Strategies for optic nerve rescue and regeneration in glaucoma and other optic neuropathies

Drug Discovery Today

Volumn 15, Issue 7-8, 2010, Pages 287-299

  Dahlmann Noor, A H ^a   Vijay, S ^a   Limb, G Astrid ^a   Khaw, P T ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

4 (1 AMINOETHYL) N (4 PYRIDYL)CYCLOHEXANECARBOXAMIDE; ACETAZOLAMIDE; AMANTADINE; APRACLONIDINE; BETAXOLOL; BIMATOPROST; BRIMONIDINE; BRINZOLAMIDE; CARTEOLOL; DORZOLAMIDE; EGLUMETAD; ELIPRODIL; FLUNARIZINE; IFENPRODIL; LATANOPROST; LOMERIZINE; MEMANTINE; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; NEUROTROPHIN RECEPTOR P75; NIMODIPINE; NIPRADILOL; NITRIC OXIDE; PILOCARPINE; PLACEBO; PROTEIN BCL X; PROTEIN TYROSINE KINASE; TIMOLOL; TRAVOPROST; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

AGING; APOPTOSIS; CELL FATE; CELL SURVIVAL; CLINICAL TRIAL; CLOSED ANGLE GLAUCOMA; COMA; DRUG FATALITY; ENZYME SYNTHESIS; EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX; GLAUCOMA; GLIA; HUMAN; INTRAOCULAR HYPERTENSION; INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE; IRIDOTOMY; NERVE DEGENERATION; NERVE GRAFT; NERVE GROWTH; NEURAL STEM CELL; NEUROPROTECTION; NONHUMAN; OPEN ANGLE GLAUCOMA; OPTIC NERVE DISEASE; PATHOGENESIS; PERIPHERAL VASCULAR DISEASE; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PSYCHOSIS; RETINA GANGLION CELL; REVIEW; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; RISK FACTOR; SEIZURE; SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; TRABECULECTOMY; TRABECULOPLASTY; VISUAL CORTEX;

ANIMALS; BCL-X PROTEIN; GLAUCOMA; HUMANS; INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE; NERVE REGENERATION; NEUROPROTECTIVE AGENTS; OPTIC NERVE; OPTIC NERVE DISEASES; REGIONAL BLOOD FLOW; VISUAL PATHWAYS;

EID: 77951025151     PISSN: 13596446     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2010.02.007     Document Type: Review

References (229)

1. Harwerth R.S., et al. Age-related losses of retinal ganglion cells and axons. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2008, 49:4437-4443.
2. Quigley H.A., Broman A.T. The number of people with glaucoma worldwide in 2010 and 2020. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 2006, 90:262-267.
3. Resnikoff S., et al. Global data on visual impairment in the year 2002. Bull. World Health Organ. 2004, 82:844-851.
4. Friedman D.S., et al. Prevalence of open-angle glaucoma among adults in the United States. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2004, 122:532-538.
5. Rudnicka A.R., et al. Variations in primary open-angle glaucoma prevalence by age, gender, and race: a Bayesian meta-analysis. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2006, 47:4254-4261.
6. Hollander H., et al. Evidence of constriction of optic nerve axons at the lamina cribrosa in the normotensive eye in humans and other mammals. Ophthalmic Res. 1995, 27:296-309.
7. Quigley H.A., et al. Retrograde axonal transport of BDNF in retinal ganglion cells is blocked by acute IOP elevation in rats. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2000, 41:3460-3466.
8. Pease M.E., et al. Obstructed axonal transport of BDNF and its receptor TrkB in experimental glaucoma. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2000, 41:764-774.
9. Soto I., et al. Retinal ganglion cells downregulate gene expression and lose their axons within the optic nerve head in a mouse glaucoma model. J. Neurosci. 2008, 28:548-561.
10. Salinas-Navarro M., et al. Ocular hypertension impairs optic nerve axonal transport leading to progressive retinal ganglion cell degeneration. Exp. Eye Res. 2010, 90:168-183.
11. Ju W.K., et al. Elevated hydrostatic pressure triggers release of OPA1 and cytochrome C, and induces apoptotic cell death in differentiated RGC-5 cells. Mol. Vis. 2009, 15:120-134.
12. Salinas-Navarro M., et al. Functional and morphological effects of laser-induced ocular hypertension in retinas of adult albino Swiss mice. Mol. Vis. 2009, 15:2578-2598.
13. Chew S.J., Ritch R. Neuroprotection: the next breakthrough in glaucoma? Proceedings of the third annual optic nerve rescue and restoration think tank. J. Glaucoma 1997, 6:263-266.
14. Schwartz M., London A. Glaucoma as a neuropathy amenable to neuroprotection and immune manipulation. Prog. Brain Res. 2008, 173:375-384.
15. Flammer J., Mozaffarieh M. What is the present pathogenetic concept of glaucomatous optic neuropathy?. Surv. Ophthalmol. 2007, 52(Suppl. 2):S162-S173.
16. Grieshaber M.C., et al. What is the link between vascular dysregulation and glaucoma?. Surv. Ophthalmol. 2007, 52(Suppl. 2):S144-S154.
17. Cioffi G.A. Three common assumptions about ocular blood flow and glaucoma. Surv. Ophthalmol. 2001, 45(Suppl. 3):S325-S331.
18. Cioffi G.A. Ischemic model of optic nerve injury. Trans. Am. Ophthalmol. Soc. 2005, 103:592-613.
19. Palmer R.M., et al. l-Arginine is the physiological precursor for the formation of nitric oxide in endothelium-dependent relaxation. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1988, 153:1251-1256.
20. Lyons C.R., et al. Molecular cloning and functional expression of an inducible nitric oxide synthase from a murine macrophage cell line. J. Biol. Chem. 1992, 267:6370-6374.
21. Neufeld A.H., et al. Inhibition of nitric-oxide synthase 2 by aminoguanidine provides neuroprotection of retinal ganglion cells in a rat model of chronic glaucoma. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1999, 96:9944-9948.
22. Kaufman P.L. Nitric-oxide synthase and neurodegeneration/neuroprotection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1999, 96:9455-9456.
23. Schmetterer L., Polak K. Role of nitric oxide in the control of ocular blood flow. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 2001, 20:823-847.
24. Osborne N.N., et al. Neuroprotection in relation to retinal ischemia and relevance to glaucoma. Surv. Ophthalmol. 1999, 43(Suppl. 1):S102-S128.
25. Dawson V.L., Dawson T.M. Nitric oxide neurotoxicity. J. Chem. Neuroanat. 1996, 10:179-190.
26. Dreyer E.B. A proposed role for excitotoxicity in glaucoma. J. Glaucoma 1998, 7:62-67.
27. Chiueh C.C. Neuroprotective properties of nitric oxide. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1999, 890:301-311.
28. Buerk D.G., et al. Nitric oxide has a vasodilatory role in cat optic nerve head during flicker stimuli. Microvasc. Res. 1996, 52:13-26.
29. Luksch A., et al. Effects of systemic NO synthase inhibition on choroidal and optic nerve head blood flow in healthy subjects. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2000, 41:3080-3084.
30. Neufeld A.H., et al. Nitric oxide synthase in the human glaucomatous optic nerve head. Arch. Ophthalmol. 1997, 115:497-503.
31. Chang C.J., et al. Aqueous humor nitric oxide levels differ in patients with different types of glaucoma. J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 2000, 16:399-406.
32. Chiou S.H., et al. Elevated nitric oxide level in aqueous humor of patients with acute angle-closure glaucoma. Ophthalmologica 2001, 215:113-116.
33. Pang I.H., et al. Evaluation of inducible nitric oxide synthase in glaucomatous optic neuropathy and pressure-induced optic nerve damage. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2005, 46:1313-1321.
34. Sossi N., Anderson D.R. Blockage of axonal transport in optic nerve induced by elevation of intraocular pressure. Effect of arterial hypertension induced by angiotensin I. Arch. Ophthalmol. 1983, 101:94-97.
35. Chauhan B.C. Endothelin and its potential role in glaucoma. Can. J. Ophthalmol. 2008, 43:356-360.
36. Nishimura K., et al. Effects of endothelin-1 on optic nerve head blood flow in cats. J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 1996, 12:75-83.
37. Stokely M.E., et al. Effects of endothelin-1 on components of anterograde axonal transport in optic nerve. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2002, 43:3223-3230.
38. Taniguchi T., et al. Endothelin-1 impairs retrograde axonal transport and leads to axonal injury in rat optic nerve. Curr. Neurovasc. Res. 2006, 3:81-88.
39. Cioffi G.A., et al. An in vivo model of chronic optic nerve ischemia: the dose-dependent effects of endothelin-1 on the optic nerve microvasculature. Curr. Eye Res. 1995, 14:1147-1153.
40. Orgul S., et al. An endothelin-1-induced model of chronic optic nerve ischemia in rhesus monkeys. J. Glaucoma 1996, 5:135-138.
41. Chauhan B.C., et al. Model of endothelin-1-induced chronic optic neuropathy in rat. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2004, 45:144-152.
42. Noske W., et al. Endothelin-like immunoreactivity in aqueous humor of patients with primary open-angle glaucoma and cataract. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 1997, 235:551-552.
43. Tezel G., et al. Plasma and aqueous humor endothelin levels in primary open-angle glaucoma. J. Glaucoma 1997, 6:83-89.
44. Nicolela M.T., et al. Effects of cold-induced vasospasm in glaucoma: the role of endothelin-1. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2003, 44:2565-2572.
45. Prasanna G., et al. Human optic nerve head astrocytes as a target for endothelin-1. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2002, 43:2704-2713.
46. He S., et al. Endothelin-1-mediated signaling in the expression of matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases in astrocytes. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2007, 48:3737-3745.
47. Quigley H.A., et al. Retinal ganglion cell death in experimental glaucoma and after axotomy occurs by apoptosis. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1995, 36:774-786.
48. Kerrigan L.A., et al. TUNEL-positive ganglion cells in human primary open-angle glaucoma. Arch. Ophthalmol. 1997, 115:1031-1035.
49. Weber A.J., et al. Morphology of single ganglion cells in the glaucomatous primate retina. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1998, 39:2304-2320.
50. Harada C., et al. Role of neurotrophin-4/5 in neural cell death during retinal development and ischemic retinal injury in vivo. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2005, 46:669-673.
51. Johnson E.C., et al. Neurotrophin roles in retinal ganglion cell survival: lessons from rat glaucoma models. Exp. Eye Res. 2009, 88:808-815.
52. Agarwal N., et al. Levobetaxolol-induced up-regulation of retinal bFGF and CNTF mRNAs and preservation of retinal function against a photic-induced retinopathy. Exp. Eye Res. 2002, 74:445-453.
53. Peinado-Ramon P., et al. Effects of axotomy and intraocular administration of NT-4, NT-3, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor on the survival of adult rat retinal ganglion cells. A quantitative in vivo study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1996, 37:489-500.
54. Lindqvist N., et al. GDNF, Ret, GFRalpha1 and 2 in the adult rat retino-tectal system after optic nerve transection. Exp. Neurol. 2004, 187:487-499.
55. Parrilla-Reverter G., et al. Effects of different neurotrophic factors on the survival of retinal ganglion cells after a complete intraorbital nerve crush injury: a quantitative in vivo study. Exp. Eye Res. 2009, 89:32-41.
56. Ren R., et al. Cerebrospinal fluid pressure in glaucoma a prospective study. Ophthalmology 2009, 117:259-266.
57. Johnson E.C., et al. Chronology of optic nerve head and retinal responses to elevated intraocular pressure. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2000, 41:431-442.
58. Roux P.P., Barker P.A. Neurotrophin signaling through the p75 neurotrophin receptor. Prog. Neurobiol. 2002, 67:203-233.
59. Coassin M., et al. Retinal p75 and bax overexpression is associated with retinal ganglion cells apoptosis in a rat model of glaucoma. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 2008, 246:1743-1749.
60. Hartwick A.T. Beyond intraocular pressure: neuroprotective strategies for future glaucoma therapy. Optom. Vis. Sci. 2001, 78:85-94.
61. Huang W., et al. Transcriptional up-regulation and activation of initiating caspases in experimental glaucoma. Am. J. Pathol. 2005, 167:673-681.
62. Kim H.S., Park C.K. Retinal ganglion cell death is delayed by activation of retinal intrinsic cell survival program. Brain Res. 2005, 1057:17-28.
63. Agudo M., et al. Time course profiling of the retinal transcriptome after optic nerve transection and optic nerve crush. Mol. Vis. 2008, 14:1050-1063.
64. Agudo M., et al. Immediate upregulation of proteins belonging to different branches of the apoptotic cascade in the retina after optic nerve transection and optic nerve crush. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2009, 50:424-431.
65. Tezel G. TNF-alpha signaling in glaucomatous neurodegeneration. Prog. Brain Res. 2008, 173:409-421.
66. Hartwick A.T., et al. Functional assessment of glutamate clearance mechanisms in a chronic rat glaucoma model using retinal ganglion cell calcium imaging. J. Neurochem. 2005, 94:794-807.
67. Wamsley S., et al. Vitreous glutamate concentration and axon loss in monkeys with experimental glaucoma. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2005, 123:64-70.
68. Carter-Dawson L., et al. Vitreal glutamate concentration in monkeys with experimental glaucoma. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2002, 43:2633-2637.
69. Honkanen R.A., et al. Vitreous amino acid concentrations in patients with glaucoma undergoing vitrectomy. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2003, 121:183-188.
70. Tezel G., Wax M.B. Increased production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha by glial cells exposed to simulated ischemia or elevated hydrostatic pressure induces apoptosis in cocultured retinal ganglion cells. J. Neurosci. 2000, 20:8693-8700.
71. Nakazawa T., et al. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha mediates oligodendrocyte death and delayed retinal ganglion cell loss in a mouse model of glaucoma. J. Neurosci. 2006, 26:12633-12641.
72. Yuan L., Neufeld A.H. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha: a potentially neurodestructive cytokine produced by glia in the human glaucomatous optic nerve head. Glia 2000, 32:42-50.
73. Siesky B., et al. Literature review and meta-analysis of topical carbonic anhydrase inhibitors and ocular blood flow. Surv. Ophthalmol. 2009, 54:33-46.
74. Gao H., et al. Up-regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression by brimonidine in rat retinal ganglion cells. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2002, 120:797-803.
75. Vidal-Sanz M., et al. Retinal ganglion cell death induced by retinal ischemia. Neuroprotective effects of two alpha-2 agonists. Surv. Ophthalmol. 2001, 45(Suppl. 3):S261-S267.
76. Aviles-Trigueros M., et al. Transient ischemia of the retina results in massive degeneration of the retinotectal projection: long-term neuroprotection with brimonidine. Exp. Neurol. 2003, 184:767-777.
77. Mayor-Torroglosa S., et al. Ischemia results 3 months later in altered ERG, degeneration of inner layers, and deafferented tectum: neuroprotection with brimonidine. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2005, 46:3825-3835.
78. Kanamori A., et al. Latanoprost protects rat retinal ganglion cells from apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. Exp. Eye Res. 2009, 88:535-541.
79. Sinclair A.M., et al. Effect of nifedipine and glyceryl trinitrate on retinal blood flow in normal subjects. J. Hum. Hypertens. 1993, 7:399-401.
80. Iannaccone A.E., et al. Human retinal hemodynamics following administration of 5-isosorbide mononitrate. Curr. Eye Res. 2000, 20:205-210.
81. Honjo M., et al. Effects of protein kinase inhibitor, HA1077, on intraocular pressure and outflow facility in rabbit eyes. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2001, 119:1171-1178.
82. Honjo M., et al. Effects of rho-associated protein kinase inhibitor Y-27632 on intraocular pressure and outflow facility. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2001, 42:137-144.
83. Fukunaga T., et al. The effect of the Rho-associated protein kinase inhibitor, HA-1077, in the rabbit ocular hypertension model induced by water loading. Curr. Eye Res. 2009, 34:42-47.
84. Hosseini A., et al. Chronic topical administration of WIN-55-212-2 maintains a reduction in IOP in a rat glaucoma model without adverse effects. Exp. Eye Res. 2006, 82:753-759.
85. Tomida I., et al. Cannabinoids and glaucoma. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 2004, 88:708-713.
86. Tomida I., et al. Effect of sublingual application of cannabinoids on intraocular pressure: a pilot study. J. Glaucoma 2006, 15:349-353.
87. Harino S., et al. Intravenous nicardipine in cats increases optic nerve head but not retinal blood flow. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1992, 33:2885-2890.
88. Tomita K., et al. Effects of nilvadipine, a calcium antagonist, on rabbit ocular circulation and optic nerve head circulation in NTG subjects. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1999, 40:1144-1151.
89. 2+ channel blocker as an anti-glaucoma drug: effects on ocular circulation and retinal neuronal damage. Cardiovasc. Drug Rev. 2004, 22:199-214.
90. Uemura A., Mizota A. Retinal concentration and protective effect against retinal ischemia of nilvadipine in rats. Eur. J. Ophthalmol. 2008, 18:87-93.
91. Gaspar A.Z., et al. Influence of nifedipine on the visual fields of patients with optic-nerve-head diseases. Eur. J. Ophthalmol. 1994, 4:24-28.
92. Geyer O., et al. Effect of oral nifedipine on ocular blood flow in patients with low tension glaucoma. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 1996, 80:1060-1062.
93. Harris A., et al. Hemodynamic and visual function effects of oral nifedipine in patients with normal-tension glaucoma. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 1997, 124:296-302.
94. Rainer G., et al. A double masked placebo controlled study on the effect of nifedipine on optic nerve blood flow and visual field function in patients with open angle glaucoma. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2001, 52:210-212.
95. Michalk F., et al. Single-dose nimodipine normalizes impaired retinal circulation in normal tension glaucoma. J. Glaucoma 2004, 13:158-162.
96. Luksch A., et al. Effect of nimodipine on ocular blood flow and colour contrast sensitivity in patients with normal tension glaucoma. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 2005, 89:21-25.
97. Koseki N., et al. A placebo-controlled 3-year study of a calcium blocker on visual field and ocular circulation in glaucoma with low-normal pressure. Ophthalmology 2008, 115:2049-2057.
98. Lesk M.R., et al. The effects of systemic medications on ocular blood flow. Can. J. Ophthalmol. 2008, 43:351-355.
99. Wang R.F., et al. Effect of flunarizine, a calcium channel blocker, on intraocular pressure and aqueous humor dynamics in monkeys. J. Glaucoma 2008, 17:73-78.
100. Levin L.A., Peeples P. History of neuroprotection and rationale as a therapy for glaucoma. Am. J. Manag. Care 2008, 14(1, Suppl.):S11-S14.
101. Osborne N.N. Pathogenesis of ganglion " cell death" in glaucoma and neuroprotection: focus on ganglion cell axonal mitochondria. Prog. Brain Res. 2008, 173:339-352.
102. Ji J.Z., et al. CNTF promotes survival of retinal ganglion cells after induction of ocular hypertension in rats: the possible involvement of STAT3 pathway. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2004, 19:265-272.
103. Muller A., et al. Exogenous CNTF stimulates axon regeneration of retinal ganglion cells partially via endogenous CNTF. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 2009, 11(2):233-246.
104. Koeberle P.D., Bahr M. The upregulation of GLAST-1 is an indirect antiapoptotic mechanism of GDNF and neurturin in the adult CNS. Cell Death Differ. 2008, 15:471-483.
105. Rios-Munoz W., et al. Fibroblast growth factor 2 applied to the optic nerve after axotomy increases Bcl-2 and decreases Bax in ganglion cells by activating the extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling pathway. J. Neurochem. 2005, 93:1422-1433.
106. Soto I., et al. Fibroblast growth factor 2 applied to the optic nerve after axotomy up-regulates BDNF and TrkB in ganglion cells by activating the ERK and PKA signaling pathways. J. Neurochem. 2006, 96:82-96.
107. Blanco R.E., et al. Up-regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor by application of fibroblast growth factor-2 to the cut optic nerve is important for long-term survival of retinal ganglion cells. J. Neurosci. Res. 2008, 86:3382-3392.
108. Lagreze W.A., et al. The peptides ADNF-9 and NAP increase survival and neurite outgrowth of rat retinal ganglion cells in vitro. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2005, 46:933-938.
109. Logan A., et al. Neurotrophic factor synergy is required for neuronal survival and disinhibited axon regeneration after CNS injury. Brain 2006, 129:490-502.
110. Weise J., et al. Adenovirus-mediated expression of ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) rescues axotomized rat retinal ganglion cells but does not support axonal regeneration in vivo. Neurobiol. Dis. 2000, 7:212-223.
111. Schmeer C., et al. Dose-dependent rescue of axotomized rat retinal ganglion cells by adenovirus-mediated expression of glial cell-line derived neurotrophic factor in vivo. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2002, 15:637-643.
112. van Adel B.A., et al. Delivery of ciliary neurotrophic factor via lentiviral-mediated transfer protects axotomized retinal ganglion cells for an extended period of time. Hum. Gene Ther. 2003, 14:103-115.
113. Martin K.R., et al. Gene therapy with brain-derived neurotrophic factor as a protection: retinal ganglion cells in a rat glaucoma model. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2003, 44:4357-4365.
114. Leaver S.G., et al. AAV-mediated expression of CNTF promotes long-term survival and regeneration of adult rat retinal ganglion cells. Gene Ther. 2006, 13:1328-1341.
115. Leaver S.G., et al. Cooperative effects of bcl-2 and AAV-mediated expression of CNTF on retinal ganglion cell survival and axonal regeneration in adult transgenic mice. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2006, 24:3323-3332.
116. Pease M.E., et al. Effect of CNTF on retinal ganglion cell survival in experimental glaucoma. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2009, 50:2194-2200.
117. Mo X., et al. Rescue of axotomized retinal ganglion cells by BDNF gene electroporation in adult rats. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2002, 43:2401-2405.
118. Ishikawa H., et al. Effect of GDNF gene transfer into axotomized retinal ganglion cells using in vivo electroporation with a contact lens-type electrode. Gene Ther. 2005, 12:289-298.
119. Ju W.K., et al. Expression of CNTF in Muller cells of the rat retina after pressure-induced ischemia. Neuroreport 1999, 10:419-422.
120. Honjo M., et al. Expression of ciliary neurotrophic factor activated by retinal Muller cells in eyes with NMDA- and kainic acid-induced neuronal death. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2000, 41:552-560.
121. van Adel B.A., et al. Ciliary neurotrophic factor protects retinal ganglion cells from axotomy-induced apoptosis via modulation of retinal glia in vivo. J. Neurobiol. 2005, 63:215-234.
122. Muller A., et al. Astrocyte-derived CNTF switches mature RGCs to a regenerative state following inflammatory stimulation. Brain 2007, 130:3308-3320.
123. Straten G., et al. Potential synergistic protection of retinal ganglion cells from axotomy-induced apoptosis by adenoviral administration of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor and X-chromosome-linked inhibitor of apoptosis. Neurobiol. Dis. 2002, 11:123-133.
124. Ward M.S., et al. Neuroprotection of retinal ganglion cells in DBA/2J mice with GDNF-loaded biodegradable microspheres. J. Pharm. Sci. 2007, 96:558-568.
125. Jiang C., et al. Intravitreal injections of GDNF-loaded biodegradable microspheres are neuroprotective in a rat model of glaucoma. Mol. Vis. 2007, 13:1783-1792.
126. Morimoto T., et al. Transcorneal electrical stimulation rescues axotomized retinal ganglion cells by activating endogenous retinal IGF-1 system. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2005, 46:2147-2155.
127. Sato T., et al. Effect of electrical stimulation on IGF-1 transcription by L-type calcium channels in cultured retinal Muller cells. Jpn. J. Ophthalmol. 2008, 52:217-223.
128. Yu S., et al. Effects of bone marrow stromal cell injection in an experimental glaucoma model. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2006, 344:1071-1079.
129. Bull N.D., et al. Transplanted oligodendrocyte precursor cells reduce neurodegeneration in a model of glaucoma. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2009, 50(9):4244-4253.
130. Hill A.J., et al. Rat neurosphere cells protect axotomised rat retinal ganglion cells and facilitate their regeneration. J. Neurotrauma 2009, 26(7):1147-1156.
131. Li Y., et al. Repair of adult rat corticospinal tract by transplants of olfactory ensheathing cells. Science 1997, 277:2000-2002.
132. Verdu E., et al. Effects of ensheathing cells transplanted into photochemically damaged spinal cord. Neuroreport 2001, 12:2303-2309.
133. Lu J., et al. Olfactory ensheathing cells promote locomotor recovery after delayed transplantation into transected spinal cord. Brain 2002, 125:14-21.
134. Moreno-Flores M.T., et al. A clonal cell line from immortalized olfactory ensheathing glia promotes functional recovery in the injured spinal cord. Mol. Ther. 2006, 13:598-608.
135. Woodhall E., et al. Cultured olfactory ensheathing cells express nerve growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, glia cell line-derived neurotrophic factor and their receptors. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 2001, 88:203-213.
136. Lipson A.C., et al. Neurotrophic properties of olfactory ensheathing glia. Exp. Neurol. 2003, 180:167-171.
137. Kafitz K.W., Greer C.A. Role of laminin in axonal extension from olfactory receptor cells. J. Neurobiol. 1997, 32:298-310.
138. Li Y., et al. Transplanted olfactory ensheathing cells incorporated into the optic nerve head ensheathe retinal ganglion cell axons: possible relevance to glaucoma. Neurosci. Lett. 2008, 440:251-254.
139. Cheng L., et al. TrkB gene transfer protects retinal ganglion cells from axotomy-induced death in vivo. J. Neurosci. 2002, 22:3977-3986.
140. Shi Z., et al. Neurotrophic rationale in glaucoma: a TrkA agonist, but not NGF or a p75 antagonist, protects retinal ganglion cells in vivo. Dev. Neurobiol. 2007, 67:884-894.
141. Lebrun-Julien F., et al. Inhibition of p75(NTR) in glia potentiates TrkA-mediated survival of injured retinal ganglion cells. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 2009, 40:410-420.
142. Lebrun-Julien F., et al. ProNGF induces TNFα-dependent death of retinal ganglion cells through a p75NTR non-cell-autonomous signaling pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. 2010, 107(8):3817-3822.
143. Fu Q.L., et al. Blocking LINGO-1 function promotes retinal ganglion cell survival following ocular hypertension and optic nerve transection. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2008, 49:975-985.
144. Martinou J.C., et al. Overexpression of BCL-2 in transgenic mice protects neurons from naturally occurring cell death and experimental ischemia. Neuron 1994, 13:1017-1030.
145. Cenni M.C., et al. Long-term survival of retinal ganglion cells following optic nerve section in adult bcl-2 transgenic mice. Eur. J. Neurosci. 1996, 8:1735-1745.
146. Jiao J., et al. Bcl-2 enhances Ca(2+) signaling to support the intrinsic regenerative capacity of CNS axons. EMBO J. 2005, 24:1068-1078.
147. Dietz G.P., et al. Inhibition of neuronal apoptosis in vitro and in vivo using TAT-mediated protein transduction. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 2002, 21:29-37.
148. Koriyama Y., et al. A novel neuroprotective role of a small peptide from flesh fly, 5-S-GAD in the rat retina in vivo. Brain Res. 2008, 1240:196-203.
149. Kashimoto R., et al. Cilostazol promotes survival of axotomized retinal ganglion cells in adult rats. Neurosci. Lett. 2008, 436:116-119.
150. Schuettauf F., et al. Citicoline and lithium rescue retinal ganglion cells following partial optic nerve crush in the rat. Exp. Eye Res. 2006, 83:1128-1134.
151. Parisi V., et al. Evidence of the neuroprotective role of citicoline in glaucoma patients. Prog. Brain Res. 2008, 173:541-554.
152. Huang X., et al. Support of retinal ganglion cell survival and axon regeneration by lithium through a Bcl-2-dependent mechanism. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2003, 44:347-354.
153. Hu Y., et al. Interactive effects of C3, cyclic AMP and ciliary neurotrophic factor on adult retinal ganglion cell survival and axonal regeneration. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 2007, 34:88-98.
154. Lingor P., et al. ROCK inhibition and CNTF interact on intrinsic signalling pathways and differentially regulate survival and regeneration in retinal ganglion cells. Brain 2008, 131:250-263.
155. Bocker-Meffert S., et al. Erythropoietin and VEGF promote neural outgrowth from retinal explants in postnatal rats. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2002, 43:2021-2026.
156. Weishaupt J.H., et al. Effect of erythropoietin axotomy-induced apoptosis in rat retinal ganglion cells. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2004, 45:1514-1522.
157. Fu Q.L., et al. Up-regulated endogenous erythropoietin/erythropoietin receptor system and exogenous erythropoietin rescue retinal ganglion cells after chronic ocular hypertension. Cell. Mol. Neurobiol. 2008, 28:317-329.
158. Mizuno K., et al. Topical nipradilol: effects on optic nerve head circulation in humans and periocular distribution in monkeys. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2002, 43:3243-3250.
159. Yata T., et al. Survival and axonal regeneration of off-center retinal ganglion cells of adult cats are promoted with an anti-glaucoma drug, nipradilol, but not BDNF and CNTF. Neuroscience 2007, 148:53-64.
160. Vorwerk C.K., et al. Effects of axonal injury on ganglion cell survival and glutamate homeostasis. Brain Res. Bull. 2004, 62:485-490.
161. Seki M., Lipton S.A. Targeting excitotoxic/free radical signaling pathways for therapeutic intervention in glaucoma. Prog. Brain Res. 2008, 173:495-510.
162. Hare W.A., et al. Efficacy and safety of memantine treatment for reduction of changes associated with experimental glaucoma in monkey, I: functional measures. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2004, 45:2625-2639.
163. Hare W.A., et al. Efficacy and safety of memantine treatment for reduction of changes associated with experimental glaucoma in monkey, II: structural measures. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2004, 45:2640-2651.
164. Osborne N.N. Recent clinical findings with memantine should not mean that the idea of neuroprotection in glaucoma is abandoned. Acta Ophthalmol. 2009, 87:450-454.
165. Kapin M.A., et al. Neuroprotective effects of eliprodil in retinal excitotoxicity and ischemia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1999, 40:1177-1182.
166. Pang I.H., et al. Protection by eliprodil against excitotoxicity in cultured rat retinal ganglion cells. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1999, 40:1170-1176.
167. Guo L., et al. Assessment of neuroprotective effects of glutamate modulation on glaucoma-related retinal ganglion cell apoptosis in vivo. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2006, 47:626-633.
168. Vorwerk C.K., et al. Systemic l-kynurenine administration partially protects against NMDA, but not kainate-induced degeneration of retinal ganglion cells, and reduces visual discrimination deficits in adults rats. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1996, 37:2382-2392.
169. Takahashi K., et al. Protective effects of flunarizine on ischemic injury in the rat retina. Arch. Ophthalmol. 1992, 110:862-870.
170. 2+ channel blocker, reduces glutamate-induced neurotoxicity and ischemia/reperfusion damage in rat retina. Exp. Eye Res. 2000, 70:475-484.
171. Osborne N.N., et al. Topical flunarizine reduces IOP and protects the retina against ischemia-excitotoxicity. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2002, 43:1456-1464.
172. Karim Z., et al. A new calcium channel antagonist, lomerizine, alleviates secondary retinal ganglion cell death after optic nerve injury in the rat. Curr. Eye Res. 2006, 31:273-283.
173. Fitzgerald M., et al. Secondary degeneration of the optic nerve following partial transection: the benefits of lomerizine. Exp. Neurol. 2009, 216:219-230.
174. Sakamoto K., et al. Histological protection by cilnidipine, a dual L/N-type Ca(2+) channel blocker, against neurotoxicity induced by ischemia-reperfusion in rat retina. Exp. Eye Res. 2009, 88:974-982.
175. Kitaoka Y., Kumai T. Modulation of retinal dopaminergic cells by nitric oxide. A protective effect on NMDA-induced retinal injury. In Vivo 2004, 18:311-315.
176. Megson I.L., Leslie S.J. LA-419, a nitric-oxide donor for the treatment of cardiovascular disorders. Curr. Opin. Investig. Drugs 2009, 10:276-285.
177. 2+ homeostasis. Brain Res. 2008, 1233:63-78.
178. Neufeld A.H. Pharmacologic neuroprotection with an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase for the treatment of glaucoma. Brain Res. Bull. 2004, 62:455-459.
179. Park S.H., et al. Expression of neuronal nitric oxide synthase in the retina of a rat model of chronic glaucoma. Vision Res. 2007, 47:2732-2740.
180. Zhang B., Osborne N.N. Oxidative-induced retinal degeneration is attenuated by epigallocatechin gallate. Brain Res. 2006, 1124:176-187.
181. Mozaffarieh M., Flammer J. Is there more to glaucoma treatment than lowering IOP?. Surv. Ophthalmol. 2007, 52(Suppl. 2):S174-S179.
182. Quaranta L., et al. Effect of ginkgo biloba extract on preexisting visual field damage in normal tension glaucoma. Ophthalmology 2003, 110:359-362.
183. Luna C., et al. Resveratrol prevents the expression of glaucoma markers induced by chronic oxidative stress in trabecular meshwork cells. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2009, 47:198-204.
184. Nucci C., et al. Retinal damage caused by high intraocular pressure-induced transient ischemia is prevented by coenzyme Q10 in rat. Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 2007, 82:397-406.
185. Engin K.N., et al. Clinical evaluation of the neuroprotective effect of alpha-tocopherol against glaucomatous damage. Eur. J. Ophthalmol. 2007, 17:528-533.
186. Hernandez M.R., et al. Astrocytes in glaucomatous optic neuropathy. Prog. Brain Res. 2008, 173:353-373.
187. Vidal-Sanz M., et al. Axonal regeneration and synapse formation in the superior colliculus by retinal ganglion cells in the adult rat. J. Neurosci. 1987, 7:2894-2909.
188. Whiteley S.J., et al. Extent and duration of recovered pupillary light reflex following retinal ganglion cell axon regeneration through peripheral nerve grafts directed to the pretectum in adult rats. Exp. Neurol. 1998, 154:560-572.
189. Aviles-Trigueros M., et al. Selective innervation of retinorecipient brainstem nuclei by retinal ganglion cell axons regenerating through peripheral nerve grafts in adult rats. J. Neurosci. 2000, 20:361-374.
190. Vidal-Sanz M., et al. Reinnervation of the pretectum in adult rats by regenerated retinal ganglion cell axons: anatomical and functional studies. Prog. Brain Res. 2002, 137:443-452.
191. Ahmed Z., et al. Schwann cell-derived factor-induced modulation of the NgR/p75NTR/EGFR axis disinhibits axon growth through CNS myelin in vivo and in vitro. Brain 2006, 129:1517-1533.
192. Arnhold S., et al. Neurally selected embryonic stem cells induce tumor formation after long-term survival following engraftment into the subretinal space. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2004, 45:4251-4255.
193. Wang S.W., et al. Brn3b/Brn3c double knockout mice reveal an unsuspected role for Brn3c in retinal ganglion cell axon outgrowth. Development 2002, 129:467-477.
194. Quina L.A., et al. Brn3a-expressing retinal ganglion cells project specifically to thalamocortical and collicular visual pathways. J. Neurosci. 2005, 25:11595-11604.
195. Surgucheva I., et al. Gamma-synuclein as a marker of retinal ganglion cells. Mol. Vis. 2008, 14:1540-1548.
196. Pan L., et al. ISL1 and BRN3B co-regulate the differentiation of murine retinal ganglion cells. Development 2008, 135:1981-1990.
197. Coffey P.J., et al. Long-term preservation of cortically dependent visual function in RCS rats by transplantation. Nat. Neurosci. 2002, 5:53-56.
198. Aoki H., et al. Transplantation of cells from eye-like structures differentiated from embryonic stem cells in vitro and in vivo regeneration of retinal ganglion-like cells. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 2008, 246:255-265.
199. Nishida A., et al. Incorporation and differentiation of hippocampus-derived neural stem cells transplanted in injured adult rat retina. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2000, 41:4268-4274.
200. Young M.J., et al. Neuronal differentiation and morphological integration of hippocampal progenitor cells transplanted to the retina of immature and mature dystrophic rats. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 2000, 16:197-205.
201. Kurimoto Y., et al. Transplantation of adult rat hippocampus-derived neural stem cells into retina injured by transient ischemia. Neurosci. Lett. 2001, 306:57-60.
202. Mellough C.B., et al. Treatment of adult neural progenitor cells prior to transplantation affects graft survival and integration in a neonatal and adult rat model of selective retinal ganglion cell depletion. Restor. Neurol. Neurosci. 2007, 25:177-190.
203. Guo Y., et al. Engraftment of adult neural progenitor cells transplanted to rat retina injured by transient ischemia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2003, 44:3194-3201.
204. Grozdanic S.D., et al. Morphological integration and functional assessment of transplanted neural progenitor cells in healthy and acute ischemic rat eyes. Exp. Eye Res. 2006, 82:597-607.
205. Wohl S.G., et al. Optic nerve lesion increases cell proliferation and nestin expression in the adult mouse eye in vivo. Exp. Neurol. 2009, 219:175-186.
206. Limb G.A., et al. In vitro characterization of a spontaneously immortalized human Muller cell line (MIO-M1). Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2002, 43:864-869.
207. Lawrence J.M., et al. MIO-M1 cells and similar muller glial cell lines derived from adult human retina exhibit neural stem cell characteristics. Stem Cells 2007, 25:2033-2043.
208. Singhal S., et al. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans and microglia prevent migration and integration of grafted Muller stem cells into degenerating retina. Stem Cells 2008, 26:1074-1082.
209. Bull N.D., et al. Human Muller stem cell (MIO-M1) transplantation in a rat model of glaucoma: survival, differentiation, and integration. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2008, 49:3449-3456.
210. Mellough C.B., et al. Fate of multipotent neural precursor cells transplanted into mouse retina selectively depleted of retinal ganglion cells. Exp. Neurol. 2004, 186:6-19.
211. Francis P.J., et al. Subretinal transplantation of forebrain progenitor cells in non-human primates: survival and intact retinal function. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2009, 50(7):3425-3431.
212. Zwart I., et al. Umbilical cord blood mesenchymal stromal cells are neuroprotective and promote regeneration in a rat optic tract model. Exp. Neurol. 2009, 216:439-448.
213. Balaratnasingam C., et al. Elevated pressure induced astrocyte damage in the optic nerve. Brain Res. 2008, 1244:142-154.
214. Balaratnasingam C., et al. Time-dependent effects of elevated intraocular pressure on optic nerve head axonal transport and cytoskeleton proteins. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2008, 49:986-999.
215. Hernandez M.R., et al. Differential gene expression in astrocytes from human normal and glaucomatous optic nerve head analyzed by cDNA microarray. Glia 2002, 38:45-64.
216. Agapova O.A., et al. Differential expression of matrix metalloproteinases in monkey eyes with experimental glaucoma or optic nerve transection. Brain Res. 2003, 967:132-143.
217. Thanos S., et al. Treatment of the adult retina with microglia-suppressing factors retards axotomy-induced neuronal degradation and enhances axonal regeneration in vivo and in vitro. J. Neurosci. 1993, 13:455-466.
218. Liu B., et al. Epidermal growth factor receptor activation: an upstream signal for transition of quiescent astrocytes into reactive astrocytes after neural injury. J. Neurosci. 2006, 26:7532-7540.
219. Cho K.S., et al. Re-establishing the regenerative potential of central nervous system axons in postnatal mice. J. Cell Sci. 2005, 118:863-872.
220. Cho K.S., Chen D.F. Promoting optic nerve regeneration in adult mice with pharmaceutical approach. Neurochem. Res. 2008, 33:2126-2133.
221. Manabe S., et al. Activation of matrix metalloproteinase-9 via neuronal nitric oxide synthase contributes to NMDA-induced retinal ganglion cell death. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2005, 46:4747-4753.
222. Sapieha P.S., et al. Fibroblast growth factor-2 gene delivery stimulates axon growth by adult retinal ganglion cells after acute optic nerve injury. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 2003, 24:656-672.
223. Sapieha P.S., et al. Extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 are required for adult retinal ganglion cell axon regeneration induced by fibroblast growth factor-2. J. Neurosci. Res. 2006, 83:985-995.
224. de Melo Reis R.A., et al. Muller glia factors induce survival and neuritogenesis of peripheral and central neurons. Brain Res. 2008, 1205:1-11.
225. Yin Y., et al. Macrophage-derived factors stimulate optic nerve regeneration. J. Neurosci. 2003, 23:2284-2293.
226. Agudo M., et al. A retinoic acid receptor beta agonist (CD2019) overcomes inhibition of axonal outgrowth via phosphoinositide 3-kinase signalling in the injured adult spinal cord. Neurobiol. Dis. 2010, 37:147-155.
227. Charalambous P., et al. Engrafted chicken neural tube-derived stem cells support the innate propensity for axonal regeneration within the rat optic nerve. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2008, 49:3513-3524.
228. Li Y., et al. Transplanted olfactory ensheathing cells promote regeneration of cut adult rat optic nerve axons. J. Neurosci. 2003, 23:7783-7788.
229. Silva G.A., et al. Selective differentiation of neural progenitor cells by high-epitope density nanofibers. Science 2004, 303:1352-1355.