Appetite and hedonism: Gut hormones and the brain

Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America

Volumn 39, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 729-743

  Simpson, Katherine A ^a   Bloom, Stephen R ^a  

^a IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Appetite; Brainstem; Food; Gut hormones; Hypothalamus; Reward

Indexed keywords

AGOUTI RELATED PROTEIN; ALPHA INTERMEDIN; CHOLECYSTOKININ; COCAINE AND AMPHETAMINE REGULATED TRANSCRIPT PEPTIDE; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR; GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONE; GHRELIN; GLUCAGON LIKE PEPTIDE 1; LEPTIN; MELANOCORTIN 4 RECEPTOR; NEUROPEPTIDE Y; OREXIN; OXYNTOMODULIN; PANCREAS POLYPEPTIDE; PEPTIDE YY; PROOPIOMELANOCORTIN; PROTEIN C FOS; PROTIRELIN; RIMONABANT; THYROTROPIN;

ADIPOSE TISSUE; APPETITE; ARCUATE NUCLEUS; BEHAVIOR; BRAIN FUNCTION; BRAIN STEM; DRUG MECHANISM; ENERGY EXPENDITURE; FEEDING BEHAVIOR; FOOD INTAKE; HORMONE RELEASE; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS NUCLEUS; HYPOTHALAMUS PERIVENTRICULAR NUCLEUS; HYPOTHALAMUS VENTROMEDIAL NUCLEUS; LATERAL HYPOTHALAMUS; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; REVIEW; REWARD; SATIETY; WEIGHT REDUCTION;

ADIPOSITY; ANIMALS; APPETITE; BRAIN; GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONES; HUMANS; PHILOSOPHY; REWARD; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

EID: 78649376629     PISSN: 08898529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ecl.2010.08.001     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Philbrick N. In the heart of the sea: the tragedy of the Whaleship Essex 2001, Penguin Books, New York.
2. Tunstall-Pedoe H. Preventing chronic diseases. A vital investment: World Health Organization. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2005. p. 200.
3. Genomics and World Health, Report of the Advisory Committee on Health Research - Summary 2002, World Health Organization, Geneva.
4. Must A., Spadano J., Coakley E.H., et al. The disease burden associated with overweight and obesity. JAMA 1999, 282(16):1523-1529.
5. Clark J.T., Kalra P.S., Crowley W.R., et al. Neuropeptide Y and human pancreatic polypeptide stimulate feeding behavior in rats. Endocrinology 1984, 115(1):427-429.
6. Stanley B.G., Kyrkouli S.E., Lampert S., et al. Neuropeptide Y chronically injected into the hypothalamus: a powerful neurochemical inducer of hyperphagia and obesity. Peptides 1986, 7(6):1189-1192.
7. Roseberry A.G., Liu H., Jackson A.C., et al. Neuropeptide Y-mediated inhibition of proopiomelanocortin neurons in the arcuate nucleus shows enhanced desensitization in ob/ob mice. Neuron 2004, 41(5):711-722.
8. Ollmann M.M., Wilson B.D., Yang Y.K., et al. Antagonism of central melanocortin receptors in vitro and in vivo by agouti-related protein. Science 1997, 278(5335):135-138.
9. Rossi M., Kim M.S., Morgan D.G., et al. A C-terminal fragment of agouti-related protein increases feeding and antagonizes the effect of alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone in vivo. Endocrinology 1998, 139(10):4428-4431.
10. Stanley S.A., Small C.J., Murphy K.G., et al. Actions of cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) peptide on regulation of appetite and hypothalamo-pituitary axes in vitro and in vivo in male rats. Brain Res 2001, 893(1-2):186-194.
11. Williams D.L., Schwartz M.W. The melanocortin system as a central integrator of direct and indirect controls of food intake. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2005, 289(1):R2-R3.
12. Bagnol D., Lu X.Y., Kaelin C.B., et al. Anatomy of an endogenous antagonist: relationship between agouti-related protein and proopiomelanocortin in brain. J Neurosci 1999, 19(18):RC26.
13. Broberger C., Johansen J., Johansson C., et al. The neuropeptide Y/agouti gene-related protein (AGRP) brain circuitry in normal, anorectic, and monosodium glutamate-treated mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1998, 95(25):15043-15048.
14. Baker R.A., Herkenham M. Arcuate nucleus neurons that project to the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus: neuropeptidergic identity and consequences of adrenalectomy on mRNA levels in the rat. J Comp Neurol 1995, 358(4):518-530.
15. Cone R.D. Studies on the physiological functions of the melanocortin system. Endocr Rev 2006, 27(7):736-749.
16. Krude H., Biebermann H., Luck W., et al. Severe early-onset obesity, adrenal insufficiency and red hair pigmentation caused by POMC mutations in humans. Nat Genet 1998, 19(2):155-157.
17. Loos R.J., Lindgren C.M., Li S., et al. Common variants near MC4R are associated with fat mass, weight and risk of obesity. Nat Genet 2008, 40(6):768-775.
18. Li G., Zhang Y., Rodrigues E., et al. Melanocortin activation of nucleus of the solitary tract avoids anorectic tachyphylaxis and induces prolonged weight loss. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2007, 293(1):e252-e258.
19. Kristensen P., Judge M.E., Thim L., et al. Hypothalamic CART is a new anorectic peptide regulated by leptin. Nature 1998, 393(6680):72-76.
20. Abbott C.R., Rossi M., Wren A.M., et al. Evidence of an orexigenic role for cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript after administration into discrete hypothalamic nuclei. Endocrinology 2001, 142(8):3457-3463.
21. Fekete C., Legradi G., Mihaly E., et al. Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone is contained in nerve terminals innervating thyrotropin-releasing hormone-synthesizing neurons in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus and prevents fasting-induced suppression of prothyrotropin-releasing hormone gene expression. J Neurosci 2000, 20(4):1550-1558.
22. Legradi G., Lechan R.M. Agouti-related protein containing nerve terminals innervate thyrotropin-releasing hormone neurons in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. Endocrinology 1999, 140(8):3643-3652.
23. Fuzesi T., Wittmann G., Liposits Z., et al. Contribution of noradrenergic and adrenergic cell groups of the brainstem and agouti-related protein-synthesizing neurons of the arcuate nucleus to neuropeptide-Y innervation of corticotropin-releasing hormone neurons in hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus of the rat. Endocrinology 2007, 148(11):5442-5450.
24. Martin N.M., Smith K.L., Bloom S.R., et al. Interactions between the melanocortin system and the hypothalamo-pituitary-thyroid axis. Peptides 2006, 27(2):333-339.
25. Nishiyama M., Makino S., Iwasaki Y., et al. CRH mRNA expression in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus is inhibited despite the activation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis during starvation. Brain Res 2008, 1228:107-112.
26. Blake N.G., Eckland D.J., Foster O.J., et al. Inhibition of hypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing hormone messenger ribonucleic acid during food deprivation. Endocrinology 1991, 129(5):2714-2718.
27. Tiesjema B., Adan R.A., Luijendijk M.C., et al. Differential effects of recombinant adeno-associated virus-mediated neuropeptide Y overexpression in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus and lateral hypothalamus on feeding behavior. J Neurosci 2007, 27(51):14139-14146.
28. Bernardis L.L., Bellinger L.L. The dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus revisited: 1986 update. Brain Res 1987, 434(3):321-381.
29. Chronwall B.M., DiMaggio D.A., Massari V.J., et al. The anatomy of neuropeptide-Y-containing neurons in rat brain. Neuroscience 1985, 15(4):1159-1181.
30. Jacobowitz D.M., O'Donohue T.L. Alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone: immunohistochemical identification and mapping in neurons of rat brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1978, 75(12):6300-6304.
31. Yang L., Scott K.A., Hyun J., et al. Role of dorsomedial hypothalamic neuropeptide Y in modulating food intake and energy balance. J Neurosci 2009, 29(1):179-190.
32. Bi S., Scott K.A., Kopin A.S., et al. Differential roles for cholecystokinin A receptors in energy balance in rats and mice. Endocrinology 2004, 145(8):3873-3880.
33. Moran T.H. Unraveling the obesity of OLETF rats. Physiol Behav 2008, 94(1):71-78.
34. Mihaly E., Fekete C., Legradi G., et al. Hypothalamic dorsomedial nucleus neurons innervate thyrotropin-releasing hormone-synthesizing neurons in the paraventricular nucleus. Brain Res 2001, 891(1-2):20-31.
35. Kim M.S., Rossi M., Abusnana S., et al. Hypothalamic localization of the feeding effect of agouti-related peptide and alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone. Diabetes 2000, 49(2):177-182.
36. Bariohay B., Roux J., Tardivel C., et al. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor/tropomyosin-related kinase receptor type B signaling is a downstream effector of the brainstem melanocortin system in food intake control. Endocrinology 2009, 150(6):2646-2653.
37. Xu B., Goulding E.H., Zang K., et al. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor regulates energy balance downstream of melanocortin-4 receptor. Nat Neurosci 2003, 6(7):736-742.
38. Broberger C., De L.L., Sutcliffe J.G., et al. Hypocretin/orexin- and melanin-concentrating hormone-expressing cells form distinct populations in the rodent lateral hypothalamus: relationship to the neuropeptide Y and agouti gene-related protein systems. J Comp Neurol 1998, 402(4):460-474.
39. Chen Y., Hu C., Hsu C.K., et al. Targeted disruption of the melanin-concentrating hormone receptor-1 results in hyperphagia and resistance to diet-induced obesity. Endocrinology 2002, 143(7):2469-2477.
40. Zhou D., Shen Z., Strack A.M., et al. Enhanced running wheel activity of both Mch1r- and Pmch-deficient mice. Regul Pept 2005, 124(1-3):53-63.
41. Qu D., Ludwig D.S., Gammeltoft S., et al. A role for melanin-concentrating hormone in the central regulation of feeding behaviour. Nature 1996, 380(6571):243-247.
42. Sakurai T., Amemiya A., Ishii M., et al. Orexins and orexin receptors: a family of hypothalamic neuropeptides and G protein-coupled receptors that regulate feeding behavior. Cell 1998, 92(5):1.
43. Hagan J.J., Leslie R.A., Patel S., et al. Orexin A activates locus coeruleus cell firing and increases arousal in the rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1999, 96(19):10911-10916.
44. Nonaka N., Shioda S., Niehoff M.L., et al. Characterization of blood-brain barrier permeability to PYY3-36 in the mouse. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2003, 306(3):948-953.
45. Broberger C., Landry M., Wong H., et al. Subtypes Y1 and Y2 of the neuropeptide Y receptor are respectively expressed in pro-opiomelanocortin- and neuropeptide-Y-containing neurons of the rat hypothalamic arcuate nucleus. Neuroendocrinology 1997, 66(6):393-408.
46. Adrian T.E., Ferri G.L., Bacarese-Hamilton A.J., et al. Human distribution and release of a putative new gut hormone, peptide YY. Gastroenterology 1985, 89(5):1070-1077.
47. Lin H.C., Chey W.Y. Cholecystokinin and peptide YY are released by fat in either proximal or distal small intestine in dogs. Regul Pept 2003, 114(2-3):131-135.
48. Batterham R.L., Cowley M.A., Small C.J., et al. Gut hormone PYY(3-36) physiologically inhibits food intake. Nature 2002, 418(6898):650-654.
49. Batterham R.L., Cohen M.A., Ellis S.M., et al. Inhibition of food intake in obese subjects by peptide YY3-36. N Engl J Med 2003, 349(10):941-948.
50. Vrang N., Madsen A.N., Tang-Christensen M., et al. PYY(3-36) reduces food intake and body weight and improves insulin sensitivity in rodent models of diet-induced obesity. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2006, 291(2):R367-R375.
51. Le Roux C.W., Batterham R.L., Aylwin S.J., et al. Attenuated peptide YY release in obese subjects is associated with reduced satiety. Endocrinology 2006, 147(1):3-8.
52. Abbott C.R., Small C.J., Kennedy A.R., et al. Blockade of the neuropeptide Y Y2 receptor with the specific antagonist BIIE0246 attenuates the effect of endogenous and exogenous peptide YY(3-36) on food intake. Brain Res 2005, 1043(1-2):139-144.
53. Koda S., Date Y., Murakami N., et al. The role of the vagal nerve in peripheral PYY3-36-induced feeding reduction in rats. Endocrinology 2005, 146(5):2369-2375.
54. Gustafson E.L., Smith K.E., Durkin M.M., et al. Distribution of the neuropeptide Y Y2 receptor mRNA in rat central nervous system. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1997, 46(1-2):223-235.
55. Blevins J.E., Chelikani P.K., Haver A.C., et al. PYY(3-36) induces Fos in the arcuate nucleus and in both catecholaminergic and non-catecholaminergic neurons in the nucleus tractus solitarius of rats. Peptides 2008, 29(1):112-119.
56. Abbott C.R., Monteiro M., Small C.J., et al. The inhibitory effects of peripheral administration of peptide YY(3-36) and glucagon-like peptide-1 on food intake are attenuated by ablation of the vagal-brainstem-hypothalamic pathway. Brain Res 2005, 1044(1):127-131.
57. Asakawa A., Inui A., Yuzuriha H., et al. Characterization of the effects of pancreatic polypeptide in the regulation of energy balance. Gastroenterology 2003, 124(5):1325-1336.
58. Jesudason D.R., Monteiro M.P., McGowan B.M., et al. Low-dose pancreatic polypeptide inhibits food intake in man. Br J Nutr 2007, 97(3):426-429.
59. Akerberg H., Meyerson B., Sallander M., et al. Peripheral administration of pancreatic polypeptide inhibits components of food-intake behavior in dogs. Peptides 2010, 31(6):1055-1061.
60. Ueno N., Inui A., Iwamoto M., et al. Decreased food intake and body weight in pancreatic polypeptide-overexpressing mice. Gastroenterology 1999, 117(6):1427-1432.
61. Batterham R.L., Le Roux C.W., Cohen M.A., et al. Pancreatic polypeptide reduces appetite and food intake in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003, 88(8):3989-3992.
62. Balasubramaniam A., Mullins D.E., Lin S., et al. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) Y4 receptor selective agonists based on NPY(32-36): development of an anorectic Y4 receptor selective agonist with picomolar affinity. J Med Chem 2006, 49(8):2661-2665.
63. Lin S., Shi Y.C., Yulyaningsih E., et al. Critical role of arcuate Y4 receptors and the melanocortin system in pancreatic polypeptide-induced reduction in food intake in mice. PLoS One 2009, 4(12):e8488.
64. Parker R.M., Herzog H. Regional distribution of Y-receptor subtype mRNAs in rat brain. Eur J Neurosci 1999, 11(4):1431-1448.
65. Ghatei M.A., Uttenthal L.O., Christofides N.D., et al. Molecular forms of human enteroglucagon in tissue and plasma: plasma responses to nutrient stimuli in health and in disorders of the upper gastrointestinal tract. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1983, 57(3):488-495.
66. Williams D.L. Expecting to eat: glucagon-like peptide-1 and the anticipation of meals. Endocrinology 2010, 151(2):445-447.
67. Verdich C., Flint A., Gutzwiller J.P., et al. A meta-analysis of the effect of glucagon-like peptide-1 (7-36) amide on ad libitum energy intake in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001, 86(9):4382-4389.
68. Baumgartner I., Pacheco-Lopez G., Ruttimann E.B., et al. Hepatic-portal vein infusions of GLP-1 reduce meal size and increase c-Fos expression in the NTS, AP, and CeA in rats. J Neuroendocrinol 2010, 22(6):557-563.
69. Baggio L.L., Huang Q., Brown T.J., et al. Oxyntomodulin and glucagon-like peptide-1 differentially regulate murine food intake and energy expenditure. Gastroenterology 2004, 127(2):546-558.
70. Dakin C.L., Small C.J., Batterham R.L., et al. Peripheral oxyntomodulin reduces food intake and body weight gain in rats. Endocrinology 2004, 145(6):2687-2695.
71. Vilsboll T., Agerso H., Krarup T., et al. Similar elimination rates of glucagon-like peptide-1 in obese type 2 diabetic patients and healthy subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003, 88(1):220-224.
72. Astrup A., Rossner S., Van G.L., et al. Effects of liraglutide in the treatment of obesity: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Lancet 2009, 374(9701):1606-1616.
73. Rosenstock J., Klaff L.J., Schwartz S., et al. Effects of exenatide and lifestyle modification on body weight and glucose tolerance in obese subjects with and without prediabetes. Diabetes Care 2010, 33(6):1173-1175.
74. Wynne K., Park A.J., Small C.J., et al. Oxyntomodulin increases energy expenditure in addition to decreasing energy intake in overweight and obese humans: a randomised controlled trial. Int J Obes (Lond) 2006, 30(12):1729-1736.
75. Dakin C.L., Gunn I., Small C.J., et al. Oxyntomodulin inhibits food intake in the rat. Endocrinology 2001, 142(10):4244-4250.
76. Chaudhri O.B., Parkinson J.R., Kuo Y.T., et al. Differential hypothalamic neuronal activation following peripheral injection of GLP-1 and oxyntomodulin in mice detected by manganese-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006, 350(2):298-306.
77. Gibbs J., Young R.C., Smith G.P. Cholecystokinin elicits satiety in rats with open gastric fistulas. Nature 1973, 245(5424):323-325.
78. Liddle R.A., Goldfine I.D., Rosen M.S., et al. Cholecystokinin bioactivity in human plasma. Molecular forms, responses to feeding, and relationship to gallbladder contraction. J Clin Invest 1985, 75(4):1144-1152.
79. Kissileff H.R., Pi-Sunyer F.X., Thornton J., et al. C-terminal octapeptide of cholecystokinin decreases food intake in man. Am J Clin Nutr 1981, 34(2):154-160.
80. Moran T.H., Bi S. Hyperphagia and obesity in OLETF rats lacking CCK-1 receptors. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2006, 361(1471):1211-1218.
81. Silver A.J., Flood J.F., Song A.M., et al. Evidence for a physiological role for CCK in the regulation of food intake in mice. Am J Physiol 1989, 256(3 Pt 2):R646-R652.
82. West D.B., Fey D., Woods S.C. Cholecystokinin persistently suppresses meal size but not food intake in free-feeding rats. Am J Physiol 1984, 246(5 Pt 2):R776-R787.
83. Kobelt P., Paulitsch S., Goebel M., et al. Peripheral injection of CCK-8S induces Fos expression in the dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus in rats. Brain Res 2006, 1117(1):109-117.
84. Peter L., Stengel A., Noetzel S., et al. Peripherally injected CCK-8S activates CART positive neurons of the paraventricular nucleus in rats. Peptides 2010, 31(6):1118-1123.
85. Blevins J.E., Stanley B.G., Reidelberger R.D. Brain regions where cholecystokinin suppresses feeding in rats. Brain Res 2000, 860(1-2):1-10.
86. Chen J., Scott K.A., Zhao Z., et al. Characterization of the feeding inhibition and neural activation produced by dorsomedial hypothalamic cholecystokinin administration. Neuroscience 2008, 152(1):178-188.
87. Moran T.H., Baldessarini A.R., Salorio C.F., et al. Vagal afferent and efferent contributions to the inhibition of food intake by cholecystokinin. Am J Physiol 1997, 272(4 Pt 2):R1245-R1251.
88. Sullivan C.N., Raboin S.J., Gulley S., et al. Endogenous cholecystokinin reduces food intake and increases Fos-like immunoreactivity in the dorsal vagal complex but not in the myenteric plexus by CCK1 receptor in the adult rat. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2007, 292(3):R1071-R1080.
89. Nakazato M., Murakami N., Date Y., et al. A role for ghrelin in the central regulation of feeding. Nature 2001, 409(6817):194-198.
90. Shintani M., Ogawa Y., Ebihara K., et al. Ghrelin, an endogenous growth hormone secretagogue, is a novel orexigenic peptide that antagonizes leptin action through the activation of hypothalamic neuropeptide Y/Y1 receptor pathway. Diabetes 2001, 50(2):227-232.
91. Toshinai K., Date Y., Murakami N., et al. Ghrelin-induced food intake is mediated via the orexin pathway. Endocrinology 2003, 144(4):1506-1512.
92. Willesen M.G., Kristensen P., Romer J. Co-localization of growth hormone secretagogue receptor and NPY mRNA in the arcuate nucleus of the rat. Neuroendocrinology 1999, 70(5):306-316.
93. Cowley M.A., Smith R.G., Diano S., et al. The distribution and mechanism of action of ghrelin in the CNS demonstrates a novel hypothalamic circuit regulating energy homeostasis. Neuron 2003, 37(4):649-661.
94. Chen H.Y., Trumbauer M.E., Chen A.S., et al. Orexigenic action of peripheral ghrelin is mediated by neuropeptide Y and agouti-related protein. Endocrinology 2004, 145(6):2607-2612.
95. Ruter J., Kobelt P., Tebbe J.J., et al. Intraperitoneal injection of ghrelin induces Fos expression in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus in rats. Brain Res 2003, 991(1-2):26-33.
96. Shrestha Y.B., Wickwire K., Giraudo S.Q. Action of MT-II on ghrelin-induced feeding in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. Neuroreport 2004, 15(8):1365-1367.
97. Tucci S.A., Rogers E.K., Korbonits M., et al. The cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716 blocks the orexigenic effects of intrahypothalamic ghrelin. Br J Pharmacol 2004, 143(5):520-523.
98. Kola B., Farkas I., Christ-Crain M., et al. The orexigenic effect of ghrelin is mediated through central activation of the endogenous cannabinoid system. PLoS One 2008, 3(3):e1797.
99. Faouzi M., Leshan R., Bjornholm M., et al. Differential accessibility of circulating leptin to individual hypothalamic sites. Endocrinology 2007, 148(11):5414-5423.
100. Cowley M.A., Smart J.L., Rubinstein M., et al. Leptin activates anorexigenic POMC neurons through a neural network in the arcuate nucleus. Nature 2001, 411(6836):480-484.
101. Sahu A. Evidence suggesting that galanin (GAL), melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH), neurotensin (NT), proopiomelanocortin (POMC) and neuropeptide Y (NPY) are targets of leptin signaling in the hypothalamus. Endocrinology 1998, 139(2):795-798.
102. Lopez M., Seoane L., Garcia M.C., et al. Leptin regulation of prepro-orexin and orexin receptor mRNA levels in the hypothalamus. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2000, 269(1):41-45.
103. Huang Q., Rivest R., Richard D. Effects of leptin on corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) synthesis and CRF neuron activation in the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus of obese (ob/ob) mice. Endocrinology 1998, 139(4):1524-1532.
104. Dhillon H., Zigman J.M., Ye C., et al. Leptin directly activates SF1 neurons in the VMH, and this action by leptin is required for normal body-weight homeostasis. Neuron 2006, 49(2):191-203.
105. Ruiter M., Duffy P., Simasko S., et al. Increased hypothalamic signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 phosphorylation after hindbrain leptin injection. Endocrinology 2010, 151(4):1509-1519.
106. Kalra S.P., Dube M.G., Pu S., et al. Interacting appetite-regulating pathways in the hypothalamic regulation of body weight. Endocr Rev 1999, 20(1):68-100.
107. Benoit S.C., Air E.L., Coolen L.M., et al. The catabolic action of insulin in the brain is mediated by melanocortins. J Neurosci 2002, 22(20):9048-9052.
108. Rolls E.T. Smell, taste, texture, and temperature multimodal representations in the brain, and their relevance to the control of appetite. Nutr Rev 2004, 62(11 Pt 2):S193-S204.
109. Rolls E.T. Functions of the orbitofrontal and pregenual cingulate cortex in taste, olfaction, appetite and emotion. Acta Physiol Hung 2008, 95(2):131-164.
110. Unger J.W., Livingston J.N., Moss A.M. Insulin receptors in the central nervous system: localization, signalling mechanisms and functional aspects. Prog Neurobiol 1991, 36(5):343-362.
111. Morton G.J., Blevins J.E., Kim F., et al. The action of leptin in the ventral tegmental area to decrease food intake is dependent on Jak-2 signaling. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2009, 297(1):E202-E210.
112. Farooqi I.S., Bullmore E., Keogh J., et al. Leptin regulates striatal regions and human eating behavior. Science 2007, 317(5843):1355.
113. Hernandez L., Hoebel B.G. Food reward and cocaine increase extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens as measured by microdialysis. Life Sci 1988, 42(18):1705-1712.
114. Hommel J.D., Trinko R., Sears R.M., et al. Leptin receptor signaling in midbrain dopamine neurons regulates feeding. Neuron 2006, 51(6):801-810.
115. Jerlhag E., Egecioglu E., Dickson S.L., et al. Ghrelin administration into tegmental areas stimulates locomotor activity and increases extracellular concentration of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. Addict Biol 2007, 12(1):6-16.
116. Naleid A.M., Grace M.K., Cummings D.E., et al. Ghrelin induces feeding in the mesolimbic reward pathway between the ventral tegmental area and the nucleus accumbens. Peptides 2005, 26(11):2274-2279.
117. Andre V.M., Cepeda C., Cummings D.M., et al. Dopamine modulation of excitatory currents in the striatum is dictated by the expression of D1 or D2 receptors and modified by endocannabinoids. Eur J Neurosci 2010, 31(1):14-28.
118. Sperlagh B., Windisch K., Ando R.D., et al. Neurochemical evidence that stimulation of CB1 cannabinoid receptors on GABAergic nerve terminals activates the dopaminergic reward system by increasing dopamine release in the rat nucleus accumbens. Neurochem Int 2009, 54(7):452-457.
119. Hildebrandt A.L., Kelly-Sullivan D.M., Black S.C. Antiobesity effects of chronic cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist treatment in diet-induced obese mice. Eur J Pharmacol 2003, 462(1-3):125-132.
120. Van Gaal L.F., Rissanen A.M., Scheen A.J., et al. Effects of the cannabinoid-1 receptor blocker rimonabant on weight reduction and cardiovascular risk factors in overweight patients: 1-year experience from the RIO-Europe study. Lancet 2005, 365(9468):1389-1397.