Nutritional modulation of training-induced skeletal muscle adaptations

Journal of Applied Physiology

Volumn 110, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 834-845

  Hawley, John A ^a   Burke, Louise M ^b   Phillips, Stuart M ^c   Spriet, Lawrence L ^d  

^a RMIT UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF SPORT   (Australia)

^c MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^d UNIVERSITY OF GUELPH   (Canada)

Author keywords

Adenosine 5= monophosphate activated protein kinase; Amino acids; Antioxidants; Carbohydrate; Endurance training; Fat; Fatty acid translocase; Leucine; Mitochondrial biogenesis; Mitogen activated protein kinase; Mrna; Protein; Pyruvate dehydrogenase; Resistance training; Train low; Training adaptation

Indexed keywords

ADAPTATION; EXERCISE; FITNESS; HUMAN; MUSCLE CONTRACTION; MUSCLE STRENGTH; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; SKELETAL MUSCLE;

ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL; HUMANS; MUSCLE CONTRACTION; MUSCLE STRENGTH; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PHYSICAL EXERTION; PHYSICAL FITNESS;

EID: 79251486187     PISSN: 87507587     EISSN: 15221601     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00949.2010     Document Type: Review

References (104)

1. Akerstrom TC, Fischer CP, Plomgaard P, Thomsen C, van Hall G, Pedersen BK. Glucose ingestion during endurance training does not alter adaptation. J Appl Physiol 106: 1771-1779, 2009.
2. Arkinstall MJ, Bruce CR, Clark SA, Rickards CA, Burke LM, Hawley JA. Regulation of fuel metabolism by preexercise muscle glycogen content and exercise intensity. J Appl Physiol 97: 2275-2283, 2004. (Pubitemid 39552469)
3. Arkinstall MJ, Tunstall RJ, Cameron-Smith D, Hawley JA. Regulation of metabolic genes in human skeletal muscle by short-term exercise and diet manipulation. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 287: E25-E31, 2004. (Pubitemid 38856278)
4. Beelen M, Tieland M, Gijsen AP, Vandereyt H, Kies AK, Kuipers H, Saris WH, Koopman R, van Loon LJ. Coingestion of carbohydrate and protein hydrolysate stimulates muscle protein synthesis during exercise in young men, with no further increase during subsequent overnight recovery. J Nutr 138: 2198-2204, 2008.
5. Bergström J, Hermansen L, Hultman E, Saltin B. Diet, muscle glycogen and physical performance. Acta Physiol Scand 71: 140-150, 1967.
6. Biolo G, Maggi SP, Williams BD, Tipton KD, Wolfe RR. Increased rates of muscle protein turnover and amino acid transport after resistance exercise in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 268: E514-E520, 1995.
7. Biolo G, Tipton KD, Klein S, Wolfe RR. An abundant supply of amino acids enhances the metabolic effect of exercise on muscle protein. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 273: E122-E129, 1997.
8. Biolo G, Williams BD, Fleming RY, Wolfe RR. Insulin action on muscle protein kinetics and amino acid transport during recovery after resistance exercise. Diabetes 48: 949-957, 1999. (Pubitemid 29226339)
9. Bigrigg JK, Heigenhauser GJ, Inglis JG, LeBlanc PJ, Peters SJ. Carbohydrate refeeding after a high-fat diet rapidly reverses the adaptive increase in human skeletal muscle PDH kinase activity. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 297: R885-R891, 2009.
10. Burd NA, Holwerda AM, Selby KC, West DW, Staples AW, Cain NE, Cashaback JG, Potvin JR, Baker SK, Phillips SM. Resistance exercise volume affects myofibrillar protein synthesis and anabolic signalling molecule phosphorylation in young men. J Physiol 588: 3119- 3130, 2010.
11. Burd NA, Tang JE, Moore DR, Phillips SM. Exercise training and protein metabolism: Influences of contraction, protein intake, and sexbased differences. J Appl Physiol 106: 1692-1701, 2009.
12. Burd NA, West DW, Staples AW, Atherton PJ, Baker JM, Moore DR, Holwerda AM, Parise G, Rennie MJ, Baker SK, Phillips SM. Low-load high volume resistance exercise stimulates muscle protein synthesis more than high-load low volume resistance exercise in young men. PLoS One 5: E12033, 2010.
13. Burk A, Timpmann S, Medijainen L, Vahi M, Oopik V. Time-divided ingestion pattern of casein-based protein supplement stimulates an increase in fat-free body mass during resistance training in young untrained men. Nutr Res 29: 405-413, 2009.
14. Burke LM, Angus DJ, Cox GR, Cummings NK, Febbraio MA, Gawthorn K, Hawley JA, Minehan M, Martin DT, Hargreaves M. Effect of fat adaptation and carbohydrate restoration on metabolism and performance during prolonged cycling. J Appl Physiol 89: 2413-2421, 2000.
15. Burke LM, Hawley JA. Effects of short-term fat adaptation on metabolism and performance of prolonged exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34: 1492-1498, 2002. (Pubitemid 35006823)
16. Cameron-Smith D, Burke LM, Angus DJ, Tunstall RJ, Cox GR, Bonen A, Hawley JA, Hargreaves M. A short-term, high-fat diet up-regulates lipid metabolism and gene expression in human skeletal muscle. Am J Clin Nutr 77: 313-318, 2003. (Pubitemid 36133371)
17. Carraro F, Stuart CA, Hartl WH, Rosenblatt J, Wolfe RR. Effect of exercise and recovery on muscle protein synthesis in human subjects. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 259: E470-E476, 1990. (Pubitemid 20340361)
18. Chan MH, McGee SL, Watt MJ, Hargreaves M, Febbraio MA. Altering dietary nutrient intake that reduces glycogen content leads to phosphorylation of nuclear p38 MAP kinase in human skeletal muscle: Association with IL-6 gene transcription during contraction. FASEB J 18: 1785-1787, 2004. (Pubitemid 39561684)
19. Churchley EG, Coffey VG, Pedersen DJ, Shield A, Carey KA, Cameron-Smith D, Hawley JA. Influence of preexercise muscle glycogen content on transcriptional activity of metabolic and myogenic genes in well-trained humans. J Appl Physiol 102: 1604-1611, 2007. (Pubitemid 46571057)
20. Cochran AJ, Little JP, Tarnopolsky MA, Gibala MJ. Carbohydrate feeding during recovery alters the skeletal muscle metabolic response to repeated sessions of high-intensity interval exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol 108: 628-636, 2010.
21. Coffey VG, Hawley JA. The molecular bases of training adaptation. Sports Med 37: 737-763, 2007. (Pubitemid 47347390)
22. Cox GR, Clark SA, Cox AJ, Halson SL, Hargreaves M, Hawley JA, Jeacocke N, Snow RJ, Yeo WK, Burke LM. Daily training with high carbohydrate availability increases exogenous carbohydrate oxidation during endurance cycling. J Appl Physiol 109: 126-134, 2010.
23. Creer A, Gallagher P, Slivka D, Jemiolo B, Fink W, Trappe S. Influence of muscle glycogen availability on ERK1/2 and Akt signaling after resistance exercise in human skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 99: 950-956, 2005. (Pubitemid 41214508)
24. Cribb PJ, Hayes A. Effects of supplement timing and resistance exercise on skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 38: 1918-1925, 2006. (Pubitemid 44707795)
25. Cribb PJ, Williams AD, Carey MF, Hayes A. The effect of whey isolate and resistance training on strength, body composition, and plasma glutamine. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 16: 494-509, 2006. (Pubitemid 44520663)
26. Cureton KJ, Tomporowski PD, Singhal A, Pasley JD, Bigelman KA, Lambourne K, Trilk JL, McCully KK, Arnaud MJ, Zhao Q. Dietary quercetin supplementation is not ergogenic in untrained men. J Appl Physiol 107: 1095-1104, 2009.
27. Davies KJ, Quintanilha AT, Brooks GA, Packer L. Free radicals and tissue damage produced by exercise. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 107: 1198-1205, 1982. (Pubitemid 13222413)
28. Davis JM, Carlstedt CJ, Chen S, Carmichael MD, Murphy EA. The dietary flavonoid quercetin increases VO(2max) and endurance capacity. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 20: 56-62, 2010.
29. Davis JM, Murphy EA, Carmichael MD, Davis B. Quercetin increases brain and muscle mitochondrial biogenesis and exercise tolerance. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 296: R1071-R1077, 2009.
30. Dean S, Braakhuis A, Paton C. The effects of EGCG on fat oxidation and endurance performance in male cyclists. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 19: 624-644, 2009.
31. De Bock K, Derave W, Eijnde BO, Hesselink MK, Koninckx E, Rose AJ, Schrauwen P, Bonen A, Richter EA, Hespel P. Effect of training in the fasted state on metabolic responses during exercise with carbohydrate intake. J Appl Physiol 104: 1045-1055, 2008. (Pubitemid 351507943)
32. Dreyer HC, Fujita S, Cadenas JG, Chinkes DL, Volpi E, Rasmussen BB. Resistance exercise increases AMPK activity and reduces 4E-BP1 phosphorylation and protein synthesis in human skeletal muscle. J Physiol 576: 613-624, 2006. (Pubitemid 44490149)
33. Drummond MJ, Dreyer HC, Fry CS, Glynn EL, Rasmussen BB. Nutritional and contractile regulation of human skeletal muscle protein synthesis and mTORC1 signaling. J Appl Physiol 106: 1374-1384, 2009.
34. Dumke CL, Nieman DC, Utter AC, Rigby MD, Quindry JC, Triplett NT, McAnulty SR, McAnulty LS. Quercetin's effect on cycling efficiency and substrate utilization. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 34: 993-1000, 2009.
35. Ehrenborg E, Brook A. Regulation of skeletal muscle physiology and metabolism by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Pharmacol Rev 61: 373-393, 2009.
36. Fisher-Wellman K, Bloomer RJ. Acute exercise and oxidative stress: A 30 year history. Dyn Med 8: 1, 2009.
37. Fujita S, Dreyer HC, Drummond MJ, Glynn EL, Volpi E, Rasmussen BB. Essential amino acid and carbohydrate ingestion before resistance exercise does not enhance postexercise muscle protein synthesis. J Appl Physiol 106: 1730-1739, 2009.
38. Ganio MS, Armstrong LE, Johnson EC, Klau JF, Ballard KD, Michniak-Kohn B, Kaushik D, Maresh CM. Effect of quercetin supplementation on maximal oxygen uptake in men and women. J Sports Sci 28: 201-208, 2010.
39. Glatz JF, Luiken JJ, Bonen A. Membrane fatty acid transporters as regulators of lipid metabolism: Implications for metabolic disease. Physiol Rev 90: 367-417, 2010.
40. Gomez-Cabrera MC, Domenech E, Romagnoli M, Arduini A, Borras C, Pallardo FV, Sastre J, Viña J. Oral administration of vitamin C decreases muscle mitochondrial biogenesis and hampers training-induced adaptations in endurance performance. Am J Clin Nutr 87: 142-149, 2008.
41. Hansen AK, Fischer CP, Plomgaard P, Andersen JL, Saltin B, Pedersen BK. Skeletal muscle adaptation: Training twice every second day vs. training once daily. J Appl Physiol 98: 93-99, 2005. (Pubitemid 40041234)
42. Hartman JW, Tang JE, Wilkinson SB, Tarnopolsky MA, Lawrence RL, Fullerton AV, Phillips SM. Consumption of fat-free fluid milk after resistance exercise promotes greater lean mass accretion than does consumption of soy or carbohydrate in young, novice, male weightlifters. Am J Clin Nutr 86: 373-381, 2007. (Pubitemid 47256921)
43. Hawley JA. Adaptations of skeletal muscle to prolonged, intense endurance training. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 29: 218-222, 2002. (Pubitemid 34233979)
44. Hawley JA, Brouns F, Jeukendrup AE. Strategies to enhance fat utilisation during exercise. Sports Med 25: 241-257, 1988.
45. Hawley JA, Burke LM. Carbohydrate availability and training adaptation: Effects on cell metabolism. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 38: 152-160, 2010.
46. Hawley JA, Gibala MJ, Bermon S. Innovations in athletic preparation: Role of substrate availability to modify training adaptation and performance. J Sports Sci 25, Suppl 1: S115-S124, 2007.
47. Hawley JA, Tipton KD, Millard-Stafford ML. Promoting training adaptations through nutritional interventions. J Sports Sci 24: 709-721, 2006. (Pubitemid 43675034)
48. Helge JW, Richter EA, Kiens B. Interaction of training and diet on metabolism and endurance during exercise in man. J Physiol 492: 293-306, 1996. (Pubitemid 26123652)
49. Hood DA. Invited Review: Contractile activity-induced mitochondrial biogenesis in skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 90: 1137-1157, 2001. (Pubitemid 32171405)
50. Holloway GP, Bezaire V, Heigenhauser GJ, Tandon NN, Glatz JF, Luiken JJ, Bonen A, Spriet LL. Mitochondrial long chain fatty acid oxidation, fatty acid translocase/CD36 content and carnitine palmitoyltransferase I activity in human skeletal muscle during aerobic exercise. J Physiol 571: 201-210, 2006.
51. Holloway GP, Luiken JJ, Glatz JF, Spriet LL, Bonen A. Contribution of FAT/CD36 to the regulation of skeletal muscle fatty acid oxidation: An overview. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 194: 293-309, 2008.
52. Hulston CJ, Venables MC, Mann CH, Martin C, Philp A, Baar K, Jeukendrup AE. Training with low muscle glycogen enhances fat metabolism in well-trained cyclists. Med Sci Sports Exerc 42: 2046- 2055, 2010.
53. + transcription in skeletal muscle cells. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 296: C116-C123, 2009.
54. Karagounis LG, Hawley JA. Skeletal muscle: Increasing the size of the locomotor cell. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 42: 1376-1379, 2010.
55. Konig D, Wagner KH, Elmadfa I, Berg A. Exercise and oxidative stress: Significance of antioxidants with reference to inflammatory, muscular, and systemic stress. Exerc Immunol Rev 7: 108-133, 2001. (Pubitemid 32911045)
56. Kumar V, Selby A, Rankin D, Patel R, Atherton P, Hildebrandt W, Williams J, Smith K, Seynnes O, Hiscock N, Rennie MJ. Age-related differences in the dose-response relationship of muscle protein synthesis to resistance exercise in young and old men. J Physiol 587: 211-217, 2009.
57. Lagouge M, Argmann C, Gerhart-Hines Z, Meziane H, Lerin C, Daussin F, Messadeq N, Milne J, Lambert P, Elliott P, Geny B, Laakso M, Puigserver P, Auwerx J. Resveratrol improves mitochondrial function and protects against metabolic disease by activating SIRT1 and PGC-1alpha. Cell 127: 1109-1122, 2006. (Pubitemid 44894520)
58. Lai RY, Ljubicic V, D'souza D, Hood DA. Effect of chronic contractile activity on mRNA stability in skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 299: C155-C163, 2010.
59. Mahoney DJ, Parise G, Melov S, Safdar A, Tarnopolsky MA. Analysis of global mRNA expression in human skeletal muscle during recovery from endurance exercise. FASEB J 19: 1498-1500, 2005. (Pubitemid 41279010)
60. McBride A, Ghilagaber S, Nikolaev A, Hardie DG. The glycogenbinding domain on the AMPK beta subunit allows the kinase to act as a glycogen sensor. Cell Metab 9: 23-34, 2009.
61. McBride A, Hardie DG. AMP-activated protein kinase-a sensor of glycogen as well as AMP and ATP? Acta Physiol (Oxf) 196: 99-113, 2009.
62. MacRae HS, Mefferd KM. Dietary antioxidant supplementation combined with quercetin improves cycling time trial performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 16: 405-419, 2006. (Pubitemid 44395038)
63. Miller BF, Olesen JL, Hansen M, Dossing S, Crameri RM, Welling RJ, Langberg H, Flyvbjerg A, Kjaer M, Babraj JA, Smith K, Rennie MJ. Coordinated collagen and muscle protein synthesis in human patella tendon and quadriceps muscle after exercise. J Physiol 567: 1021-1033, 2005. (Pubitemid 41387842)
64. Moore DR, Phillips SM, Babraj JA, Smith K, Rennie MJ. Myofibrillar and collagen protein synthesis in human skeletal muscle in young men after maximal shortening and lengthening contractions. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 288: E1153-E1159, 2005. (Pubitemid 40726802)
65. Moore DR, Robinson MJ, Fry JL, Tang JE, Glover EI, Wilkinson SB, Prior T, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM. Ingested protein dose response of muscle and albumin protein synthesis after resistance exercise in young men. Am J Clin Nutr 89: 161-168, 2009.
66. Moore DR, Tang JE, Burd NA, Rerecich T, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM. Differential stimulation of myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic protein synthesis with protein ingestion at rest and after resistance exercise. J Physiol 597: 897-904, 2009.
67. Morton JP, Croft L, Bartlett JD, MacLaren DP, Reilly T, Evans L, McArdle A, Drust B. Reduced carbohydrate availability does not modulate training-induced heat shock protein adaptations but does upregulate oxidative enzyme activity in human skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 106: 1513-1521, 2009.
68. Murase T, Misawa K, Haramizu S, Minegishi Y, Hase T. Nootkatone, a characteristic constituent of grapefruit, stimulates energy metabolism and prevents diet-induced obesity by activating AMPK. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 299: E266-E275, 2010.
69. Nickerson JG, Alkhateeb H, Benton CR, Lally J, Nickerson J, Han XX, Wilson MH, Jain SS, Snook LA, Glatz JF, Chabowski A, Luiken JJ, Bonen A. Greater transport efficiencies of the membrane fatty acid transporters FAT/CD36 and FATP4 compared with FABPpm and FATP1 and differential effects on fatty acid esterification and oxidation in rat skeletal muscle. J Biol Chem 284: 16522-16530, 2009.
70. Nieman DC, Henson DA, Maxwell KR, Williams AS, McAnulty SR, Jin F, Shanely RA, Lines TC. Effects of quercetin and EGCG on mitochondrial biogenesis and immunity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 41: 1467-1475, 2009.
71. Nieman DC, Williams AS, Shanely RA, Jin F, McAnulty SR, Triplett NT, Austin MD, Henson DA. Quercetin's influence on exercise performance and muscle mitochondrial biogenesis. Med Sci Sports Exerc 42: 338-345, 2010.
72. Nybo L, Pedersen K, Christensen B, Aagaard P, Brandt N, Kiens B. Impact of carbohydrate supplementation during endurance training on glycogen storage and performance. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 197: 117-127, 2009.
73. Peters SJ, Harris RA, Wu P, Pehleman TL, Heigenhauser GJ, Spriet LL. Human skeletal muscle PDH kinase activity and isoform expression during a 3-day high-fat/low-carbohydrate diet. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 281: E1151-E1158, 2001.
74. Peters SJ. Regulation of PDH activity and isoform expression: Diet and exercise. Biochem Soc Trans 31: 1274-1280, 2003. (Pubitemid 38030955)
75. Phillips SM. Protein requirements and supplementation in strength sports. Nutrition 20: 689-695, 2004. (Pubitemid 38798086)
76. Phillips SM, Parise G, Roy BD, Tipton KD, Wolfe RR, Tarnopolsky MA. Resistance training-induced adaptations in skeletal muscle protein turnover in the fed state. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 80: 1045-1053, 2002. (Pubitemid 36002661)
77. Phillips SM, Tipton KD, Aarsland A, Wolf SE, Wolfe RR. Mixed muscle protein synthesis and breakdown after resistance exercise in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 273: E99-E107, 1997.
78. Phillips SM, Tipton KD, Ferrando AA, Wolfe RR. Resistance training reduces the acute exercise-induced increase in muscle protein turnover. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 276: E118-E124, 1999. (Pubitemid 29065600)
79. Powers SK, Jackson MJ. Exercise-induced oxidative stress: Cellular mechanisms and impact on muscle force production. Physiol Rev 88: 1243-1276, 2008.
80. Putman CT, Spriet LL, Hultman E, Lindinger MI, Lands LC, McKelvie RS, Cederblad G, Jones NL, Heigenhauser GJ. Pyruvate dehydrogenase activity and acetyl group accumulation during exercise after different diets. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 265: E752-E760, 1993.
81. Radak Z, Chung HY, Goto S. Exercise and hormesis: Oxidative stressrelated adaptation for successful aging. Biogerontology 6: 71-75, 2005. (Pubitemid 41583294)
82. Richards JC, Lonac MC, Johnson TK, Schweder MM, Bell C. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate Increases Maximal Oxygen Uptake in Adult Humans. Med Sci Sports Exerc 42: 739-744, 2010.
83. Richter EA, Derave W, Wojtaszewski JF. Glucose, exercise and insulin: Emerging concepts. J Physiol 535: 313-322, 2001. (Pubitemid 32825671)
84. Ristow M, Zarse K, Oberbach A, Klöting N, Birringer M, Kiehntopf M, Stumvoll M, Kahn CR, Blüher M. Antioxidants prevent healthpromoting effects of physical exercise in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106: 8665-8670, 2009.
85. +)-calmodulin-eEF2K-eEF2 signalling cascade, but not AMPK, contributes to the suppression of skeletal muscle protein synthesis during contractions. J Physiol 587: 1547-1563, 2009.
86. Rose AJ, Broholm C, Kiillerich K, Finn SG, Proud CG, Rider MH, Richter EA, Kiens B. Exercise rapidly increases eukaryotic elongation factor 2 phosphorylation in skeletal muscle of men. J Physiol 569: 223-228, 2005. (Pubitemid 41701387)
87. Stellingwerff T, Spriet LL, Watt MJ, Kimber NE, Hargreaves M, Hawley JA, Burke LM. Decreased PDH activation and glycogenolysis during exercise following fat adaptation with carbohydrate restoration. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 290: E380-E388, 2006.
88. Stepto NK, Carey AL, Staudacher HM, Cummings NK, Burke LM, Hawley JA. Effect of short-term fat adaptation on high-intensity training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34: 449-455, 2002. (Pubitemid 34211749)
89. Talanian JL, Holloway GP, Snook L, Heigenhauser GJ, Bonen A, Spriet LL. Exercise training increases sarcolemmal and mitochondrial fatty acid transport proteins in human skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 299: E180-E188, 2010.
90. Tang JE, Moore DR, Kujbida GW, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM. Ingestion of whey hydrolysate, casein, or soy protein isolate: Effects on mixed muscle protein synthesis at rest and following resistance exercise in young men. J Appl Physiol 107: 987-992, 2009.
91. Tang JE, Perco JG, Moore DR, Wilkinson SB, Phillips SM. Resistance training alters the response of fed state mixed muscle protein synthesis in young men. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 294: R172-R178, 2008.
92. Terzis G, Georgiadis G, Stratakos G, Vogiatzis I, Kavouras S, Manta P, Mascher H, Blomstrand E. Resistance exercise-induced increase in muscle mass correlates with p70S6 kinase phosphorylation in human subjects. Eur J Appl Physiol 102: 145-152, 2008. (Pubitemid 350142379)
93. Tipton KD, Elliott TA, Cree MG, Aarsland AA, Sanford AP, Wolfe RR. Stimulation of net muscle protein synthesis by whey protein ingestion before and after exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 292: E71-E76, 2007. (Pubitemid 46052927)
94. Tipton KD, Rasmussen BB, Miller SL, Wolfe SE, Owens-Stovall SK, Petrini BE, Wolfe RR. Timing of amino acid-carbohydrate ingestion alters anabolic response of muscle to resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 281: E197-E206, 2001.
95. Watt MJ, Spriet LL. Triacylglycerol lipases and metabolic control: Implications for health and disease. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 299: E162-E168, 2010.
96. Widegren U, Ryder JW, Zierath JR. Mitogen-activated protein kinase signal transduction in skeletal muscle: Effects of exercise and muscle contraction. Acta Physiol Scand 172: 227-238, 2001. (Pubitemid 33757163)
97. Wilkinson SB, Phillips SM, Atherton PJ, Patel R, Yarasheski KE, Tarnopolsky MA, Rennie MJ. Differential effects of resistance and endurance exercise in the fed state on signalling molecule phosphorylation and protein synthesis in human muscle. J Physiol 586: 3701-3717, 2008.
98. Wilkinson SB, Tarnopolsky MA, Macdonald MJ, Macdonald JR, Armstrong D, Phillips SM. Consumption of fluid skim milk promotes greater muscle protein accretion after resistance exercise than does consumption of an isonitrogenous and isoenergetic soy-protein beverage. Am J Clin Nutr 85: 1031-1040, 2007. (Pubitemid 46557918)
99. Wojtaszewski JF, MacDonald C, Nielsen JN, Hellsten Y, Hardie DG, Kemp BE, Kiens B, Richter EA. Regulation of 5=AMP-activated protein kinase activity and substrate utilization in exercising human skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 284: E813-E822, 2003. (Pubitemid 36323876)
100. Yang Y, Creer A, Jemiolo B, Trappe S. Time course of myogenic and metabolic gene expression in response to acute exercise in human skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 8: 1745-1752, 2005. (Pubitemid 40570785)
101. Yeo WK, Lessard SJ, Chen ZP, Garnham AP, Burke LM, Rivas DA, Kemp BE, Hawley JA. Fat adaptation followed by carbohydrate restoration increases AMPK activity in skeletal muscle from trained humans. J Appl Physiol 105: 1519-1526, 2008.
102. Yeo WK, McGee SL, Carey AL, Paton CD, Garnham AP, Hargreaves M, Hawley JA. Acute signalling responses to intense endurance training commenced with low or normal muscle glycogen. Exp Physiol 95: 351-358, 2010.
103. Yeo WK, Paton CD, Garnham AP, Burke LM, Carey AL, Hawley JA. Skeletal muscle adaptation and performance responses to once a day versus twice every second day endurance training regimens. J Appl Physiol 105: 1462-1470, 2008.
104. Yfanti C, Akerström T, Nielsen S, Nielsen AR, Mounier R, Mortensen OH, Lykkesfeldt J, Rose AJ, Fischer CP, Pedersen BK. Antioxidant supplementation does not alter endurance training adaptation. Med Sci Sports Exerc 42: 1388-1395, 2010.