Water crystallization and its importance to freezing of foods: A review

Trends in Food Science and Technology

Volumn 22, Issue 8, 2011, Pages 407-426

  Kiani, Hossein ^a   Sun, Da Wen ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE DUBLIN   (Ireland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CRYSTALLIZATION PHENOMENON; FREEZING PROCESS; HIGH PRESSURE; ICE CRYSTALS; NOVEL METHODS; NUCLEATION AND GROWTH; PROCESS EVALUATION; WATER CRYSTALLIZATION;

AMORPHOUS ALLOYS; CRYSTALLIZATION; INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; NUCLEATION; RESONANCE;

FREEZING;

EID: 79960464088     PISSN: 09242244     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2011.04.011     Document Type: Review

References (152)

1. Acton, E., & Morris, G. J., (1992). Method and apparatus for the control of solidification in liquids, WO 99/20420, USA Patent Application, USA.
2. Aguilera J.M., Stanley D.W. Microstructural principles of food processing and engineering 1999, Aspen Publishers, Inc, USA.
3. Ahmad S., Yaghmaee P., Durance T. Optimization of dehydration of lactobacillus salivarius using radiant energy vacuum. Food and Bioprocess Technology 2010, 1-9.
4. Alizadeh E., Chapleau N., de Lamballerie M., Le-Bail A. Effect of different freezing processes on the microstructure of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) fillets. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 2007, 8:493-499.
5. Arai S., Watanabe M. Freeze texturing of food materials by ice-nucleation with the bacterium Erwinia-Ananas. Agricultural and Biological Chemistry 1986, 50:169-175.
6. Arnaud L., Gay M., Barnola J.M., Duval P. Imaging of firn and bubbly ice in coaxial reflected light: a new technique for the characterization of these porous media. Journal of Glaciology 1998, 44:326-332.
7. Ashokkumar M., Grieser F. Ultrasound assisted chemical processes. Reviews in Chemical Engineering 1999, 15:41-83.
8. Alvarez M., Fernández C., Canet W. Oscillatory rheological properties of fresh and frozen/thawed mashed potatoes as modified by different cryoprotectants. Food and Bioprocess Technology 2010, 3:55-70.
9. Alizadeh E., Chapleau N., de-Lamballerie M., Le-Bail A. Impact of freezing process on salt diffusivity of seafood: application to salmon (salmo salar) using conventional and pressure shift freezing. Food and Bioprocess Technology 2009, 2:257-262.
10. Bae S.K., Miyawaki O., Yano T. Ice structure size in frozen agar gels analyzed by Mercury porosimetry. Bioscience Biotechnology and Biochemistry 1993, 57:1624-1627.
11. Baier-Schenk A., Handschin S., von Schonau M., Bittermann A.G., Bachi T., Conde-Petit B. In situ observation of the freezing process in wheat dough by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM): formation of ice and changes in the gluten network. Journal of Cereal Science 2005, 42:255-260.
12. Bald W.B. On crystal size and cooling rate. Journal of Microscopy-Oxford 1986, 143:89-102.
13. Bald W.B. Ice crystal growth in idealised freezing system. Food freezing: Today and tomorrow 1991, Springer-Verlag, London/New York. W.B. Bald (Ed.).
14. Banga S., Chawla G., Bansal A.K. New trends in the crystallization of active pharmaceutical ingredients. Business Briefing: Pharmagenerics 2004, 6:70-74.
15. Barry H., Dumay E.M., Cheftel J.M. Influence of pressure-assisted freezing on the structure, hydration and mechanical properties of a protein gel. High pressure food science, Bioscience and chemistry 1998, The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK. N.S. Isaacs (Ed.).
16. Bevilacqua A.E., Zaritzky N.E. Ice morphology in frozen beef. Journal of Food Technology 1980, 15:589-597.
17. Bevilacqua A., Zaritzky N.E., Calvelo A. Histological measurements of ice in frozen beef. Journal of Food Technology 1979, 14:237-251.
18. Bischof J.C., Mahr B., Choi J.H., Behling M., Mewes D. Use of X-ray tomography to map crystalline and amorphous phases in frozen biomaterials. Annals of Biomedical Engineering 2007, 35:292-304.
19. Bomben J.L., King C.J. Heat and mass-transport in the freezing of apple tissue. Journal of Food Technology 1982, 17:615-632.
20. Butler M.F. Instability formation and directional dendritic growth of ice studied by optical interferometry. Crystal Growth and Design 2001, 1:213-223.
21. de Paula R., Colet R., de Oliveira D., Valduga E., Treichel H. Assessment of different packaging structures in the stability of frozen fresh Brazilian toscana sausage. Food and Bioprocess Technology 2011, 4:481-485.
22. Delgado A., Zheng L., Sun D.-W. Influence of ultrasound on freezing rate of immersion-frozen apples. Food and Bioprocess Technology 2009, 2:263-270.
23. Caillet A., Cogne C., Andrieu J., Laurent P., Rivoire A. Characterization of ice cream structure by direct optical microscopy. Influence of freezing parameters. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft Und-Technologie-Food Science and Technology 2003, 36:743-749.
24. Calvelo A. Recent studies on meat freezing. Developments in meat science 1981, Applied Science Publishers, Barking, UK. R. Lawrie (Ed.).
25. Chalmers B. Principles of solidification 1964, Wiley, New York.
26. Chernov A.A. Formation of crystals in solutions. Contemporary Physics 1989, 30:251-276.
27. Chevalier D., Le Bail A., Ghoul M. Freezing and ice crystals formed in a cylindrical food model: part I. Freezing at atmospheric pressure. Journal of Food Engineering 2000, 46:277-285.
28. Chevalier D., Le Bail A., Ghoul M. Freezing and ice crystals formed in a cylindrical food model: part II. Comparison between freezing at atmospheric pressure and pressure-shift freezing. Journal of Food Engineering 2000, 46:287-293.
29. Chevalier D., Sentissi M., Havet M., Le Bail A. Comparison of air-blast and pressure shift freezing on Norway lobster quality. Journal of Food Science 2000, 65:329-333.
30. Chow R., Blindt R., Chivers R., Povey M. The sonocrystallisation of ice in sucrose solutions: primary and secondary nucleation. Ultrasonics 2003, 41:595-604.
31. Chow R., Blindt R., Chivers R., Povey M. A study on the primary and secondary nucleation of ice by power ultrasound. Ultrasonics 2005, 43:227-230.
32. Chow R., Blindt R., Kamp A., Grocutt P., Chivers R. The microscopic visualisation of the sonocrystallisation of ice using a novel ultrasonic cold stage. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 2004, 11:245-250.
33. Cleland D.J., Cleland A.C., Earle R.L., Byrne S.J. Prediction of freezing and thawing times for multi-dimensional shapes by numerical methods. International Journal of Refrigeration 1987, 10:32-39.
34. Damodaran S., Parkin K., Fennema O.R. Fennema's food chemistry 2007, Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton.
35. Delgado A.E., Rubiolo A.C. Microstructural changes in strawberry after freezing and thawing processes. Lwt-Food Science and Technology 2005, 38:135-142.
36. Delgado A.E., Sun D.-W. Heat and mass transfer models for predicting freezing processes - a review. Journal of Food Engineering 2001, 47:157-174.
37. Delgado A.E., Sun D.-W. One-dimensional finite difference modelling of heat and mass transfer during thawing of cooked cured meat. Journal of Food Engineering 2003, 57:383-389.
38. Dirksen J.A., Ring T.A. Fundamentals of crystallisation kinetic effects on particle size distribution and morphology. Chemical Engineering Science 1991, 46:23-89.
39. Do G.S., Sagara Y., Tabata M., Kudoh K., Higuchi T. Three-dimensional measurement of ice crystals in frozen beef with a micro-slicer image processing system. International Journal of Refrigeration-Revue Internationale Du Froid 2004, 27:184-190.
40. Evans J., Adler J., Mitchell J., Blanshard J., Rodger G. Use of confocal laser scanning microscope in conjunction with a conduction heat transfer stage in order to observe dynamically the freeze-thaw cycle in an autofluorescent substance and to measure ice crystal size in situ. Cryobiology 1996, 33:27-33.
41. Faydi E., Andrieu J., Laurent P. Experimental study and modelling of the ice crystal morphology of model standard ice cream. Part I: direct characterization method and experimental data. Journal of Food Engineering 2001, 48:283-291.
42. Feder N., Sidman R.L. Methods and principles of fixation by freeze-Substitution. Journal of Biophysical and Biochemical Cytology 1958, 4:593-602.
43. Fennema O.R., Powrie W.D., Marth E.H. Low temperature preservation of foods and living matter 1973, Marcel Dekker, New York.
44. Fernandez P.P., Otero L., Guignon B., Sanz P.D. High-pressure shift freezing versus high-pressure assisted freezing: effects on the microstructure of a food model. Food Hydrocolloids 2006, 20:510-522.
45. Fikiin K.A. Novelties of food freezing research in europe and beyond. Flair-flow europe Synthetic Brochure for SMEs 2003, INRA: Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Paris.
46. Fuchigami M., Kato N., Teramoto A. High-pressure-freezing effects on textural quality of carrots. Journal of Food Science 1997, 62:804-808.
47. Fuchigami M., Kato N., Teramoto A. High-pressure-freezing effects on textural quality of Chinese cabbage. Journal of Food Science 1998, 63:122-125.
48. Fuchigami M., Teramoto A. Structural and textural changes in kinu-tofu due to high-pressure-freezing. Journal of Food Science 1997, 62:828-837.
49. Fuller M.P., Wisniewski M. The use of infrared thermal imaging in the study of ice nucleation and freezing of plants. Journal of Thermal Biology 1998, 23:81-89.
50. Gibbs J.W. Thermodynamics collected works 1948, Longmans-Green, New York.
51. Gong C.L., Hart D.P. Ultrasound induced cavitation and sonochemical yields. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 1998, 104:2675-2682.
52. Grant D.J.W. Theory and origin of polymorphism. Polymorphism in pharmaceutical solids 1999, Marcel Dekker Inc, New York. H.G. Brittain (Ed.).
53. Griffith M., Ewart K.V. Antifreeze proteins and their potential use in frozen foods. Biotechnology Advances 1995, 13:375-402.
54. Hagiwara T., Wang H.L., Suzuki T., Takai R. Fractal analysis of ice crystals in frozen food. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2002, 50:3085-3089.
55. Hanyu Y., Ichikawa M., Matsumoto G. An improved Cryofixation method - Cryoquenching of small tissue Blocks during microwave irradiation. Journal of Microscopy-Oxford 1992, 165:255-271.
56. Hartel R. Crystallization in foods 2001, Aspen Publishers, Gaithersburg, Maryland.
57. Heldman D.R. Food freezing. Handbook of food engineering 2007, CRC, New York/London. D.R. Heldman, D.B. Lund (Eds.).
58. Hills B.P., Remigereau B. NMR studies of changes in subcellular water compartmentation in parenchyma apple tissue during drying and freezing. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 1997, 32:51-61.
59. Hindmarsh J.P., Buckley C., Russell A.B., Chen X.D., Gladden L.F., Wilson D.I., et al. Imaging droplet freezing using MRI. Chemical Engineering Science 2004, 59:2113-2122.
60. Hindmarsh J.P., Wilson D.I., Johns M.L., Russell A.B., Chen X.D. NMR verification of single droplet freezing models. Aiche Journal 2005, 51:2640-2648.
61. Hottot A., Vessot S., Andrieu J. A direct characterization method of the ice morphology. Relationship between mean crystals size and primary drying times of freeze-drying processes. Drying Technology 2004, 22:2009-2021.
62. Inada T., Zhang X., Yabe A., Kozawa Y. Active control of phase change from supercooled water to ice by ultrasonic vibration 1. Control of freezing temperature. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 2001, 44:4523-4531.
63. Ishiguro H., Koike K. Three-dimensional behavior of ice crystals and biological cells during freezing of cell suspensions. Biotransport: Heat and Mass Transfer in Living Systems 1998, 858:235-244.
64. Jackson T.H., Ungan A., Critser J.K., Gao D.Y. Novel microwave technology for cryopreservation of biomaterials by suppression of apparent ice formation. Cryobiology 1997, 34:363-372.
65. Jin S., Kim I., Jung H., Kim D., Choi Y., Hur S. Effect of cryoprotectants on chemical, mechanical and sensorial characteristics of spent laying hen surimi. Food and Bioprocess Technology 2010, 1-7.
66. Kalichevsky M.T., Knorr D., Lillford P.J. Potential food applications of high-pressure effects on ice-water Transitions. Trends in Food Science & Technology 1995, 6:253-259.
67. Kashchiev D. Nucleation: Basic theory with applications 2000, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford/Boston.
68. Kashchiev D., van Rosmalen G.M. Review: nucleation in solutions revisited. Crystal Research and Technology 2003, 38:555-574.
69. Kennedy C.J. Future trends in frozen foods. Managing frozen foods 2000, CRC Press ; Woodhead Publishing, Boca Raton, FL/Cambridge. C.J. Kennedy (Ed.).
70. Kirk S., Skepper J., Donald A.M. Application of environmental scanning electron microscopy to determine biological surface structure. Journal of Microscopy-Oxford 2009, 233:205-224.
71. Kochs M., Korber C., Heschel I., Nunner B. The influence of the freezing process on vapor transport during sublimation in vacuum-drying freeze-drying of macroscopic samples. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 1993, 36:1727-1738.
72. Kourosh S., Crawford M.E., Diller K.R. Microscopic study of coupled heat and mass-transport during unidirectional solidification of binary-solutions. 1. Thermal-analysis. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 1990, 33:29-38.
73. Kourosh S., Diller K.R., Crawford M.E. Microscopic study of coupled heat and mass-transport during unidirectional solidification of binary-solutions. 2. Mass-transfer analysis. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 1990, 33:39-53.
74. LeBail A., Chevalier D., Mussa D.M., Ghoul M. High pressure freezing and thawing of foods: a review. International Journal of Refrigeration-Revue Internationale Du Froid 2002, 25:504-513.
75. Le-Bail A., Nicolitch C., Vuillod C. Fermented frozen dough: impact of pre-fermentation time and of freezing rate for a pre-fermented frozen dough on final volume of the bread. Food and Bioprocess Technology 2010, 3:197-203.
76. Lee D.K., Kwon B.S., Ramamoorthy A. Freezing point depression of water in phospholipid membranes: a solid-state NMR study. Langmuir 2008, 24:13598-13604.
77. Li J.K., Lee T.C. Bacterial ice nucleation and its potential application in the food-industry. Trends in Food Science and Technology 1995, 6:259-265.
78. Li J.K., Lee T.C. Bacterial extracellular ice nucleator effects on freezing of foods. Journal of Food Science 1998, 63:375-381.
79. Li B., Sun D.-W. Effect of power ultrasound on freezing rate during immersion freezing of potatoes. Journal of Food Engineering 2002, 55:277-282.
80. Li B., Sun D.-W. Novel methods for rapid freezing and thawing of foods - a review. Journal of Food Engineering 2002, 54:175-182.
81. Mahdjoub R., Chouvenc P., Seurin M.J., Andrieu J., Briguet A. Sucrose solution freezing studied by magnetic resonance imaging. Carbohydrate Research 2006, 341:492-498.
82. Maity T., Raju P., Bawa A. Effect of freezing on textural kinetics in snacks during frying. Food and Bioprocess Technology 2009, 1-11.
83. Martino M.N., Otero L., Sanz P.D., Zaritzky N.E. Size and location of ice crystals in pork frozen by high-pressure-assisted freezing as compared to classical methods. Meat Science 1998, 50:303-313.
84. Martino M.N., Zaritzky N.E. Fixing conditions in the freeze substitution technique for light-microscopy observation of frozen beef tissue. Food Microstructure 1986, 5:19-24.
85. Martins R., Castro C., Lopes V. The influence of geometrical and operational factors on supercooling capacity in strawberries: a simulation study. Food and Bioprocess Technology 2011, 4:395-407.
86. Mason T.J., Paniwnyk L., Lorimer J.P. The uses of ultrasound in food technology. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 1996, 3:S253-S260.
87. McLellan M.R., Morris G.J., Grout B.W.W., Hughes K. Light microscopy of foodstuffs during freezing and thawing In. Food freezing: Today and tomorrow 1991, Springer-Verlag, London/New York. W.B. Bald (Ed.).
88. Mersmann A. Crystallization technology handbook 2001, Marcel Dekker, Inc, London. 2 ed.
89. Mersmann A. Crystallization technology handbook 2001, CRC Press LLC, London.
90. Ming L., Rahim R., Wan H., Ariff A. Formulation of protective agents for improvement of lactobacillus salivarius I24 survival rate subjected to freeze drying for production of live cells in powderized form. Food and Bioprocess Technology 2009, 2:431-436.
91. Miyawaki O. Analysis and control of ice crystal structure in frozen food and their application to food processing. Food Science and Technology Research 2001, 7:7.
92. Miyawaki O., Abe T., Yano T. Freezing and ice structure formed in protein gels. Bioscience Biotechnology and Biochemistry 1992, 56:953-957.
93. Mohanty P. Magnetic resonance freezing system. AIRAH Journal 2001, 55:28-29.
94. Mousavi R., Miri T., Cox P.W., Fryer P.J. A novel technique for ice crystal visualization in frozen solids using X-ray micro-computed tomography. Journal of Food Science 2005, 70:E437-E442.
95. Mousavi R., Miri T., Cox P.W., Fryer P.J. Imaging food freezing using X-ray microtomography. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2007, 42:714-727.
96. Mullin J.W. Crystallization 2001, Butterworths, London. 4nd ed.
97. Myerson A.S. Crystals, crystal growth and nucleation. Handbook of industrial crystallization 2002, Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston/Oxford. A.S. Myerson (Ed.).
98. Myerson A.S. Handbook of industrial crystallization 2002, Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston/Oxford. 2nd ed.
99. Nakagawa K., Hottot A., Vessot S., Andrieu J. Influence of controlled nucleation by ultrasounds on ice morphology of frozen formulations for pharmaceutical proteins freeze-drying. Chemical Engineering and Processing 2006, 45:783-791.
100. Neils C.M., Diller K.R. An optical-axis freezing stage for laser-scanning microscopy of broad ice-water interfaces. Journal of Microscopy-Oxford 2004, 216:249-262.
101. Nielsen A.E. Theory of electrolyte crystal-growth the parabolic rate law. Pure and Applied Chemistry 1981, 53:2025-2039.
102. Norton T., Sun D.-W. Recent advances in the use of high pressure as an effective processing technique in the food industry. Food and Bioprocess Technology 2008, 1:2-34.
103. Noyes A.A., Whitney W.R. Rate of solid substances in their own solution. Journal of the American Chemical Society 1987, 19:930-934.
104. Olmo A., Baena R., Risco R. Use of a droplet nucleation analyzer in the study of water freezing kinetics under the influence of ultrasound waves. International Journal of Refrigeration 2008, 31:262-269.
105. Otero L., Martino M., Zaritzky N., Solas M., Sanz P.D. Preservation of microstructure in peach and mango during high-pressure-shift freezing. Journal of Food Science 2000, 65:466-470.
106. Otero L., Sanz P.D. High-pressure shift freezing. Part 1. Amount of ice instantaneously formed in the process. Biotechnology Progress 2000, 16:1030-1036.
107. Otero L., Sanz P.D. High-pressure-shift freezing: main factors implied in the phase transition time. Journal of Food Engineering 2006, 72:354-363.
108. Otero L., Sanz P.D., Guignon B., Aparicio C. Experimental determination of the amount of ice instantaneously formed in high-pressure shift freezing. Journal of Food Engineering 2009, 95:670-676.
109. Pardo J.M., Suess E., Niranjan K. An investigation into the relationship between freezing rate and mean ice crystal size for coffee extracts. Food and Bioproducts Processing 2002, 80:176-182.
110. Petzold G., Aguilera J.M. Ice morphology: fundamentals and technological applications in foods. Food Biophysics 2009, 4:378-396.
111. Pham Q.T. A fast, unconditionally stable finite-difference scheme for heat conduction with phase change. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 1985, 28:2079-2084.
112. Plank R. Die gefrierdauer von eisblocken. Zeischrift fur die gesamte. Kalte-Industrie 1913, 20:109-114.
113. Price C.J. Take some solid steps to improve crystallization. Chemical Engineering Progress 1997, 93:34-43.
114. Prosperetti A. Acoustic cavitation series .2. Bubble phenomena in sound fields .1. Ultrasonics 1984, 22:69-78.
115. Prosperetti A. Acoustic cavitation series .3. Bubble phenomena in sound fields .2. Ultrasonics 1984, 22:115-124.
116. Ruecroft G., Hipkiss D., Ly T., Maxted N., Cains P.W. Sonocrystallization: the use of ultrasound for improved industrial crystallization. Organic Process Research & Development 2005, 9:923-932.
117. Saclier M., Peczalski R., Andrieu J. Effect of ultrasonically induced nucleation on ice crystals' size and shape during freezing in vials. Chemical Engineering Science 2010, 65:3064-3071.
118. Sagara Y., Ichiba J. Measurement of transport-properties for the dried layer of coffee solution undergoing freeze-drying. Drying Technology 1994, 12:1081-1103.
119. Sanz P.D., Otero L., de Elvira C., Carrasco J.A. Freezing processes in high-pressure domains. International Journal of Refrigeration-Revue Internationale Du Froid 1997, 20:301-307.
120. Schlüter O., Foerster J., Geyer M., Knorr D., Herppich W. Characterization of high-hydrostatic-pressure effects on fresh produce using chlorophyll fluorescence image analysis. Food and Bioprocess Technology 2009, 2:291-299.
121. Steffolani M., Ribotta P., Perez G., Puppo M., León A. Use of enzymes to minimize dough freezing damage. Food and Bioprocess Technology 2011, 1-14.
122. Stier J.C., Filiault D.L., Wisniewski M., Palta J.P. Visualization of freezing progression in turfgrasses using infrared video thermography. Crop Science 2003, 43:415-420.
123. Streit F., Corrieu G., Béal C. Effect of centrifugation conditions on the cryotolerance of lactobacillus bulgaricus cfl1. Food and Bioprocess Technology 2010, 3:36-42.
124. Sun D.-W., Li B. Microstructural change of potato tissues frozen by ultrasound-assisted immersion freezing. Journal of Food Engineering 2003, 57:337-345.
125. Sun D.-W., Zheng L. Innovations in freezing process. Handbook of frozen food processing and packaging 2006, CRC/Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, Fla./London. D.W. Sun (Ed.).
126. Suslick K.S. Chemical, biological and physical effects. Ultrasound 1988, VCH, New York. K.S. Suslick (Ed.).
127. Thiebaud M., Dumay E.M., Cheftel J.C. Pressure-shift freezing of o/w emulsions: influence of fructose and sodium alginate on undercooling, nucleation, freezing kinetics and ice crystal size distribution. Food Hydrocolloids 2002, 16:527-545.
128. Tironi, V., de Lamballerie, M., & Le-Bail, A. Quality changes during the frozen storage of sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) muscle after pressure shift freezing and pressure assisted thawing. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, in press.
129. Tressler D.K., Van Arsdel W.B., Copley M.J. The freezing preservation of foods 1968, Avi Pub. Co, Westport, Conn.
130. Turnbull D. Phase change. Solid State Physics 1956, 3.
131. Turnbull D., Fisher J.C. Rate of nucleation in condensed systems. Journal of Chemical Physics 1949, 17:71-73.
132. Ueno S., Do G.S., Sagara Y., Kudoh K., Higuchi T. Three-dimensional measurement of ice crystals in frozen dilute solution. International Journal of Refrigeration-Revue Internationale Du Froid 2004, 27:302-308.
133. Vadivambal R., Jayas D. Applications of thermal imaging in agriculture and food industry-a review. Food and Bioprocess Technology 2011, 4:186-199.
134. Volmer M. Kinetic der Phasenbildung 1939, Steinkoff, Dresden, Germany.
135. Volmer M., Weber A. Keimbildung in ubersattigten Losungen. Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie 1926, 119.
136. Watanabe M., Arai S. Bacterial ice-nucleation activity and its application to freeze concentration of fresh foods for modification of their properties. Journal of Food Engineering 1994, 22:453-473.
137. Wathen B., Kuiper M., Walker V., Jia Z.C. New simulation model of multicomponent crystal growth and inhibition. Chemistry-a European Journal 2004, 10:1598-1605.
138. Wilson A.B. Microstructural methods for examining frozen foods. Food freezing: Today and tomorrow 1991, Springer-Verlag, London; New York. W.B. Bald (Ed.).
139. Woinet B., Andrieu J., Laurent M., Min S.G. Experimental and theoretical study of model food freezing. Part II. Characterization and modelling of the ice crystal size. Journal of Food Engineering 1998, 35:395-407.
140. Wulff G. On the question of speed of growth and dissolution of crystal surfaces. Zeitschrift Fur Krystallographie Und Mineralogie 1901, 34.
141. Yang D.S.C., Sax M., Chakrabartty A., Hew C.L. Crystal-Structure of an Antifreeze Polypeptide and its Mechanistic Implications. Nature 1988, 333:232-237.
142. Yu S., Ma Y., Zheng X., Liu X., Sun D.-W. Impacts of low and ultra-low temperature freezing on retrogradation properties of rice amylopectin during storage. Food and Bioprocess Technology 2011, 1-10.
143. Zachariassen K.E., Husby J.A. Antifreeze effect of thermal hysteresis agents protects highly supercooled insects. Nature 1982, 298:865-867.
144. Zachariassen K.E., Kristiansen E. Ice nucleation and antinucleation in nature. Cryobiology 2000, 41:257-279.
145. Zaritzky N. Physical-chemical principles in freezing. Handbook of frozen food packaging and processing 2006, Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL. D.-W. Sun (Ed.).
146. Zeldovich Y.B. On the theory of new phase formation: cavitation. Chemical physics and hydrodynamics 1992, Zhurnal Eksperimentalnoi I Teoreticheskoi Fiziki 12: 525(1942), Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. J.P. Osterik, G.I. Barenblatt, R.A. Sunayev (Eds.).
147. Zelent B., Vanderkooi J.M. Infrared spectroscopy used to study ice formation: the effect of trehalose, maltose, and glucose on melting. Analytical Biochemistry 2009, 390:215-217.
148. Zhang X., Inada T., Yabe A., Lu S.S., Kozawa Y. Active control of phase change from supercooled water to ice by ultrasonic vibration 2. Generation of ice slurries and effect of bubble nuclei. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 2001, 44:4533-4539.
149. Zhang S., Wang H., Chen G. Addition of ice-nucleation active bacteria: pseudomonas syringae pv. panici on freezing of solid model food. LWT - Food Science and Technology 2010, 43:1414-1418.
150. Zheng L., Sun D.-W. Ultrasonic assistance of food freezing. Emerging technologies for food processing 2005, Elsevier Academic Press, Amsterdam; London. D.-W. Sun (Ed.).
151. Zhu S., Le Bail A., Ramaswamy H.S., Chapleau N. Characterization of ice crystals in pork muscle formed by pressure-shift freezing as compared with classical freezing methods. Journal of Food Science 2004, 69:E190-E197.
152. Zhu S.M., Ramaswamy H.S., Le Bail A. Ice-crystal formation in gelatin gel during pressure shift versus conventional freezing. Journal of Food Engineering 2005, 66:69-76.