메뉴 건너뛰기




Volumn 6, Issue 11, 2010, Pages 1313-1332

The acute toxicity of local anesthetics

Author keywords

acute toxicity; cardiovascular system; chemical properties; CNS; experimental models; local anesthetics; pharmacokinetic properties

Indexed keywords

ANALGESIC AGENT; ARTICAINE; BENZOCAINE; BUPIVACAINE; CHLOROPROCAINE; CINCHOCAINE; COCAINE; CYCLODEXTRIN; ETIDOCAINE; LEVOBUPIVACAINE; LIDOCAINE; LIPOSOME; LOCAL ANESTHETIC AGENT; MEPIVACAINE; PRILOCAINE; PROCAINE; ROPIVACAINE; TETRACAINE; VASOCONSTRICTOR AGENT;

EID: 77958495111     PISSN: 17425255     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2010.514265     Document Type: Review
Times cited : (39)

References (151)
  • 2
    • 77958463410 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Neural physiology and local anesthetic action
    • Cousins MJ, Carr DB, Horlocker TT, et al., editors, Wolters Kluwer: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia
    • Strichartz GR, Pastjin E, Sugimoto K. Neural physiology and local anesthetic action. In: Cousins MJ, Carr DB, Horlocker TT, et al., editors, Neural blockade in clinical anesthesia and pain medicine. 4th edition. Wolters Kluwer: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia; 2008. p. 26-47
    • (2008) Neural Blockade in Clinical Anesthesia and Pain Medicine. 4th Edition , pp. 26-47
    • Strichartz, G.R.1    Pastjin, E.2    Sugimoto, K.3
  • 3
    • 0036853903 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Local anesthetic neurotoxicity: Clinical injury and strategies that may minimize risk
    • Drasner K. Local anesthetic neurotoxicity: clinical injury and strategies that may minimize risk. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2002;27:576-580
    • (2002) Reg Anesth Pain Med , vol.27 , pp. 576-580
    • Drasner, K.1
  • 4
    • 33847407838 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Myotoxicity of local anaesthetics: Experimental myth or clinical truth?
    • Zink W, Sinner B, Zausig Y, et al. Myotoxicity of local anaesthetics: experimental myth or clinical truth? Anaesthesist 2007;56:118-127
    • (2007) Anaesthesist , vol.56 , pp. 118-127
    • Zink, W.1    Sinner, B.2    Zausig, Y.3
  • 6
    • 61949354299 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Methemoglobinemia related to local anesthetics: A summary of 242 episodes
    • Guay J. Methemoglobinemia related to local anesthetics: a summary of 242 episodes. Anesth Analg 2009;108:837-845
    • (2009) Anesth Analg , vol.108 , pp. 837-845
    • Guay, J.1
  • 7
    • 84886228487 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The history of regional anesthesia
    • Cousins MJ, Carr DB, Horlocker TT, et al., editors, Wolters Kluwer: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia
    • Brown DJ, Fink BR. The history of regional anesthesia. In: Cousins MJ, Carr DB, Horlocker TT, et al., editors, Neural blockade in clinical anesthesia and pain medicine. 4th edition. Wolters Kluwer: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia; 2008. p. 1-23
    • (2008) Neural Blockade in Clinical Anesthesia and Pain Medicine. 4th Edition , pp. 1-23
    • Brown, D.J.1    Fink, B.R.2
  • 9
    • 0030016938 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Molecular and physicochemical aspects of local anesthetic-membrane interaction
    • de-Paula E, Schreier S. Molecular and physicochemical aspects of local anesthetic-membrane interaction. Braz J Med Biol Res 1996;29:877-894
    • (1996) Braz J Med Biol Res , vol.29 , pp. 877-894
    • De-Paula, E.1    Schreier, S.2
  • 10
    • 3042515541 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A new look at the hemolytic effect of local anesthetics, considering their real membrane/water partitioning at pH 7.4
    • Malheiros SV, Pinto LM, Gottardo L, et al. A new look at the hemolytic effect of local anesthetics, considering their real membrane/water partitioning at pH 7.4. Biophys Chem 2004;110:213-221
    • (2004) Biophys Chem , vol.110 , pp. 213-221
    • Malheiros, S.V.1    Pinto, L.M.2    Gottardo, L.3
  • 11
    • 0035436791 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • From cocaine to ropivacaine: The history of local anesthetic drugs
    • Ruetsch YA, Boni T, Borgeat A. From cocaine to ropivacaine: the history of local anesthetic drugs. Curr Topics Med Chem 2001;1:175-182
    • (2001) Curr Topics Med Chem , vol.1 , pp. 175-182
    • Ruetsch, Y.A.1    Boni, T.2    Borgeat, A.3
  • 12
    • 84919004547 scopus 로고
    • Toxicity and irritancy of local anesthetics
    • Lechat P, editor, International encyclopedia of pharmacology and therapeutics. Pergamon Press, New York
    • Luduena FP. Toxicity and irritancy of local anesthetics. In: Lechat P, editor, Local anesthetics, Section 8. (Volume 1). International encyclopedia of pharmacology and therapeutics. Pergamon Press, New York; 1971. p. 319-341
    • (1971) Local Anesthetics, Section 8 , vol.1 , pp. 319-341
    • Luduena, F.P.1
  • 13
    • 0025202543 scopus 로고
    • Fundamental properties of local anesthetics. II. Measured octanol:buffer partition coefficients and pKa values of clinically used drugs
    • Strichartz GR, Sanchez V, Arthur GR, et al. Fundamental properties of local anesthetics. II. Measured octanol:buffer partition coefficients and pKa values of clinically used drugs. Anesth Analg 1990;71:158-170
    • (1990) Anesth Analg , vol.71 , pp. 158-170
    • Strichartz, G.R.1    Sanchez, V.2    Arthur, G.R.3
  • 14
    • 0030797341 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Partition coefficients (n-octanol/ water) of N-butyl-p-aminobenzoate and other local anesthetics measured by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography
    • Grouls RJ, Ackerman EW, Korsten HH, et al. Partition coefficients (n-octanol/ water) of N-butyl-p-aminobenzoate and other local anesthetics measured by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr B 1997;694:421-425
    • (1997) J Chromatogr B , vol.694 , pp. 421-425
    • Grouls, R.J.1    Ackerman, E.W.2    Korsten, H.H.3
  • 15
    • 0022580836 scopus 로고
    • Uptake of bupivacaine, etidocaine, lignocaine and ropivacaine in n-heptane, rat sciatic nerve and human epidural and subcutaneous fat
    • Rosenberg PH, Kytta J, Alila A. Uptake of bupivacaine, etidocaine, lignocaine and ropivacaine in n-heptane, rat sciatic nerve and human epidural and subcutaneous fat. Br J Anaesth 1986;58:310-314
    • (1986) Br J Anaesth , vol.58 , pp. 310-314
    • Rosenberg, P.H.1    Kytta, J.2    Alila, A.3
  • 16
    • 0028124595 scopus 로고
    • The partition coefficient as a predictor of local anesthetic potency for spinal anesthesia: Evaluation of five local anesthetics in a mouse model
    • Langerman L, Basinath M, Grant GJ. The partition coefficient as a predictor of local anesthetic potency for spinal anesthesia: evaluation of five local anesthetics in a mouse model. Anesth Analg 1994;79:490-494
    • (1994) Anesth Analg , vol.79 , pp. 490-494
    • Langerman, L.1    Basinath, M.2    Grant, G.J.3
  • 17
    • 0013980753 scopus 로고
    • The effect of the structural variation on the local analgetic properties of the most commonly used groups of substances
    • Afekenstam B. The effect of the structural variation on the local analgetic properties of the most commonly used groups of substances. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1966;25(Suppl):10-18
    • (1966) Acta Anaesthesiol Scand , vol.25 , Issue.SUPPL. , pp. 10-18
    • Afekenstam, B.1
  • 18
    • 0017764260 scopus 로고
    • Studies on the duration of local anaesthesia: Structure/activity relationships in a series of homologous local anaesthetics
    • Aberg G, Dhuner KG, Sydnes G. Studies on the duration of local anaesthesia: structure/activity relationships in a series of homologous local anaesthetics. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol 1977;41:432-443
    • (1977) Acta Pharmacol Toxicol , vol.41 , pp. 432-443
    • Aberg, G.1    Dhuner, K.G.2    Sydnes, G.3
  • 19
    • 0014459966 scopus 로고
    • Duration of local anaesthesia
    • Luduena FP. Duration of local anaesthesia. Annu Rev Pharmacol 1969;9:503-520
    • (1969) Annu Rev Pharmacol , vol.9 , pp. 503-520
    • Luduena, F.P.1
  • 20
    • 35848948393 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Preferential location of lidocaine and etidocaine in lecithin bilayers as determined by EPR, fluorescence and 2H NMR
    • de Paula E, Schreier S, Jarrell HC, et al. Preferential location of lidocaine and etidocaine in lecithin bilayers as determined by EPR, fluorescence and 2H NMR. Biophys Chem 2008;32:47-54
    • (2008) Biophys Chem , vol.32 , pp. 47-54
    • De Paula, E.1    Schreier, S.2    Jarrell, H.C.3
  • 21
    • 0014848438 scopus 로고
    • Binding of anilide-type local anesthetics in human plasma. I. Relationships between binding, physicochemical properties, and anesthetic activity
    • Tucker GT, Boyes RN, Bridenbaugh PO, et al. Binding of anilide-type local anesthetics in human plasma. I. Relationships between binding, physicochemical properties, and anesthetic activity. Anesthesiology 1970;33:287-303
    • (1970) Anesthesiology , vol.33 , pp. 287-303
    • Tucker, G.T.1    Boyes, R.N.2    Bridenbaugh, P.O.3
  • 22
    • 0018072676 scopus 로고
    • Bupivacaine binding to plasma protein fractions
    • Mather LE, Thomas J. Bupivacaine binding to plasma protein fractions. J Pharm Pharmacol 1978;30:653-654
    • (1978) J Pharm Pharmacol , vol.30 , pp. 653-654
    • Mather, L.E.1    Thomas, J.2
  • 23
    • 0028818451 scopus 로고
    • Use of a novel method for determination of partition coefficients to compare the effect of local anesthetics on membrane structure
    • de Paula E, Schreier S. Use of a novel method for determination of partition coefficients to compare the effect of local anesthetics on membrane structure. Biochim Biophys Acta 1995;1240:25-33
    • (1995) Biochim Biophys Acta , vol.1240 , pp. 25-33
    • De Paula, E.1    Schreier, S.2
  • 24
    • 0037195583 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The neuronal lipid membrane permeability was markedly increased by bupivacaine and mildly affected by lidocaine and ropivacaine
    • Pardo L, Blanck TJJ, Recio-Pinto E. The neuronal lipid membrane permeability was markedly increased by bupivacaine and mildly affected by lidocaine and ropivacaine. Eur J Pharmacol 2000;455:81-90
    • (2000) Eur J Pharmacol , vol.455 , pp. 81-90
    • Pardo, L.1    Tjj, B.2    Recio-Pinto, E.3
  • 25
    • 71349083368 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Local anesthetics structure-dependently interact with anionic phospholipid membranes to modify the fluidity
    • Tsuchiya H, Ueno T, Mizogami M, et al. Local anesthetics structure-dependently interact with anionic phospholipid membranes to modify the fluidity. Chem Biol Interact 2010;183:19-24
    • (2010) Chem Biol Interact , vol.183 , pp. 19-24
    • Tsuchiya, H.1    Ueno, T.2    Mizogami, M.3
  • 26
    • 0026581789 scopus 로고
    • Postoperative course of plasma protein binding of lignocaine, ropivacaine and bupivacaine in sheep
    • Rutten AJ, Mather LE, Plummer JL, et al. Postoperative course of plasma protein binding of lignocaine, ropivacaine and bupivacaine in sheep. J Pharm Pharmacol 1992;44:355-358
    • (1992) J Pharm Pharmacol , vol.44 , pp. 355-358
    • Rutten, A.J.1    Mather, L.E.2    Plummer, J.L.3
  • 27
    • 0015114791 scopus 로고
    • Some physicochemical properties of the racemates and the optically active isomers of two local anaesthetic compounds
    • Friberger P, Aberg G. Some physicochemical properties of the racemates and the optically active isomers of two local anaesthetic compounds. Acta Pharm Suec 1971;8:361-364
    • (1971) Acta Pharm Suec , vol.8 , pp. 361-364
    • Friberger, P.1    Aberg, G.2
  • 28
    • 34547885025 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Interaction of local anaesthetics with lipid membranes under inflammatory acidic conditions
    • Tsuchiya H, Mizogami M, Ueno T, et al. Interaction of local anaesthetics with lipid membranes under inflammatory acidic conditions. Inflammopharmacology 2007;15:164-170
    • (2007) Inflammopharmacology , vol.15 , pp. 164-170
    • Tsuchiya, H.1    Mizogami, M.2    Ueno, T.3
  • 29
    • 77954924248 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Positively active - How local anesthetics work
    • Hemmings HC, Greengard P. Positively active - how local anesthetics work. Anesthesiology 2010;113:250-252
    • (2010) Anesthesiology , vol.113 , pp. 250-252
    • Hemmings, H.C.1    Greengard, P.2
  • 30
    • 0000419457 scopus 로고
    • N-alkyl pyrrolidine and N-alkyl piperidine carboxylic acid amides
    • Af Ekenstam B, Egner B, Pettersson G. N-alkyl pyrrolidine and N-alkyl piperidine carboxylic acid amides. Acta Chem Scand 1957;11:1183-1190
    • (1957) Acta Chem Scand , vol.11 , pp. 1183-1190
    • Af Ekenstam, B.1    Egner, B.2    Pettersson, G.3
  • 31
    • 0014643860 scopus 로고
    • Stereoisomerism and differential activity in excitation block by local anesthetics
    • Akerman SBA, Camougis G, Sandberg RV. Stereoisomerism and differential activity in excitation block by local anesthetics. Eur Pharmacol 1969;8:337-347
    • (1969) Eur Pharmacol , vol.8 , pp. 337-347
    • Sba, A.1    Camougis, G.2    Sandberg, R.V.3
  • 32
    • 0017819596 scopus 로고
    • An intradermal study of the local anaesthetic and vascular effects of the isomers of bupivacaine
    • Aps C, Reynolds F. An intradermal study of the local anaesthetic and vascular effects of the isomers of bupivacaine. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1978;6:63-68
    • (1978) Br J Clin Pharmacol , vol.6 , pp. 63-68
    • Aps, C.1    Reynolds, F.2
  • 33
    • 0027525644 scopus 로고
    • Tissue distribution of bupivacaine enantiomers in sheep
    • Rutten AJ, Mather LE, McLean CF. Tissue distribution of bupivacaine enantiomers in sheep. Chirality 1993;5:485-491
    • (1993) Chirality , vol.5 , pp. 485-491
    • Rutten, A.J.1    Mather, L.E.2    McLean, C.F.3
  • 34
    • 0033821965 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Potency of bupivacaine stereoisomers tested in vitro and in vivo: Biochemical, electrophysiological, and neurobehavioral studies
    • Vladimirov M, Nau C, Mok WM, et al. Potency of bupivacaine stereoisomers tested in vitro and in vivo: biochemical, electrophysiological, and neurobehavioral studies. Anesthesiology 2000;93:744-755
    • (2000) Anesthesiology , vol.93 , pp. 744-755
    • Vladimirov, M.1    Nau, C.2    Mok, W.M.3
  • 35
    • 71349083588 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Membrane interactivity of charged local anesthetic derivative and stereoselectivity in membrane interaction of local anesthetic enantiomers
    • Tsuchiya H, Mizogami M. Membrane interactivity of charged local anesthetic derivative and stereoselectivity in membrane interaction of local anesthetic enantiomers. Loc Reg Anesth 2008:1:1-9
    • (2008) Loc Reg Anesth , vol.1 , pp. 1-9
    • Tsuchiya, H.1    Mizogami, M.2
  • 36
    • 0015464306 scopus 로고
    • Toxicological and local anaesthetic effects of optically active isomers of two local anaesthetic compounds
    • Aberg G. Toxicological and local anaesthetic effects of optically active isomers of two local anaesthetic compounds. Acta Pharm Toxicol 1972;31:272-286
    • (1972) Acta Pharm Toxicol , vol.31 , pp. 272-286
    • Aberg, G.1
  • 38
    • 0023731286 scopus 로고
    • Primary evaluation of the local anesthetic properties of the amino amide agent ropivacaine (LEA 103)
    • Akerman B. Hellberg IB, Trossvik C. Primary evaluation of the local anesthetic properties of the amino amide agent ropivacaine (LEA 103). Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1988;32:571-577
    • (1988) Acta Anaesthesiol Scand , vol.32 , pp. 571-577
    • Akerman, B.1    Hellberg, I.B.2    Trossvik, C.3
  • 39
    • 0033936439 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Levobupivacaine: New preclinical and clinical data
    • Gennery B, Mather LE, Strichartz G. Levobupivacaine: new preclinical and clinical data. Semin Anesth 2000;19:132-148
    • (2000) Semin Anesth , vol.19 , pp. 132-148
    • Gennery, B.1    Mather, L.E.2    Strichartz, G.3
  • 40
    • 13444256588 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Motor nerve blockade potency and toxicity of non-racemic bupivacaine in rats
    • Trachez MM, Zapata-Sudo G, Moreira OR, et al. Motor nerve blockade potency and toxicity of non-racemic bupivacaine in rats. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2005;49:66-71
    • (2005) Acta Anaesthesiol Scand , vol.49 , pp. 66-71
    • Trachez, M.M.1    Zapata-Sudo, G.2    Moreira, O.R.3
  • 41
    • 77049203887 scopus 로고
    • The chemical structure and nomenclature of the local anaesthetics
    • Lloyd B. The chemical structure and nomenclature of the local anaesthetics. Br J Anaesth 1955;27:286-290
    • (1955) Br J Anaesth , vol.27 , pp. 286-290
    • Lloyd, B.1
  • 42
    • 0018648168 scopus 로고
    • Local anaesthetics and their current clinical use
    • Mather LE, Cousins MJ. Local anaesthetics and their current clinical use. Drugs 1979;18:185-205
    • (1979) Drugs , vol.18 , pp. 185-205
    • Mather, L.E.1    Cousins, M.J.2
  • 43
    • 78650418080 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Properties, absorption and disposition of local anesthetic agents
    • Cousins MJ, Carr DB, Horlocker TT, et al., editors, Wolters Kluwer: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia
    • Mather LE, Tucker GT. Properties, absorption and disposition of local anesthetic agents. In: Cousins MJ, Carr DB, Horlocker TT, et al., editors, Neural blockade in clinical anesthesia and pain medicine. 4th edition. Wolters Kluwer: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia; 2008. p. 45-95
    • (2008) Neural Blockade in Clinical Anesthesia and Pain Medicine. 4th Edition , pp. 45-95
    • Mather, L.E.1    Tucker, G.T.2
  • 44
    • 33645090930 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Up-down studies: Responding to dosing!
    • Columb MO, D'Angelo R. Up-down studies: responding to dosing! Int J Obstet Anesth 2006;15:129-136
    • (2006) Int J Obstet Anesth , vol.15 , pp. 129-136
    • Columb, M.O.1    D'Angelo, R.2
  • 45
    • 14644415521 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Minimum local analgesic doses of ropivacaine, levobupivacaine, and bupivacaine for intrathecal labor analgesia
    • Camorcia M, Capogna G, Columb MO. Minimum local analgesic doses of ropivacaine, levobupivacaine, and bupivacaine for intrathecal labor analgesia. Anesthesiology 2005;102:646-650
    • (2005) Anesthesiology , vol.102 , pp. 646-650
    • Camorcia, M.1    Capogna, G.2    Columb, M.O.3
  • 46
    • 33644976912 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Continuous infusion of 0.5% bupivacaine for local analgesia: What are "toxic" blood levels?
    • White PF. Continuous infusion of 0.5% bupivacaine for local analgesia: what are "toxic" blood levels? Reg Anesth Pain Med 2006;31:184
    • (2006) Reg Anesth Pain Med , vol.31 , pp. 184
    • White, P.F.1
  • 47
    • 11144320679 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Maximum recommended doses of local anesthetics: A multifactorial concept
    • Rosenberg PH, Veering BT, Urmey WF. Maximum recommended doses of local anesthetics: a multifactorial concept. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2004;29:564-575
    • (2004) Reg Anesth Pain Med , vol.29 , pp. 564-575
    • Rosenberg, P.H.1    Veering, B.T.2    Urmey, W.F.3
  • 48
    • 0018646720 scopus 로고
    • Clinical pharmacokinetics of local anaesthetic agents
    • Tucker GT, Mather LE. Clinical pharmacokinetics of local anaesthetic agents. Clin Pharmacokinet 1979;4:241-278
    • (1979) Clin Pharmacokinet , vol.4 , pp. 241-278
    • Tucker, G.T.1    Mather, L.E.2
  • 49
    • 3042742657 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The systemic absorption and disposition of levobupivacaine 0.5% after epidural administration in surgical patients: A stable-isotope study
    • Simon MJ, Veering BT, Stienstra R, et al. The systemic absorption and disposition of levobupivacaine 0.5% after epidural administration in surgical patients: a stable-isotope study. Eur J Anaesth 2004;21:460-470
    • (2004) Eur J Anaesth , vol.21 , pp. 460-470
    • Simon, M.J.1    Veering, B.T.2    Stienstra, R.3
  • 50
    • 29844433101 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The effect of age on the systemic absorption and systemic disposition of ropivacaine after epidural administration
    • Simon MJ, Veering BT, Vletter AA, et al. The effect of age on the systemic absorption and systemic disposition of ropivacaine after epidural administration. Anesth Analg 2006;102:276-282
    • (2006) Anesth Analg , vol.102 , pp. 276-282
    • Simon, M.J.1    Veering, B.T.2    Vletter, A.A.3
  • 51
    • 0018729672 scopus 로고
    • Cardiac arrest following regional anesthesia with etidocaine or bupivacaine
    • Albright GA. Cardiac arrest following regional anesthesia with etidocaine or bupivacaine. Anesthesiology 1979;51:285-287
    • (1979) Anesthesiology , vol.51 , pp. 285-287
    • Albright, G.A.1
  • 52
    • 0036853950 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • One hundred years later, i can still make your heart stop and your legs weak: The relationship between regional anesthesia and local anesthetic toxicity
    • Horlocker TT, Neal JM. One hundred years later, I can still make your heart stop and your legs weak: the relationship between regional anesthesia and local anesthetic toxicity. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2002;27:543-544
    • (2002) Reg Anesth Pain Med , vol.27 , pp. 543-544
    • Horlocker, T.T.1    Neal, J.M.2
  • 53
    • 0035064687 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cardiotoxicity with modern local anaesthetics - Is there a safer choice?
    • Mather LE, Chang DH-T. Cardiotoxicity with modern local anaesthetics - Is there a safer choice? Drugs 2001;61:333-342
    • (2001) Drugs , vol.61 , pp. 333-342
    • Mather, L.E.1    Dh-T, C.2
  • 54
    • 77952363722 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Clinical presentation of local anesthetic systemic toxicity
    • Di Gregiorio G, Neal JM, Rosenquist RW, et al. Clinical presentation of local anesthetic systemic toxicity. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2010;35:181-187
    • (2010) Reg Anesth Pain Med , vol.35 , pp. 181-187
    • Di Gregiorio, G.1    Neal, J.M.2    Rosenquist, R.W.3
  • 55
    • 0036854976 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cardiac toxicity of local anesthetics in the intact isolated heart model: A review
    • Heavner JE. Cardiac toxicity of local anesthetics in the intact isolated heart model: a review. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2002;27:545-555
    • (2002) Reg Anesth Pain Med , vol.27 , pp. 545-555
    • Heavner, J.E.1
  • 56
    • 0037263274 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Central nervous system and cardiac effects from long-acting amide local anesthetic toxicity in the intact animal model
    • Groban L. Central nervous system and cardiac effects from long-acting amide local anesthetic toxicity in the intact animal model. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2003;28:3-11
    • (2003) Reg Anesth Pain Med , vol.28 , pp. 3-11
    • Groban, L.1
  • 57
    • 0002491504 scopus 로고
    • Central effects of local anesthetic agents
    • Strichartz GR, editor, Springer-Verlag, Berlin
    • Garfield JM, Gugino L. Central effects of local anesthetic agents. In: Strichartz GR, editor, Local anesthetics: handb. exp pharm. (Volume 81). Springer-Verlag, Berlin; 1987. p. 252-284
    • (1987) Local Anesthetics: Handb. Exp Pharm , vol.81 , pp. 252-284
    • Garfield, J.M.1    Gugino, L.2
  • 58
    • 0016430578 scopus 로고
    • Evaluation of the toxicity of local anaesthetic agents in man
    • Scott DB. Evaluation of the toxicity of local anaesthetic agents in man. Br J Anaesth 1975;47:56-61
    • (1975) Br J Anaesth , vol.47 , pp. 56-61
    • Scott, D.B.1
  • 59
    • 0006041356 scopus 로고
    • Toxicity and systemic effects of local anesthetic agents
    • Strichartz GR, editor, Springer-Verlag, Berlin
    • Covino BG. Toxicity and systemic effects of local anesthetic agents. In: Strichartz GR, editor, Local anesthetics: handb. exp pharm. (Volume 81). Springer-Verlag, Berlin; 1987. p. 187-212
    • (1987) Local Anesthetics: Handb. Exp Pharm , vol.81 , pp. 187-212
    • Covino, B.G.1
  • 60
    • 0026780002 scopus 로고
    • Chronotropic and inotropic effects of ropivacaine, bupivacaine, and lidocaine in the spontaneously beating and electrically paced isolated, perfused rabbit heart
    • Pitkanen M, Feldman HS, Arthur GR, et al. Chronotropic and inotropic effects of ropivacaine, bupivacaine, and lidocaine in the spontaneously beating and electrically paced isolated, perfused rabbit heart. Reg Anesth 1992;17:183-192
    • (1992) Reg Anesth , vol.17 , pp. 183-192
    • Pitkanen, M.1    Feldman, H.S.2    Arthur, G.R.3
  • 61
    • 11144284477 scopus 로고
    • The role of local anesthetic effects in the action of antiarrhythmic drugs
    • Strichartz GR, editor, Springer-Verlag, Berlin
    • Gintant GA, Hoffman BF. The role of local anesthetic effects in the action of antiarrhythmic drugs. In: Strichartz GR, editor, Local anesthetics: handb. exp pharm. (Volume 81). Springer-Verlag, Berlin; 1987. p. 213-251
    • (1987) Local Anesthetics: Handb. Exp Pharm , vol.81 , pp. 213-251
    • Gintant, G.A.1    Hoffman, B.F.2
  • 62
    • 60749135676 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Electrocardiographic and hemodynamic effects of intravenous infusion of bupivacaine, ropivacaine, levobupivacaine, and lidocaine in anesthetized ewes
    • Guinet P, Estebe JP, Ratajczak-Enselme M, et al. Electrocardiographic and hemodynamic effects of intravenous infusion of bupivacaine, ropivacaine, levobupivacaine, and lidocaine in anesthetized ewes. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2009;34:17-23
    • (2009) Reg Anesth Pain Med , vol.34 , pp. 17-23
    • Guinet, P.1    Estebe, J.P.2    Ratajczak-Enselme, M.3
  • 63
    • 0024805653 scopus 로고
    • Acute toxicity of ropivacaine compared with that of bupivacaine
    • Scott DB, Lee A, Fagan D, et al. Acute toxicity of ropivacaine compared with that of bupivacaine. Anesth Analg 1989;69:563-569
    • (1989) Anesth Analg , vol.69 , pp. 563-569
    • Scott, D.B.1    Lee, A.2    Fagan, D.3
  • 64
    • 0030962927 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Central nervous and cardiovascular effects of i.v. infusions of ropivacaine, bupivacaine and placebo in volunteers
    • Knudsen K, Beckman Suurkula M, Blomberg S, et al. Central nervous and cardiovascular effects of i.v. infusions of ropivacaine, bupivacaine and placebo in volunteers. Br J Anaesth 1997;78:507-514
    • (1997) Br J Anaesth , vol.78 , pp. 507-514
    • Knudsen, K.1    Beckman Suurkula, M.2    Blomberg, S.3
  • 65
    • 0031718230 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A comparison of the cardiovascular effects of levobupivacaine and rac-bupivacaine following intravenous administration to healthy volunteers
    • Bardsley H, Gristwood R, Baker H, et al. A comparison of the cardiovascular effects of levobupivacaine and rac-bupivacaine following intravenous administration to healthy volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1998;46:245-249
    • (1998) Br J Clin Pharmacol , vol.46 , pp. 245-249
    • Bardsley, H.1    Gristwood, R.2    Baker, H.3
  • 66
    • 0041846799 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The central nervous system and cardiovascular effects of levobupivacaine and ropivacaine in healthy volunteers
    • Stewart J, Kellett N, Castro D. The central nervous system and cardiovascular effects of levobupivacaine and ropivacaine in healthy volunteers. Anesth Analg 2003;97:412-416
    • (2003) Anesth Analg , vol.97 , pp. 412-416
    • Stewart, J.1    Kellett, N.2    Castro, D.3
  • 67
    • 77952408586 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Local anesthetic systemic toxicity. A historical perspective
    • Drasner K. Local anesthetic systemic toxicity. A historical perspective. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2010;35:162-166
    • (2010) Reg Anesth Pain Med , vol.35 , pp. 162-166
    • Drasner, K.1
  • 68
    • 77952334526 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Models and mechanisms of local anesthetic cardiac toxicity
    • Butterworth JF IV. Models and mechanisms of local anesthetic cardiac toxicity. A review. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2010;35:167-176
    • (2010) A Review. Reg Anesth Pain Med , vol.35 , pp. 167-176
    • Butterworth, I.V.J.F.1
  • 69
    • 23944456558 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The myocardial and vascular effects of bupivacaine, levobupivacaine, and ropivacaine using pressure volume loops
    • Royse CF, Royse AG. The myocardial and vascular effects of bupivacaine, levobupivacaine, and ropivacaine using pressure volume loops. Anesth Analg 2005;101:679-687
    • (2005) Anesth Analg , vol.101 , pp. 679-687
    • Royse, C.F.1    Royse, A.G.2
  • 70
    • 34249031861 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Effects of bupivacaine, levobupivacaine and ropivacaine on myocardial relaxation
    • David J-S, Ferretti C, Amour J, et al. Effects of bupivacaine, levobupivacaine and ropivacaine on myocardial relaxation. Can J Anesth 2007;54:208-217
    • (2007) Can J Anesth , vol.54 , pp. 208-217
    • David, J.-S.1    Ferretti, C.2    Amour, J.3
  • 71
    • 0024835123 scopus 로고
    • Comparative systemic toxicity of convulsant and supraconvulsant doses of intravenous ropivacaine, bupivacaine, and lidocaine in the conscious dog
    • Feldman HS, Arthur GR, Covino BG. Comparative systemic toxicity of convulsant and supraconvulsant doses of intravenous ropivacaine, bupivacaine, and lidocaine in the conscious dog. Anesth Analg 1989;69:794-801
    • (1989) Anesth Analg , vol.69 , pp. 794-801
    • Feldman, H.S.1    Arthur, G.R.2    Covino, B.G.3
  • 72
    • 0030069590 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Comparative electrophysiologic and hemodynamic effects of several amide local anesthetic drugs in anesthetized dogs
    • Bruelle P, LeFrant JY, de La Coussaye JE, et al. Comparative electrophysiologic and hemodynamic effects of several amide local anesthetic drugs in anesthetized dogs. Anesth Analg 1996;82:648-656
    • (1996) Anesth Analg , vol.82 , pp. 648-656
    • Bruelle, P.1    Lefrant, J.Y.2    De La Coussaye, J.E.3
  • 73
    • 0036745982 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Does local anesthetic stereoselectivity or structure predict myocardial depression in anesthetized canines?
    • Groban L, Deal DD, Vernon JC, et al. Does local anesthetic stereoselectivity or structure predict myocardial depression in anesthetized canines? Reg Anesth Pain Med 2002;27:460-468
    • (2002) Reg Anesth Pain Med , vol.27 , pp. 460-468
    • Groban, L.1    Deal, D.D.2    Vernon, J.C.3
  • 74
    • 0037636491 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Continuous mixed venous oxygen saturation, not mean blood pressure, is associated with early bupivacaine cardiotoxicity in dogs
    • Kim JT, Rhee KY, Bahk JH, et al. Continuous mixed venous oxygen saturation, not mean blood pressure, is associated with early bupivacaine cardiotoxicity in dogs. Can J Anaesth 2003;50:376-381
    • (2003) Can J Anaesth , vol.50 , pp. 376-381
    • Kim, J.T.1    Rhee, K.Y.2    Bahk, J.H.3
  • 75
    • 0024367126 scopus 로고
    • Effect of epinephrine on central nervous system and cardiovascular system toxicity of bupivacaine in pigs
    • Bernards CM, Carpenter RL, Kenter ME, et al. Effect of epinephrine on central nervous system and cardiovascular system toxicity of bupivacaine in pigs. Anesthesiology 1989;71:711-717
    • (1989) Anesthesiology , vol.71 , pp. 711-717
    • Bernards, C.M.1    Carpenter, R.L.2    Kenter, M.E.3
  • 76
    • 0025075719 scopus 로고
    • Treatment of bupivacaine-induced cardiac arrhythmias in hypoxic and hypercarbic pigs with amiodarone or bretylium
    • Haasio J, Pitkanen MT, Kytta J, et al. Treatment of bupivacaine-induced cardiac arrhythmias in hypoxic and hypercarbic pigs with amiodarone or bretylium. Reg Anesth 1990;15:174-179
    • (1990) Reg Anesth , vol.15 , pp. 174-179
    • Haasio, J.1    Pitkanen, M.T.2    Kytta, J.3
  • 77
    • 0028813082 scopus 로고
    • Bupivacaine toxicity in lightly anesthetized pigs with respiratory imbalances plus or minus halothane
    • Heavner JE, Badgwell JM, Dryden CF, et al. Bupivacaine toxicity in lightly anesthetized pigs with respiratory imbalances plus or minus halothane. Reg Anesth 1995;20:20-26
    • (1995) Reg Anesth , vol.20 , pp. 20-26
    • Heavner, J.E.1    Badgwell, J.M.2    Dryden, C.F.3
  • 78
    • 0034039221 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A comparison of the electrocardiographic cardiotoxic effects of racemic bupivacaine, levobupivacaine, and ropivacaine in anesthetized swine
    • Morrison SG, Dominguez JJ, Frascarolo P, et al. A comparison of the electrocardiographic cardiotoxic effects of racemic bupivacaine, levobupivacaine, and ropivacaine in anesthetized swine. Anesth Analg 2000;90:1308-1314
    • (2000) Anesth Analg , vol.90 , pp. 1308-1314
    • Morrison, S.G.1    Dominguez, J.J.2    Frascarolo, P.3
  • 79
    • 0035200882 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The comparative electrophysiologic and hemodynamic effects of a large dose of ropivacaine and bupivacaine in anesthetized and ventilated piglets
    • Lefrant JY, de La Coussaye JE, Ripart J, et al. The comparative electrophysiologic and hemodynamic effects of a large dose of ropivacaine and bupivacaine in anesthetized and ventilated piglets. Anesth Analg 2001;93:1598-1605
    • (2001) Anesth Analg , vol.93 , pp. 1598-1605
    • Lefrant, J.Y.1    De La Coussaye, J.E.2    Ripart, J.3
  • 80
    • 0018751729 scopus 로고
    • Pharmacokinetics of lidocaine in fetal and neonatal lambs and adult sheep
    • Morishima HO, Finster M, Pedersen H, et al. Pharmacokinetics of lidocaine in fetal and neonatal lambs and adult sheep. Anesthesiology 1979;50:431-436
    • (1979) Anesthesiology , vol.50 , pp. 431-436
    • Morishima, H.O.1    Finster, M.2    Pedersen, H.3
  • 81
    • 0020505102 scopus 로고
    • Etidocaine toxicity in the adult, newborn, and fetal sheep
    • Morishima HO, Pedersen H, Finster M, et al. Etidocaine toxicity in the adult, newborn, and fetal sheep. Anesthesiology 1983;58:342-346
    • (1983) Anesthesiology , vol.58 , pp. 342-346
    • Morishima, H.O.1    Pedersen, H.2    Finster, M.3
  • 82
    • 0021133286 scopus 로고
    • A sheep preparation for studying interactions between blood flow and drug disposition. III: Effects of general and spinal anaesthesia on regional blood flow and oxygen tensions
    • Runciman WB, Mather LE, Ilsley AH, et al. A sheep preparation for studying interactions between blood flow and drug disposition. III: effects of general and spinal anaesthesia on regional blood flow and oxygen tensions. Br J Anaesth 1984;56:1247-1258
    • (1984) Br J Anaesth , vol.56 , pp. 1247-1258
    • Runciman, W.B.1    Mather, L.E.2    Ilsley, A.H.3
  • 83
    • 0022234246 scopus 로고
    • Bupivacaine-induced cardiotoxicity in hypoxic and acidotic sheep
    • Rosen MA, Thigpen JW, Kotelko DM, et al. Bupivacaine-induced cardiotoxicity in hypoxic and acidotic sheep. Anesth Analg 1985;64:1089-1096
    • (1985) Anesth Analg , vol.64 , pp. 1089-1096
    • Rosen, M.A.1    Thigpen, J.W.2    Kotelko, D.M.3
  • 84
    • 0022460362 scopus 로고
    • Comparison of resuscitation of sheep and dogs after bupivacaine induced cardiovascular collapse
    • Kasten GW, Martin ST. Comparison of resuscitation of sheep and dogs after bupivacaine induced cardiovascular collapse. Anesth Analg 1986;65:1029-1032
    • (1986) Anesth Analg , vol.65 , pp. 1029-1032
    • Kasten, G.W.1    Martin, S.T.2
  • 85
    • 0023501892 scopus 로고
    • The influence of acidosis on the distribution of lidocaine and bupivacaine into the myocardium and brain of the sheep
    • Nancarrow C, Runciman WB, Mather LE, et al. The influence of acidosis on the distribution of lidocaine and bupivacaine into the myocardium and brain of the sheep. Anesth Analg 1987;66:925-935
    • (1987) Anesth Analg , vol.66 , pp. 925-935
    • Nancarrow, C.1    Runciman, W.B.2    Mather, L.E.3
  • 86
    • 0027336339 scopus 로고
    • IV bolus administration of subconvulsive doses of lignocaine to conscious sheep: Relationships between myocardial pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics
    • Huang YF, Upton RN, Runciman WB. IV bolus administration of subconvulsive doses of lignocaine to conscious sheep: relationships between myocardial pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Br J Anaesth 1993;70:556-561
    • (1993) Br J Anaesth , vol.70 , pp. 556-561
    • Huang, Y.F.1    Upton, R.N.2    Runciman, W.B.3
  • 87
    • 2542448043 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The effects of imposed acid-base derangement on the cardio-activity and pharmacokinetics of bupivacaine and thiopental
    • Mather LE, Ladd LA, Chang DHT, et al. The effects of imposed acid-base derangement on the cardio-activity and pharmacokinetics of bupivacaine and thiopental. Anesthesiology 2004;100:1447-1457
    • (2004) Anesthesiology , vol.100 , pp. 1447-1457
    • Mather, L.E.1    Ladd, L.A.2    Dht, C.3
  • 88
    • 3543073649 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The sheep: An ideal model for biomedical research?
    • McMillen C. The sheep: an ideal model for biomedical research? ANZCAART News 2001;14:1-5
    • (2001) ANZCAART News , vol.14 , pp. 1-5
    • McMillen, C.1
  • 89
    • 2542490769 scopus 로고
    • Effects of anaesthesia on drug disposition
    • Feldman SA, Scurr CF, Paton W, editors, Edward Arnold, London
    • Runciman WB, Mather LE. Effects of anaesthesia on drug disposition. In: Feldman SA, Scurr CF, Paton W, editors, Mechanisms of action of drugs in anaesthetic practice. Edward Arnold, London; 1987. p. 87-122
    • (1987) Mechanisms of Action of Drugs in Anaesthetic Practice , pp. 87-122
    • Runciman, W.B.1    Mather, L.E.2
  • 90
    • 0023729846 scopus 로고
    • Alterations in the pharmacokinetic properties of amide local anaesthetics following local anaesthetic induced convulsions
    • Arthur GR, Feldman HS, Covino BG. Alterations in the pharmacokinetic properties of amide local anaesthetics following local anaesthetic induced convulsions. Acta Anaesth Scand 1988;32:522-529
    • (1988) Acta Anaesth Scand , vol.32 , pp. 522-529
    • Arthur, G.R.1    Feldman, H.S.2    Covino, B.G.3
  • 91
    • 0028674588 scopus 로고
    • Pharmacokinetics of bupivacaine enantiomers in sheep: Influence of dosage regimen and study design
    • Mather LE, Rutten AJ, Plummer JL. Pharmacokinetics of bupivacaine enantiomers in sheep: influence of dosage regimen and study design. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm 1994;22:481-498
    • (1994) J Pharmacokinet Biopharm , vol.22 , pp. 481-498
    • Mather, L.E.1    Rutten, A.J.2    Plummer, J.L.3
  • 92
    • 0025768176 scopus 로고
    • Disposition of mepivacaine and bupivacaine enantiomers in the sheep
    • Mather LE. Disposition of mepivacaine and bupivacaine enantiomers in the sheep. Br J Anaesth 1991;67:239-246
    • (1991) Br J Anaesth , vol.67 , pp. 239-246
    • Mather, L.E.1
  • 93
    • 0021816059 scopus 로고
    • Bupivacaine toxicity in pregnant and nonpregnant ewes
    • Morishima HO, Pedersen H, Finster M, et al. Bupivacaine toxicity in pregnant and nonpregnant ewes. Anesthesiology 1985;63:134-139
    • (1985) Anesthesiology , vol.63 , pp. 134-139
    • Morishima, H.O.1    Pedersen, H.2    Finster, M.3
  • 94
    • 0025931859 scopus 로고
    • Systemic toxicity of ropivacaine during ovine pregnancy
    • Santos AC, Arthur GR, Pedersen H, et al. Systemic toxicity of ropivacaine during ovine pregnancy. Anesthesiology 1991;75:137-141
    • (1991) Anesthesiology , vol.75 , pp. 137-141
    • Santos, A.C.1    Arthur, G.R.2    Pedersen, H.3
  • 95
    • 0034760364 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Systemic toxicity of levobupivacaine, bupivacaine, and ropivacaine during continuous intravenous infusion to nonpregnant and pregnant ewes
    • Santos AC, DeArmas PI. Systemic toxicity of levobupivacaine, bupivacaine, and ropivacaine during continuous intravenous infusion to nonpregnant and pregnant ewes. Anesthesiology 2001;95:1256-1264
    • (2001) Anesthesiology , vol.95 , pp. 1256-1264
    • Santos, A.C.1    Dearmas, P.I.2
  • 96
    • 0028921758 scopus 로고
    • Comparative systemic toxicity of ropivacaine and bupivacaine in nonpregnant and pregnant ewes
    • Santos AC, Arthur GR, Wlody D, et al. Comparative systemic toxicity of ropivacaine and bupivacaine in nonpregnant and pregnant ewes. Anesthesiology 1995;82:734-740
    • (1995) Anesthesiology , vol.82 , pp. 734-740
    • Santos, A.C.1    Arthur, G.R.2    Wlody, D.3
  • 97
    • 0034443999 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Central effects index - a semi-quantitative method for assessment of CNS toxicity of local anaesthetic agents in sheep
    • Ladd LA, Mather LE. Central effects index - a semi-quantitative method for assessment of CNS toxicity of local anaesthetic agents in sheep. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2000;44:467-476
    • (2000) J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods , vol.44 , pp. 467-476
    • Ladd, L.A.1    Mather, L.E.2
  • 98
    • 0034007606 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Development and validation of a recirculatory physiological model of the myocardial concentrations of lignocaine after intravenous administration in sheep
    • Upton RN, Zheng DA, Grant C, et al. Development and validation of a recirculatory physiological model of the myocardial concentrations of lignocaine after intravenous administration in sheep. J Pharm Pharmacol 2000;52:181-189
    • (2000) J Pharm Pharmacol , vol.52 , pp. 181-189
    • Upton, R.N.1    Zheng, D.A.2    Grant, C.3
  • 99
    • 0024799198 scopus 로고
    • Hemodynamic and central nervous system effects of intravenous bolus doses of lidocaine, bupivacaine, and ropivacaine in sheep
    • Rutten AJ, Nancarrow C, Mather LE, et al. Hemodynamic and central nervous system effects of intravenous bolus doses of lidocaine, bupivacaine, and ropivacaine in sheep. Anesth Analg 1989;69:291-299
    • (1989) Anesth Analg , vol.69 , pp. 291-299
    • Rutten, A.J.1    Nancarrow, C.2    Mather, L.E.3
  • 100
    • 0027340536 scopus 로고
    • I.V. bolus administration of subconvulsive doses of lignocaine to conscious sheep: Myocardial pharmacokinetics
    • Huang YF, Upton RN, Runciman WB. I.V. bolus administration of subconvulsive doses of lignocaine to conscious sheep: myocardial pharmacokinetics. Br J Anaesth 1993;70:326-332
    • (1993) Br J Anaesth , vol.70 , pp. 326-332
    • Huang, Y.F.1    Upton, R.N.2    Runciman, W.B.3
  • 101
    • 0005649278 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cardiovascular and central nervous system effects of intravenous levobupivacaine and bupivacaine in sheep
    • Huang YF, Pryor ME, Mather LE, et al. Cardiovascular and central nervous system effects of intravenous levobupivacaine and bupivacaine in sheep. Anesth Analg 1998;86:797-804
    • (1998) Anesth Analg , vol.86 , pp. 797-804
    • Huang, Y.F.1    Pryor, M.E.2    Mather, L.E.3
  • 102
    • 0024852874 scopus 로고
    • Myocardial and cerebral drug concentrations and the mechanisms of death after fatal intravenous doses of lidocaine, bupivacaine, and ropivacaine in the sheep
    • Nancarrow C, Rutten AJ, Runciman WB, et al. Myocardial and cerebral drug concentrations and the mechanisms of death after fatal intravenous doses of lidocaine, bupivacaine, and ropivacaine in the sheep. Anesth Analg 1989;69:276-283
    • (1989) Anesth Analg , vol.69 , pp. 276-283
    • Nancarrow, C.1    Rutten, A.J.2    Runciman, W.B.3
  • 103
    • 0027235743 scopus 로고
    • Myocardial uptake of bupivacaine: II. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of bupivacaine enantiomers in the isolated perfused rabbit heart
    • Mazoit JX, Boico O, Samii K. Myocardial uptake of bupivacaine: II. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of bupivacaine enantiomers in the isolated perfused rabbit heart. Anesth Analg 1993;77:477-482
    • (1993) Anesth Analg , vol.77 , pp. 477-482
    • Mazoit, J.X.1    Boico, O.2    Samii, K.3
  • 104
    • 0033850075 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Tolerability of large-dose intravenous levobupivacaine in sheep
    • Chang DH, Ladd LA, Wilson KA, et al. Tolerability of large-dose intravenous levobupivacaine in sheep. Anesth Analg 2000;91:671-679
    • (2000) Anesth Analg , vol.91 , pp. 671-679
    • Chang, D.H.1    Ladd, L.A.2    Wilson, K.A.3
  • 105
    • 0028817743 scopus 로고
    • Stereoselective block of cardiac sodium channels by bupivacaine in guineapig ventricular myocytes
    • Valenzuela C, Snyders DJ, Bennett PB, et al. Stereoselective block of cardiac sodium channels by bupivacaine in guineapig ventricular myocytes. Circulation 1995;92:3014-3024
    • (1995) Circulation , vol.92 , pp. 3014-3024
    • Valenzuela, C.1    Snyders, D.J.2    Bennett, P.B.3
  • 106
    • 0029095234 scopus 로고
    • Stereoselective block of a human cardiac potassium channel (Kv1.5) by bupivacaine enantiomers
    • Valenzuela C, Delpon E, Tamkun MM, et al. Stereoselective block of a human cardiac potassium channel (Kv1.5) by bupivacaine enantiomers. Biophys J 1995;69:418-427
    • (1995) Biophys J , vol.69 , pp. 418-427
    • Valenzuela, C.1    Delpon, E.2    Tamkun, M.M.3
  • 107
    • 0030993583 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Effects of ropivacaine on a potassium channel (hKv1.5) cloned from human ventricle
    • Valenzuela C, Delpon E, Franqueza L, et al. Effects of ropivacaine on a potassium channel (hKv1.5) cloned from human ventricle. Anesthesiology 1997;86:718-728
    • (1997) Anesthesiology , vol.86 , pp. 718-728
    • Valenzuela, C.1    Delpon, E.2    Franqueza, L.3
  • 108
    • 33644511070 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Regulation of intracellular calcium by bupivacaine isomers in cardiac myocytes from Wistar rats
    • Chedid NG, Sudo RT, Aguiar MI, et al. Regulation of intracellular calcium by bupivacaine isomers in cardiac myocytes from Wistar rats. Anesth Analg 2006;102:792-798
    • (2006) Anesth Analg , vol.102 , pp. 792-798
    • Chedid, N.G.1    Sudo, R.T.2    Aguiar, M.I.3
  • 109
    • 0022625379 scopus 로고
    • Cardiac dysrhythmias induced by infusion of local anesthetics into the lateral cerebral ventricle of cats
    • Heavner JE. Cardiac dysrhythmias induced by infusion of local anesthetics into the lateral cerebral ventricle of cats. Anesth Analg 1986;65:133-138
    • (1986) Anesth Analg , vol.65 , pp. 133-138
    • Heavner, J.E.1
  • 110
    • 0035115751 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Direct cardiac effects of intracoronary bupivacaine, levobupivacaine and ropivacaine in the sheep
    • Chang DH, Ladd LA, Copeland S, et al. Direct cardiac effects of intracoronary bupivacaine, levobupivacaine and ropivacaine in the sheep. Br J Pharmacol 2001;132:649-658
    • (2001) Br J Pharmacol , vol.132 , pp. 649-658
    • Chang, D.H.1    Ladd, L.A.2    Copeland, S.3
  • 111
    • 0036321886 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Effects of CNS site-directed carotid arterial infusions of bupivacaine, levobupivacaine and ropivacaine in sheep
    • Ladd LA, Chang DH, Wilson K, et al. Effects of CNS site-directed carotid arterial infusions of bupivacaine, levobupivacaine and ropivacaine in sheep. Anesthesiology 2002;97:418-428
    • (2002) Anesthesiology , vol.97 , pp. 418-428
    • Ladd, L.A.1    Chang, D.H.2    Wilson, K.3
  • 112
    • 0022589565 scopus 로고
    • Cardiovascular toxicity of local anesthetics: An alternative hypothesis
    • Thomas RD, Behbehani MM, Coyle DE, et al. Cardiovascular toxicity of local anesthetics: an alternative hypothesis. Anesth Analg 1986;65:444-450
    • (1986) Anesth Analg , vol.65 , pp. 444-450
    • Thomas, R.D.1    Behbehani, M.M.2    Coyle, D.E.3
  • 114
    • 0025867180 scopus 로고
    • Adverse interaction between bupivacaine and halothane on ventricular contractile force and intraventricular conduction in the dog
    • Bertrix L, Timour Q, Mazze RI, et al. Adverse interaction between bupivacaine and halothane on ventricular contractile force and intraventricular conduction in the dog. Anesth Analg 1991;73:434-440
    • (1991) Anesth Analg , vol.73 , pp. 434-440
    • Bertrix, L.1    Timour, Q.2    Mazze, R.I.3
  • 115
    • 0025079650 scopus 로고
    • Bupivacaine toxicity in young pigs is age-dependent and is affected by volatile anesthetics
    • Badgwell JM, Heavner JE, Kytta J. Bupivacaine toxicity in young pigs is age-dependent and is affected by volatile anesthetics. Anesthesiology 1990;73:297-303
    • (1990) Anesthesiology , vol.73 , pp. 297-303
    • Badgwell, J.M.1    Heavner, J.E.2    Kytta, J.3
  • 116
    • 42449098092 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Effects of general anesthesia on the central nervous and cardiovascular system toxicity of local anesthetics
    • Copeland SE, Ladd LA, Gu X-Q, et al. Effects of general anesthesia on the central nervous and cardiovascular system toxicity of local anesthetics. Anesth Analg 2008;106:1429-1439
    • (2008) Anesth Analg , vol.106 , pp. 1429-1439
    • Copeland, S.E.1    Ladd, L.A.2    Gu, X.-Q.3
  • 117
    • 42449110876 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Effects of general anesthesia on whole body and regional pharmacokinetics of local anesthetics at toxic doses
    • Copeland SE, Ladd LA, Gu X-Q, et al. Effects of general anesthesia on whole body and regional pharmacokinetics of local anesthetics at toxic doses. Anesth Analg 2008;106:1440-1449
    • (2008) Anesth Analg , vol.106 , pp. 1440-1449
    • Copeland, S.E.1    Ladd, L.A.2    Gu, X.-Q.3
  • 118
    • 28644447060 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Acute toxicity of local anesthetics: Underlying pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic concepts
    • Mather LE, Copeland SE, Ladd LA. Acute toxicity of local anesthetics: underlying pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic concepts. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2005;30:553-566
    • (2005) Reg Anesth Pain Med , vol.30 , pp. 553-566
    • Mather, L.E.1    Copeland, S.E.2    Ladd, L.A.3
  • 119
    • 0038781326 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Drug handling by the lungs
    • Boer F. Drug handling by the lungs. Br J Anaesth 2003;91:50-60
    • (2003) Br J Anaesth , vol.91 , pp. 50-60
    • Boer, F.1
  • 120
    • 0027981249 scopus 로고
    • Pharmacokinetics of the enantiomers of bupivacaine following intravenous administration of the racemate
    • Burm AGL, Van der Meer AD, Van Kleef JW, et al. Pharmacokinetics of the enantiomers of bupivacaine following intravenous administration of the racemate. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1994;38:125-129
    • (1994) Br J Clin Pharmacol , vol.38 , pp. 125-129
    • Agl, B.1    Van Der Meer, A.D.2    Van Kleef, J.W.3
  • 121
    • 0345628006 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Systemic and regional pharmacokinetics of bupivacaine and levobupivacaine in sheep
    • Mather LE, Huang YF, Pryor ME, et al. Systemic and regional pharmacokinetics of bupivacaine and levobupivacaine in sheep. Anesth Analg 1998;86:805-811
    • (1998) Anesth Analg , vol.86 , pp. 805-811
    • Mather, L.E.1    Huang, Y.F.2    Pryor, M.E.3
  • 122
    • 72149131769 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Adverse events associated with intravenous regional anesthesia (Bier block): A systematic review of complications
    • Guay J. Adverse events associated with intravenous regional anesthesia (Bier block): a systematic review of complications. J Clin Anesth 2009;21:585-594
    • (2009) J Clin Anesth , vol.21 , pp. 585-594
    • Guay, J.1
  • 123
    • 65949123369 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Adverse drug reactions to local anaesthetics. A review of the French pharmacovigilance database
    • Fuzier R, Lapeyre-Mestre M, Samii K, et al. Adverse drug reactions to local anaesthetics. A review of the French pharmacovigilance database. Drug Saf 2009;32:345-356
    • (2009) Drug Saf , vol.32 , pp. 345-356
    • Fuzier, R.1    Lapeyre-Mestre, M.2    Samii, K.3
  • 124
    • 77950900506 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Litigation related to regional anaesthesia: An analysis of claims against the NHS in England 1995-2007
    • Szypula K, Ashpole KJ, Bogod D, et al. Litigation related to regional anaesthesia: an analysis of claims against the NHS in England 1995-2007. Anaesthesia 2010;65:443-452
    • (2010) Anaesthesia , vol.65 , pp. 443-452
    • Szypula, K.1    Ashpole, K.J.2    Bogod, D.3
  • 125
    • 56849102742 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Regional anesthesia techniques for ambulatory orthopedic surgery
    • O'Donnell BD, Iohom G. Regional anesthesia techniques for ambulatory orthopedic surgery. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2008;21:723-728
    • (2008) Curr Opin Anaesthesiol , vol.21 , pp. 723-728
    • O'Donnell, B.D.1    Iohom, G.2
  • 128
    • 70349160430 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Regional techniques and outcome: What is the evidence?
    • Hanna MN, Murphy JD, Kumar K, et al. Regional techniques and outcome: what is the evidence? Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2009;22:672-677
    • (2009) Curr Opin Anaesthesiol , vol.22 , pp. 672-677
    • Hanna, M.N.1    Murphy, J.D.2    Kumar, K.3
  • 129
    • 0036854808 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Systemic toxicity and cardiotoxicity from local anesthetics: Incidence and preventive measures
    • Mulroy MF. Systemic toxicity and cardiotoxicity from local anesthetics: incidence and preventive measures. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2002;27:556-561
    • (2002) Reg Anesth Pain Med , vol.27 , pp. 556-561
    • Mulroy, M.F.1
  • 130
    • 77952324649 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prevention of Local anesthetic systemic toxicity
    • Mulroy MMF, Hejtmanek MR. Prevention of Local anesthetic systemic toxicity. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2010;35:177-180
    • (2010) Reg Anesth Pain Med , vol.35 , pp. 177-180
    • Mmf, M.1    Hejtmanek, M.R.2
  • 132
    • 0034083805 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Are the new local anesthetics worth their cost?
    • D'Angelo R. Are the new local anesthetics worth their cost? Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2000;44:639-641
    • (2000) Acta Anaesthesiol Scand , vol.44 , pp. 639-641
    • D'Angelo, R.1
  • 133
    • 0035020503 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • New local anaesthetics - how much is improved safety worth?
    • Wildsmith JAW. New local anaesthetics - how much is improved safety worth? Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2001;45:652-656
    • (2001) Acta Anaesthesiol Scand , vol.45 , pp. 652-656
    • Jaw, W.1
  • 134
    • 74549219830 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Preliminary results of the Australasian Regional Anaesthesia Collaboration: A prospective audit of more than 7000 peripheral nerve and plexus blocks for neurologic and other complications
    • Barrington MJ, Watts SA, Gledhill SR, et al. Preliminary results of the Australasian Regional Anaesthesia Collaboration: a prospective audit of more than 7000 peripheral nerve and plexus blocks for neurologic and other complications. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2009;34:534-541
    • (2009) Reg Anesth Pain Med , vol.34 , pp. 534-541
    • Barrington, M.J.1    Watts, S.A.2    Gledhill, S.R.3
  • 135
    • 70549096186 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Local anaesthetic drugs: Adverse effects as reported through the ADROIT system in the UK
    • Nazir MS, Holdcroft A. Local anaesthetic drugs: adverse effects as reported through the ADROIT system in the UK. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2009;18:1000-1006
    • (2009) Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf , vol.18 , pp. 1000-1006
    • Nazir, M.S.1    Holdcroft, A.2
  • 136
    • 0036251841 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cardiac and CNS toxicity of levobupivacaine: Strengths of evidence for advantage over bupivacaine
    • Gristwood RW. Cardiac and CNS toxicity of levobupivacaine: strengths of evidence for advantage over bupivacaine. Drug Saf 2002;25:153-163
    • (2002) Drug Saf , vol.25 , pp. 153-163
    • Gristwood, R.W.1
  • 137
    • 0034929618 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Developments in local anaesthetic drugs
    • Whiteside JB, Wildsmith JAW. Developments in local anaesthetic drugs. Br J Anaesth 2001;87:27-35
    • (2001) Br J Anaesth , vol.87 , pp. 27-35
    • Whiteside, J.B.1    Jaw, W.2
  • 138
    • 53549109141 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The toxicity of local anesthetics: The place of ropivacaine and levobupivacaine
    • Zink W, Graf BM. The toxicity of local anesthetics: the place of ropivacaine and levobupivacaine. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2008;21:645-650
    • (2008) Curr Opin Anaesthesiol , vol.21 , pp. 645-650
    • Zink, W.1    Graf, B.M.2
  • 139
    • 55249110797 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Pharmacology, toxicology, and clinical use of new long acting local anesthetics, ropivacaine and levobupivacaine
    • Leone S, Di Cianni S, Casati A, et al. Pharmacology, toxicology, and clinical use of new long acting local anesthetics, ropivacaine and levobupivacaine. Acta Biomed 2008;79:92-105
    • (2008) Acta Biomed , vol.79 , pp. 92-105
    • Leone, S.1    Di Cianni, S.2    Casati, A.3
  • 140
    • 33748659684 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Is there a place for local anesthetics structurally different from classical amid or ester local anesthetics?
    • Vegha V, Cizmarika J, Hahnenkampb K. Is there a place for local anesthetics structurally different from classical amid or ester local anesthetics? Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2006;19:509-515
    • (2006) Curr Opin Anaesthesiol , vol.19 , pp. 509-515
    • Vegha, V.1    Cizmarika, J.2    Hahnenkampb, K.3
  • 141
    • 0033958768 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The local anesthetic properties and toxicity of saxitonin homologues for rat sciatic nerve block in vivo
    • Kohane D, Lu N, Gokgol-Kline A, et al. The local anesthetic properties and toxicity of saxitonin homologues for rat sciatic nerve block in vivo. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2000;25:52-59
    • (2000) Reg Anesth Pain Med , vol.25 , pp. 52-59
    • Kohane, D.1    Lu, N.2    Gokgol-Kline, A.3
  • 142
    • 33750585964 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Novel approaches to pain relief using venom-derived peptides
    • Hogg RC. Novel approaches to pain relief using venom-derived peptides. Curr Med Chem 2006;13:3191-3201
    • (2006) Curr Med Chem , vol.13 , pp. 3191-3201
    • Hogg, R.C.1
  • 143
    • 34948829692 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A local route to pain relief
    • McLeskey EW. A local route to pain relief. Nature 2007;449:545-546
    • (2007) Nature , vol.449 , pp. 545-546
    • McLeskey, E.W.1
  • 144
    • 77951635197 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Local anaesthetics and adjuvants - future developments
    • Wiles MD, Nathanson MH. Local anaesthetics and adjuvants - future developments. Anaesthesia 2010;65(Suppl 1):22-37
    • (2010) Anaesthesia , vol.65 , Issue.SUPPL.1 , pp. 22-37
    • Wiles, M.D.1    Nathanson, M.H.2
  • 145
    • 0035174830 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cardiac resuscitation after incremental overdosage with lidocaine, bupivacaine, levobupivacaine, and ropivacaine in anesthetized dogs
    • Groban L, Deal DD, Vernon JC, et al. Cardiac resuscitation after incremental overdosage with lidocaine, bupivacaine, levobupivacaine, and ropivacaine in anesthetized dogs. Anesth Analg 2001;92:37-43
    • (2001) Anesth Analg , vol.92 , pp. 37-43
    • Groban, L.1    Deal, D.D.2    Vernon, J.C.3
  • 146
    • 69549120143 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bupivacaine-induced cardiac arrest. Fat is good - is epinephrine really bad?
    • Harvey M, Cave G. Bupivacaine-induced cardiac arrest. Fat is good - is epinephrine really bad? Anesthesiology 2009;111:467-469
    • (2009) Anesthesiology , vol.111 , pp. 467-469
    • Harvey, M.1    Cave, G.2
  • 147
    • 69549120141 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Epinephrine impairs lipid resuscitation from bupivacaine overdose. A threshold effect
    • Hiller DB, Di Gregorio G, Ripper R, et al. Epinephrine impairs lipid resuscitation from bupivacaine overdose. A threshold effect. Anesthesiology 2009;111:498-505
    • (2009) Anesthesiology , vol.111 , pp. 498-505
    • Hiller, D.B.1    Di Gregorio, G.2    Ripper, R.3
  • 148
    • 61549092150 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Binding of long-lasting local anesthetics to lipid emulsions
    • Mazoit JX, Le Guen R, Beloeil H, Benhamou D. Binding of long-lasting local anesthetics to lipid emulsions. Anesthesiology 2009;110:380-386
    • (2009) Anesthesiology , vol.110 , pp. 380-386
    • Mazoit, J.X.1    Le Guen, R.2    Beloeil, H.3    Benhamou, D.4
  • 149
    • 59449099450 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Guidelines and the adoption of 'lipid rescue' therapy for local anaesthetic toxicity
    • Picard J, Ward SC, Zumpe R, et al. Guidelines and the adoption of 'lipid rescue' therapy for local anaesthetic toxicity. Anaesthesia 2009;64:122-125
    • (2009) Anaesthesia , vol.64 , pp. 122-125
    • Picard, J.1    Ward, S.C.2    Zumpe, R.3
  • 150
    • 77952404394 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Treatment of local anesthetic systemic toxicity (LAST)
    • Weinberg G. Treatment of local anesthetic systemic toxicity (LAST). Reg Anesth Pain Med 2010;35:188-193
    • (2010) Reg Anesth Pain Med , vol.35 , pp. 188-193
    • Weinberg, G.1
  • 151
    • 77952337789 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Safety of high volume lipid emulsion infusion. A first approximation of LD50 in rats
    • Hiller DB, Di Gregorio G, Kelly K, et al. Safety of high volume lipid emulsion infusion. A first approximation of LD50 in rats. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2010;35:140-144
    • (2010) Reg Anesth Pain Med , vol.35 , pp. 140-144
    • Hiller, D.B.1    Di Gregorio, G.2    Kelly, K.3


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.