. Holst L.M., Kaczkowski B., Glud M., Futoma-Kazmierczak E., Hansen L.F., Gniadecki R. The microRNA molecular signature of atypic and common acquired melanocytic nevi: differential expression of miR-125b and let-7c. Exp. Dermatol. 2011, 20:278-280.
166. Glud M., Manfe V., Biskup E., Holst L., Dirksen A.M., Hastrup N., Nielsen F.C., Drzewiecki K.T., Gniadecki R. MicroRNA miR-125b induces senescence in human melanoma cells. Melanoma Res. 2011, 21:253-256.
167. Streicher K.L., Zhu W., Lehmann K.P., Georgantas R.W., Morehouse C.A., Brohawn P., Carrasco R.A., Xiao Z., Tice D.A., Higgs B.W., Richman L., Jallal B., Ranade K., Yao Y. A novel oncogenic role for the miRNA-506-514 cluster in initiating melanocyte transformation and promoting melanoma growth. Oncogene 2012, 31:1558-1570.
168. Lujambio A., Calin G.A., Villanueva A., Ropero S., Sanchez-Cespedes M., Blanco D., Montuenga L.M., Rossi S., Nicoloso M.S., Faller W.J., Gallagher W.M., Eccles S.A., Croce C.M., Esteller M. A microRNA DNA methylation signature for human cancer metastasis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2008, 105:13556-13561.
169. Lodygin D., Tarasov V., Epanchintsev A., Berking C., Knyazeva T., Korner H., Knyazev P., Diebold J., Hermeking H. Inactivation of miR-34a by aberrant CpG methylation in multiple types of cancer. Cell Cycle 2008, 7:2591-2600.
170. Mazar J., Khaitan D., DeBlasio D., Zhong C., Govindarajan S.S., Kopanathi S., Zhang S., Ray A., Perera R.J. Epigenetic regulation of microRNA genes and the role of miR-34b in cell invasion and motility in human melanoma. PLoS One 2011, 6:e24922.
171. Mazar J., DeBlasio D., Govindarajan S.S., Zhang S., Perera R.J. Epigenetic regulation of microRNA-375 and its role in melanoma development in humans. FEBS Lett. 2011, 585:2467-2476.
172. Migliore C., Petrelli A., Ghiso E., Corso S., Capparuccia L., Eramo A., Comoglio P.M., Giordano S. MicroRNAs impair MET-mediated invasive growth. Cancer Res. 2008, 68:10128-10136.
173. Wellner U., Schubert J., Burk U.C., Schmalhofer O., Zhu F., Sonntag A., Waldvogel B., Vannier C., Darling D., zur Hausen A., Brunton V.G., Morton J., Sansom O., Schuler J., Stemmler M.P., Herzberger C., Hopt U., Keck T., Brabletz S., Brabletz T. The EMT-activator ZEB1 promotes tumorigenicity by repressing stemness-inhibiting microRNAs. Nat. Cell Biol. 2009, 11:1487-1495.
174. Gregory P.A., Bert A.G., Paterson E.L., Barry S.C., Tsykin A., Farshid G., Vadas M.A., Khew-Goodall Y., Goodall G.J. The miR-200 family and miR-205 regulate epithelial to mesenchymal transition by targeting ZEB1 and SIP1. Nat. Cell Biol. 2008, 10:593-601.
175. Park S.M., Gaur A.B., Lengyel E., Peter M.E. The miR-200 family determines the epithelial phenotype of cancer cells by targeting the E-cadherin repressors ZEB1 and ZEB2. Genes Dev. 2008, 22:894-907.
176. Bracken C.P., Gregory P.A., Khew-Goodall Y., Goodall G.J. The role of microRNAs in metastasis and epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 2009, 66:1682-1699.
177. Elson-Schwab I., Lorentzen A., Marshall C.J. MicroRNA-200 family members differentially regulate morphological plasticity and mode of melanoma cell invasion. PLoS One 2010, 5.
178. Liu S., Kumar S.M., Lu H., Liu A., Yang R., Pushparajan A., Guo W., Xu X. MicroRNA-9 up-regulates E-cadherin through inhibition of NF-kappaB1-Snail1 pathway in melanoma. J. Pathol. 2012, 226:61-72.
179. Mercer T.R., Dinger M.E., Mattick J.S. Long non-coding RNAs: insights into functions. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2009, 10:155-159.
180. Pasmant E., Laurendeau I., Heron D., Vidaud M., Vidaud D., Bieche I. Characterization of a germ-line deletion, including the entire INK4/ARF locus, in a melanoma-neural system tumor family: identification of ANRIL, an antisense noncoding RNA whose expression coclusters with ARF. Cancer Res. 2007, 67:3963-3969.
181. Shete S., Hosking F.J., Robertson L.B., Dobbins S.E., Sanson M., Malmer B., Simon M., Marie Y., Boisselier B., Delattre J.Y., Hoang-Xuan K., El Hallani S., Idbaih A., Zelenika D., Andersson U., Henriksson R., Bergenheim A.T., Feychting M., Lonn S., Ahlbom A., Schramm J., Linnebank M., Hemminki K., Kumar R., Hepworth S.J., Price A., Armstrong G., Liu Y., Gu X., Yu R., Lau C., Schoemaker M., Muir K., Swerdlow A., Lathrop M., Bondy M., Houlston R.S. Genome-wide association study identifies five susceptibility loci for glioma. Nat. Genet. 2009, 41:899-904.
182. Stacey S.N., Sulem P., Masson G., Gudjonsson S.A., Thorleifsson G., Jakobsdottir M., Sigurdsson A., Gudbjartsson D.F., Sigurgeirsson B., Benediktsdottir K.R., Thorisdottir K., Ragnarsson R., Scherer D., Hemminki K., Rudnai P., Gurzau E., Koppova K., Botella-Estrada R., Soriano V., Juberias P., Saez B., Gilaberte Y., Fuentelsaz V., Corredera C., Grasa M., Hoiom V., Lindblom A., Bonenkamp J.J., van Rossum M.M., Aben K.K., de Vries E., Santinami M., Di Mauro M.G., Maurichi A., Wendt J., Hochleitner P., Pehamberger H., Gudmundsson J., Magnusdottir D.N., Gretarsdottir S., Holm H., Steinthorsdottir V., Frigge M.L., Blondal T., Saemundsdottir J., Bjarnason H., Kristjansson K., Bjornsdottir G., Okamoto I., Rivoltini L., Rodolfo M., Kiemeney L.A., Hansson J., Nagore E., Mayordomo J.I., Kumar R., Karagas M.R., Nelson H.H., Gulcher J.R., Rafnar T., Thorsteinsdottir U., Olafsson J.H., Kong A., Stefansson K. New common variants affecting susceptibility to basal cell carcinoma. Nat. Genet. 2009, 41:909-914.
183. Bei J.X., Li Y., Jia W.H., Feng B.J., Zhou G., Chen L.Z., Feng Q.S., Low H.Q., Zhang H., He F., Tai E.S., Kang T., Liu E.T., Liu J., Zeng Y.X. A genome-wide association study of nasopharyngeal carcinoma identifies three new susceptibility loci. Nat. Genet. 2010, 42:599-603.
184. Pasmant E., Sabbagh A., Vidaud M., Bieche I. ANRIL, a long, noncoding RNA, is an unexpected major hotspot in GWAS. FASEB J. 2011, 25:444-448.
185. Turnbull C., Rahman N. Genome-wide association studies provide new insights into the genetic basis of testicular germ-cell tumour. Int. J. Androl. 2011, 34:e86-e96. discussion e96-87.
186. Khaitan D., Dinger M.E., Mazar J., Crawford J., Smith M.A., Mattick J.S., Perera R.J. The melanoma-upregulated long noncoding RNA SPRY4-IT1 modulates apoptosis and invasion. Cancer Res. 2011, 71:3852-3862.
187. Kouzarides T. Chromatin modifications and their function. Cell 2007, 128:693-705.
188. Fan T., Jiang S., Chung N., Alikhan A., Ni C., Lee C.C., Hornyak T.J. EZH2-dependent suppression of a cellular senescence phenotype in melanoma cells by inhibition of p21/CDKN1A expression. Mol. Cancer Res. 2011, 9:418-429.
189. Soengas M.S., Capodieci P., Polsky D., Mora J., Esteller M., Opitz-Araya X., McCombie R., Herman J.G., Gerald W.L., Lazebnik Y.A., Cordon-Cardo C., Lowe S.W. Inactivation of the apoptosis effector Apaf-1 in malignant melanoma. Nature 2001, 409:207-211.
190. Zhang X.D., Gillespie S.K., Borrow J.M., Hersey P. The histone deacetylase inhibitor suberic bishydroxamate regulates the expression of multiple apoptotic mediators and induces mitochondria-dependent apoptosis of melanoma cells. Mol. Cancer Ther. 2004, 3:425-435.
191. Zhang X.D., Gillespie S.K., Borrow J.M., Hersey P. The histone deacetylase inhibitor suberic bishydroxamate: a potential sensitizer of melanoma to TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) induced apoptosis. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2003, 66:1537-1545.
192. Facchetti F., Previdi S., Ballarini M., Minucci S., Perego P., La Porta C.A. Modulation of pro- and anti-apoptotic factors in human melanoma cells exposed to histone deacetylase inhibitors. Apoptosis 2004, 9:573-582.
193. Sparmann A., van Lohuizen M. Polycomb silencers control cell fate, development and cancer. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2006, 6:846-856.
194. Jacobs J.J., van Lohuizen M. Polycomb repression: from cellular memory to cellular proliferation and cancer. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2002, 1602:151-161.
195. Pasini D., Bracken A.P., Helin K. Polycomb group proteins in cell cycle progression and cancer. Cell Cycle 2004, 3:396-400.
196. McHugh J.B., Fullen D.R., Ma L., Kleer C.G., Su L.D. Expression of Polycomb group protein EZH2 in nevi and melanoma. J. Cutan. Pathol. 2007, 34:597-600.
197. Bachmann I.M., Halvorsen O.J., Collett K., Stefansson I.M., Straume O., Haukaas S.A., Salvesen H.B., Otte A.P., Akslen L.A. EZH2 expression is associated with high proliferation rate and aggressive tumor subgroups in cutaneous melanoma and cancers of the endometrium, prostate, and breast. J. Clin. Oncol. 2006, 24:268-273.
198. Jacobs J.J., Kieboom K., Marino S., DePinho R.A., van Lohuizen M. The oncogene and Polycomb-group gene bmi-1 regulates cell proliferation and senescence through the ink4a locus. Nature 1999, 397:164-168.
199. Bachmann I.M., Puntervoll H.E., Otte A.P., Akslen L.A. Loss of BMI-1 expression is associated with clinical progress of malignant melanoma. Mod. Pathol. 2008, 21:583-590.
200. Barradas M., Anderton E., Acosta J.C., Li S., Banito A., Rodriguez-Niedenfuhr M., Maertens G., Banck M., Zhou M.M., Walsh M.J., Peters G., Gil J. Histone demethylase JMJD3 contributes to epigenetic control of INK4a/ARF by oncogenic RAS. Genes Dev. 2009, 23:1177-1182.
201. Agger K., Cloos P.A., Rudkjaer L., Williams K., Andersen G., Christensen J., Helin K. The H3K27me3 demethylase JMJD3 contributes to the activation of the INK4A-ARF locus in response to oncogene- and stress-induced senescence. Genes Dev. 2009, 23:1171-1176.
202. Roesch A., Becker B., Schneider-Brachert W., Hagen I., Landthaler M., Vogt T. Re-expression of the retinoblastoma-binding protein 2-homolog 1 reveals tumor-suppressive functions in highly metastatic melanoma cells. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2006, 126:1850-1859.
203. Roesch A., Mueller A.M., Stempfl T., Moehle C., Landthaler M., Vogt T. RBP2-H1/JARID1B is a transcriptional regulator with a tumor suppressive potential in melanoma cells. Int. J. Cancer 2008, 122:1047-1057.
204. Roesch A., Becker B., Meyer S., Wild P., Hafner C., Landthaler M., Vogt T. Retinoblastoma-binding protein 2-homolog 1: a retinoblastoma-binding protein downregulated in malignant melanomas. Mod. Pathol. 2005, 18:1249-1257.
205. Roesch A., Fukunaga-Kalabis M., Schmidt E.C., Zabierowski S.E., Brafford P.A., Vultur A., Basu D., Gimotty P., Vogt T., Herlyn M. A temporarily distinct subpopulation of slow-cycling melanoma cells is required for continuous tumor growth. Cell 2010, 141:583-594.
206. Saha A., Wittmeyer J., Cairns B.R. Chromatin remodelling: the industrial revolution of DNA around histones. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2006, 7:437-447.
207. Wilson B.G., Roberts C.W. SWI/SNF nucleosome remodellers and cancer. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2011, 11:481-492.
208. Becker T.M., Haferkamp S., Dijkstra M.K., Scurr L.L., Frausto M., Diefenbach E., Scolyer R.A., Reisman D.N., Mann G.J., Kefford R.F., Rizos H. The chromatin remodelling factor BRG1 is a novel binding partner of the tumor suppressor p16INK4a. Mol. Cancer 2009, 8:4.
209. Keenen B., Qi H., Saladi S.V., Yeung M., de la Serna I.L. Heterogeneous SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complexes promote expression of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor target genes in melanoma. Oncogene 2010, 29:81-92.
210. de la Serna I.L., Ohkawa Y., Higashi C., Dutta C., Osias J., Kommajosyula N., Tachibana T., Imbalzano A.N. The microphthalmia-associated transcription factor requires SWI/SNF enzymes to activate melanocyte-specific genes. J. Biol. Chem. 2006, 281:20233-20241.
211. Vachtenheim J., Ondrusova L., Borovansky J. SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex is critical for the expression of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor in melanoma cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2010, 392:454-459.
212. Bandyopadhyay D., Curry J.L., Lin Q., Richards H.W., Chen D., Hornsby P.J., Timchenko N.A., Medrano E.E. Dynamic assembly of chromatin complexes during cellular senescence: implications for the growth arrest of human melanocytic nevi. Aging Cell 2007, 6:577-591.
213. Wajapeyee N., Serra R.W., Zhu X., Mahalingam M., Green M.R. Oncogenic BRAF induces senescence and apoptosis through pathways mediated by the secreted protein IGFBP7. Cell 2008, 132:363-374.
214. Vinod Saladi S., Marathe H., de la Serna I.L. SWItching on the transcriptional circuitry in melanoma. Epigenetics 2010, 5:469-475.
215. Dunaief J.L., Strober B.E., Guha S., Khavari P.A., Alin K., Luban J., Begemann M., Crabtree G.R., Goff S.P. The retinoblastoma protein and BRG1 form a complex and cooperate to induce cell cycle arrest. Cell 1994, 79:119-130.
216. Zhang H.S., Gavin M., Dahiya A., Postigo A.A., Ma D., Luo R.X., Harbour J.W., Dean D.C. Exit from G1 and S phase of the cell cycle is regulated by repressor complexes containing HDAC-Rb-hSWI/SNF and Rb-hSWI/SNF. Cell 2000, 101:79-89.
217. Isakoff M.S., Sansam C.G., Tamayo P., Subramanian A., Evans J.A., Fillmore C.M., Wang X., Biegel J.A., Pomeroy S.L., Mesirov J.P., Roberts C.W. Inactivation of the Snf5 tumor suppressor stimulates cell cycle progression and cooperates with p53 loss in oncogenic transformation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2005, 102:17745-17750.
218. Trouche D., Le Chalony C., Muchardt C., Yaniv M., Kouzarides T. RB and hbrm cooperate to repress the activation functions of E2F1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1997, 94:11268-11273.
219. Freedberg D.E., Rigas S.H., Russak J., Gai W., Kaplow M., Osman I., Turner F., Randerson-Moor J.A., Houghton A., Busam K., Timothy Bishop D., Bastian B.C., Newton-Bishop J.A., Polsky D. Frequent p16-independent inactivation of p14ARF in human melanoma. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2008, 100:784-795.
220. Straume O., Smeds J., Kumar R., Hemminki K., Akslen L.A. Significant impact of promoter hypermethylation and the 540 C>T polymorphism of CDKN2A in cutaneous melanoma of the vertical growth phase. Am. J. Pathol. 2002, 161:229-237.
221. Peters G. Tumor suppression for ARFicionados: the relative contributions of p16INK4a and p14ARF in melanoma. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2008, 100:757-759.
222. Gray-Schopfer V.C., Cheong S.C., Chong H., Chow J., Moss T., Abdel-Malek Z.A., Marais R., Wynford-Thomas D., Bennett D.C. Cellular senescence in naevi and immortalisation in melanoma: a role for p16?. Br. J. Cancer 2006, 95:496-505.
223. Ohm J.E., McGarvey K.M., Yu X., Cheng L., Schuebel K.E., Cope L., Mohammad H.P., Chen W., Daniel V.C., Yu W., Berman D.M., Jenuwein T., Pruitt K., Sharkis S.J., Watkins D.N., Herman J.G., Baylin S.B. A stem cell-like chromatin pattern may predispose tumor suppressor genes to DNA hypermethylation and heritable silencing. Nat. Genet. 2007, 39:237-242.
224. Bracken A.P., Dietrich N., Pasini D., Hansen K.H., Helin K. Genome-wide mapping of Polycomb target genes unravels their roles in cell fate transitions. Genes Dev. 2006, 20:1123-1136.
225. Gil J., Bernard D., Martinez D., Beach D. Polycomb CBX7 has a unifying role in cellular lifespan. Nat. Cell Biol. 2004, 6:67-72.
226. Dietrich N., Bracken A.P., Trinh E., Schjerling C.K., Koseki H., Rappsilber J., Helin K., Hansen K.H. Bypass of senescence by the Polycomb group protein CBX8 through direct binding to the INK4A-ARF locus. EMBO J. 2007, 26:1637-1648.
227. Voncken J.W., Roelen B.A., Roefs M., de Vries S., Verhoeven E., Marino S., Deschamps J., van Lohuizen M. Rnf2 (Ring1b) deficiency causes gastrulation arrest and cell cycle inhibition. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2003, 100:2468-2473.
228. Bracken A.P., Kleine-Kohlbrecher D., Dietrich N., Pasini D., Gargiulo G., Beekman C., Theilgaard-Monch K., Minucci S., Porse B.T., Marine J.C., Hansen K.H., Helin K. The Polycomb group proteins bind throughout the INK4A-ARF locus and are disassociated in senescent cells. Genes Dev. 2007, 21:525-530.
229. Khalil A.M., Guttman M., Huarte M., Garber M., Raj A., Rivea Morales D., Thomas K., Presser A., Bernstein B.E., van Oudenaarden A., Regev A., Lander E.S., Rinn J.L. Many human large intergenic noncoding RNAs associate with chromatin-modifying complexes and affect gene expression. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2009, 106:11667-11672.
230. Friedman J.M., Liang G., Liu C.C., Wolff E.M., Tsai Y.C., Ye W., Zhou X., Jones P.A. The putative tumor suppressor microRNA-101 modulates the cancer epigenome by repressing the Polycomb group protein EZH2. Cancer Res. 2009, 69:2623-2629.
231. Varambally S., Cao Q., Mani R.S., Shankar S., Wang X., Ateeq B., Laxman B., Cao X., Jing X., Ramnarayanan K., Brenner J.C., Yu J., Kim J.H., Han B., Tan P., Kumar-Sinha C., Lonigro R.J., Palanisamy N., Maher C.A., Chinnaiyan A.M. Genomic loss of microRNA-101 leads to overexpression of histone methyltransferase EZH2 in cancer. Science 2008, 322:1695-1699.
232. Lal A., Kim H.H., Abdelmohsen K., Kuwano Y., Pullmann R., Srikantan S., Subrahmanyam R., Martindale J.L., Yang X., Ahmed F., Navarro F., Dykxhoorn D., Lieberman J., Gorospe M. p16(INK4a) translation suppressed by miR-24. PLoS One 2008, 3:e1864.
233. Oruetxebarria I., Venturini F., Kekarainen T., Houweling A., Zuijderduijn L.M., Mohd-Sarip A., Vries R.G., Hoeben R.C., Verrijzer C.P. P16INK4a is required for hSNF5 chromatin remodeler-induced cellular senescence in malignant rhabdoid tumor cells. J. Biol. Chem. 2004, 279:3807-3816.
234. Kia S.K., Gorski M.M., Giannakopoulos S., Verrijzer C.P. SWI/SNF mediates Polycomb eviction and epigenetic reprogramming of the INK4b-ARF-INK4a locus. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2008, 28:3457-3464.
235. Ugurel S., Houben R., Schrama D., Voigt H., Zapatka M., Schadendorf D., Brocker E.B., Becker J.C. Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor gene amplification in metastatic melanoma is a prognostic marker for patient survival, but not a predictive marker for chemosensitivity and chemotherapy response. Clin. Cancer Res. 2007, 13:6344-6350.
236. Stahl J.M., Cheung M., Sharma A., Trivedi N.R., Shanmugam S., Robertson G.P. Loss of PTEN promotes tumor development in malignant melanoma. Cancer Res. 2003, 63:2881-2890.
237. Mirmohammadsadegh A., Marini A., Nambiar S., Hassan M., Tannapfel A., Ruzicka T., Hengge U.R. Epigenetic silencing of the PTEN gene in melanoma. Cancer Res. 2006, 66:6546-6552.
238. Kitago M., Martinez S.R., Nakamura T., Sim M.S., Hoon D.S. Regulation of RUNX3 tumor suppressor gene expression in cutaneous melanoma. Clin. Cancer Res. 2009, 15:2988-2994.
239. Hussein M.R., Roggero E., Tuthill R.J., Wood G.S., Sudilovsky O. Identification of novel deletion loci at 1p36 and 9p22-21 in melanocytic dysplastic nevi and cutaneous malignant melanomas. Arch. Dermatol. 2003, 139:816-817.
240. Poetsch M., Dittberner T., Woenckhaus C. Microsatellite analysis at 1p36.3 in malignant melanoma of the skin: fine mapping in search of a possible tumour suppressor gene region. Melanoma Res. 2003, 13:29-33.
241. Fujiwara Y., Chi D.D., Wang H., Keleman P., Morton D.L., Turner R., Hoon D.S. Plasma DNA microsatellites as tumor-specific markers and indicators of tumor progression in melanoma patients. Cancer Res. 1999, 59:1567-1571.
242. Gollob J.A., Sciambi C.J., Peterson B.L., Richmond T., Thoreson M., Moran K., Dressman H.K., Jelinek J., Issa J.P. Phase I trial of sequential low-dose 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine plus high-dose intravenous bolus interleukin-2 in patients with melanoma or renal cell carcinoma. Clin. Cancer Res. 2006, 12:4619-4627.
243. Sauter E.R., Yeo U.C., von Stemm A., Zhu W., Litwin S., Tichansky D.S., Pistritto G., Nesbit M., Pinkel D., Herlyn M., Bastian B.C. Cyclin D1 is a candidate oncogene in cutaneous melanoma. Cancer Res. 2002, 62:3200-3206.
244. Straume O., Akslen L.A. Alterations and prognostic significance of p16 and p53 protein expression in subgroups of cutaneous melanoma. Int. J. Cancer 1997, 74:535-539.
245. Helmbold P., Richter A.M., Walesch S., Skorokhod A., Marsch W.C., Enk A., Dammann R.H. RASSF10 promoter hypermethylation is frequent in malignant melanoma of the skin but uncommon in nevus cell nevi. J. Invest. Dermatol. 2011, 132:687-694.
246. Worm J., Christensen C., Gronbaek K., Tulchinsky E., Guldberg P. Genetic and epigenetic alterations of the APC gene in malignant melanoma. Oncogene 2004, 23:5215-5226.
247. Gonzalgo M.L., Bender C.M., You E.H., Glendening J.M., Flores J.F., Walker G.J., Hayward N.K., Jones P.A., Fountain J.W. Low frequency of p16/CDKN2A methylation in sporadic melanoma: comparative approaches for methylation analysis of primary tumors. Cancer Res. 1997, 57:5336-5347.
248. Healey M.A., Deaton S.L., Alder J.K., Winnepenninckx V., Casero R.A., Herman J.G. Id1 overexpression is independent of repression and epigenetic silencing of tumor suppressor genes in melanoma. Epigenetics 2010, 5:410-421.
249. Worm J., Bartkova J., Kirkin A.F., Straten P., Zeuthen J., Bartek J., Guldberg P. Aberrant p27Kip1 promoter methylation in malignant melanoma. Oncogene 2000, 19:5111-5115.
250. Guan X., Sagara J., Yokoyama T., Koganehira Y., Oguchi M., Saida T., Taniguchi S. ASC/TMS1, a caspase-1 activating adaptor, is downregulated by aberrant methylation in human melanoma. Int. J. Cancer 2003, 107:202-208.
251. Arab K., Smith L.T., Gast A., Weichenhan D., Huang J.P., Claus R., Hielscher T., Espinosa A.V., Ringel M.D., Morrison C.D., Schadendorf D., Kumar R., Plass C. Epigenetic deregulation of TCF21 inhibits metastasis suppressor KISS1 in metastatic melanoma. Carcinogenesis 2011, 32:1467-1473.
252. Satzger I., Mattern A., Kuettler U., Weinspach D., Voelker B., Kapp A., Gutzmer R. MicroRNA-15b represents an independent prognostic parameter and is correlated with tumor cell proliferation and apoptosis in malignant melanoma. Int. J. Cancer 2010, 126:2553-2562.
253. Levati L., Alvino E., Pagani E., Arcelli D., Caporaso P., Bondanza S., Di Leva G., Ferracin M., Volinia S., Bonmassar E., Croce C.M., D'Atri S. Altered expression of selected microRNAs in melanoma: antiproliferative and proapoptotic activity of miRNA-155. Int. J. Oncol. 2009, 35:393-400.
254. Greenberg E., Hershkovitz L., Itzhaki O., Hajdu S., Nemlich Y., Ortenberg R., Gefen N., Edry L., Modai S., Keisari Y., Besser M.J., Schachter J., Shomron N., Markel G. Regulation of cancer aggressive features in melanoma cells by microRNAs. PLoS One 2011, 6:e18936.
255. L. Jiang, X. Lv, J. Li, X. Li,W. Li, Y. Li, The status of microRNA-21 expression and its 1584 clinical significance in human cutaneous malignant melanoma, Acta Histochem. [Electronic publication ahead of print], doi:. doi:10.1016/j.acthis.2011.11.001.
256. Yang C.H., Yue J., Pfeffer S.R., Handorf C.R., Pfeffer L.M. MicroRNA miR-21 regulates the metastatic behavior of B16 melanoma cells. J. Biol. Chem. 2011, 286:39172-39178.
257. Grignol V., Fairchild E.T., Zimmerer J.M., Lesinski G.B., Walker M.J., Magro C.M., Kacher J.E., Karpa V.I., Clark J., Nuovo G., Lehman A., Volinia S., Agnese D.M., Croce C.M., Carson W.E. miR-21 and miR-155 are associated with mitotic activity and lesion depth of borderline melanocytic lesions. Br. J. Cancer 2011, 105:1023-1029.
258. Gaziel-Sovran A., Segura M.F., Di Micco R., Collins M.K., Hanniford D., Vega-Saenz de Miera E., Rakus J.F., Dankert J.F., Shang S., Kerbel R.S., Bhardwaj N., Shao Y., Darvishian F., Zavadil J., Erlebacher A., Mahal L.K., Osman I., Hernando E. miR-30b/30d regulation of GalNAc transferases enhances invasion and immunosuppression during metastasis. Cancer Cell 2011, 20:104-118.
259. Deng Y., Deng H., Bi F., Liu J., Bemis L.T., Norris D., Wang X.J., Zhang Q. MicroRNA-137 targets carboxyl-terminal binding protein 1 in melanoma cell lines. Int. J. Biol. Sci. 2011, 7:133-137.
260. Levati L., Pagani E., Romani S., Castiglia D., Piccinni E., Covaciu C., Caporaso P., Bondanza S., Antonetti F.R., Bonmassar E., Martelli F., Alvino E., D'Atri S. MicroRNA-155 targets the SKI gene in human melanoma cell lines. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2011, 24:538-550.
261. Gaur A., Jewell D.A., Liang Y., Ridzon D., Moore J.H., Chen C., Ambros V.R., Israel M.A. Characterization of microRNA expression levels and their biological correlates in human cancer cell lines. Cancer Res. 2007, 67:2456-2468.
262. Mueller D.W., Bosserhoff A.K. MicroRNA miR-196a controls melanoma-associated genes by regulating HOX-C8 expression. Int. J. Cancer 2011, 129:1064-1074.
263. Braig S., Mueller D.W., Rothhammer T., Bosserhoff A.K. MicroRNA miR-196a is a central regulator of HOX-B7 and BMP4 expression in malignant melanoma. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 2010, 67:3535-3548.
264. Boyle G.M., Woods S.L., Bonazzi V.F., Stark M.S., Hacker E., Aoude L.G., Dutton-Regester K., Cook A.L., Sturm R.A., Hayward N.K. Melanoma cell invasiveness is regulated by miR-211 suppression of the BRN2 transcription factor. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2011, 24:525-537.
265. Sakurai E., Maesawa C., Shibazaki M., Yasuhira S., Oikawa H., Sato M., Tsunoda K., Ishikawa Y., Watanabe A., Takahashi K., Akasaka T., Masuda T. Downregulation of microRNA-211 is involved in expression of preferentially expressed antigen of melanoma in melanoma cells. Int. J. Oncol. 2011, 39:665-672.
266. Penna E., Orso F., Cimino D., Tenaglia E., Lembo A., Quaglino E., Poliseno L., Haimovic A., Osella-Abate S., De Pitta C., Pinatel E., Stadler M.B., Provero P., Bernengo M.G., Osman I., Taverna D. microRNA-214 contributes to melanoma tumour progression through suppression of TFAP2C. EMBO J. 2011, 30:1990-2007.
267. Igoucheva O., Alexeev V. MicroRNA-dependent regulation of cKit in cutaneous melanoma. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2009, 379:790-794.
268. Felicetti F., Errico M.C., Segnalini P., Mattia G., Care A. MicroRNA-221 and -222 pathway controls melanoma progression. Expert Rev. Anticancer Ther. 2008, 8:1759-1765.
269. Felicetti F., Errico M.C., Bottero L., Segnalini P., Stoppacciaro A., Biffoni M., Felli N., Mattia G., Petrini M., Colombo M.P., Peschle C., Care A. The promyelocytic leukemia zinc finger-microRNA-221/-222 pathway controls melanoma progression through multiple oncogenic mechanisms. Cancer Res. 2008, 68:2745-2754.
270. Kanemaru H., Fukushima S., Yamashita J., Honda N., Oyama R., Kakimoto A., Masuguchi S., Ishihara T., Inoue Y., Jinnin M., Ihn H. The circulating microRNA-221 level in patients with malignant melanoma as a new tumor marker. J. Dermatol. Sci. 2011, 61:187-193.