What should medical practitioners know about the role of alternative medicines in cardiovascular disease management?

Cardiovascular Therapeutics

Volumn 28, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 106-123

  Whayne Jr , Thomas F ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY   (United States)

Author keywords

Alternative medicines; Antioxidants; Cardiovascular disease; Chelation; Red wine; Vitamins

Indexed keywords

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ASCORBIC ACID; BETA CAROTENE; CHOLESTIN; CINNAMON EXTRACT; CORDYCEPS SINENSIS EXTRACT; CORDYMAX; CYANOCOBALAMIN; DIGOXIN; EDETIC ACID; FISH OIL; FOLIC ACID; GARLIC EXTRACT; GINKGO BILOBA EXTRACT; GUGGULSTERONE; HERBACEOUS AGENT; HOMOCYSTEINE; HYPERICUM PERFORATUM EXTRACT; ICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID; KAVA EXTRACT; LINSEED OIL; OLIVE OIL; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; PHOSPHATIDYLCHOLINE; PLACEBO; POLICOSANOL; PYRIDOXINE; RETINOL; SOYBEAN PROTEIN; UBIDECARENONE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ACUTE CORONARY SYNDROME; ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; AYURVEDA; BERRY; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CHELATION THERAPY; CLINICAL TRIAL; CORDYCEPS; CORONARY ARTERY ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; CREATININE BLOOD LEVEL; DEMENTIA; DRUG ERUPTION; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRUG MEGADOSE; GARLIC; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER; GINKGO BILOBA; HEART VENTRICLE ARRHYTHMIA; HUMAN; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HYPERICUM PERFORATUM; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; MEDICAL SPECIALIST; MEDITERRANEAN DIET; NATIONAL HEALTH ORGANIZATION; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NUT; PERIPHERAL VASCULAR DISEASE; PHYSICIAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RED WINE; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SINGLE DRUG DOSE;

ATTITUDE OF HEALTH PERSONNEL; CARDIOLOGY; CARDIOVASCULAR AGENTS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES; DRUG INTERACTIONS; HEALTH KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES, PRACTICE; HUMANS; PHYSICIAN'S PRACTICE PATTERNS; RISK ASSESSMENT;

EID: 77749286361     PISSN: 17555914     EISSN: 17555922     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-5922.2009.00101.x     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Sood A, Sood R, Brinker FJ, Mann R, Loehrer LL, Wahner-Roedler DL. Potential for interactions between dietary supplements and prescription medications. Am J Med 2008 121 : 207 211.
2. Peng CC, Glassman PA, Trilli LE, Hayes-Hunter J, Good CB. Incidence and severity of potential drug-dietary supplement interactions in primary care patients: An exploratory study of 2 outpatient practices. Arch Intern Med 2004 164 : 630 636.
3. Eisenberg DM, Davis RB, Ettner SL, et al. Trends in alternative medicine use in the United States, 1990-1997: Results of a follow-up national survey. JAMA 1998 280 : 1569 1575.
4. th ed., 2008. Publisher : Therapeutic Research Faculty Stockton, California, USA.
5. th ed., 2003. Publisher: Merriam-Webster, Inc. Springfield, MA, USA.
6. Jellin J, editor. Natural medicines: comprehensive database, 2007.
7. AcaiBerryJuice. Acai berry an extraordinary antioxidant-rich palm fruit from Amazon Rain Forest. [cited 2007]; Available from : http://www. acaiberryjuice.org/.
8. Collins R, Armitage J, Parish S, et al. MRC/BHF heart protection study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: A randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2002 360 : 7 22. (Pubitemid 34756487)
9. Collins R, Armitage J, Parish S, et al. MRC/BHF heart protection study of antioxidant vitamin supplementation in 20,536 high-risk individuals: A randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2002 360 : 25 33.
10. Yusuf S, Sleight P, Pogue J, Bosch J, Davies R, Dagenais G. Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med 2000 342 : 145 153.
11. Yusuf S, Dagenais G, Pogue J, Bosch J, Sleight P. Vitamin E supplementation and cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med 2000 342 : 154 160.
12. Hodis HN, Mack WJ, LaBree L, Mahrer PR, Sevanian A, Liu CR, et al. Alpha-tocopherol supplementation in healthy individuals reduces low-density lipoprotein oxidation but not atherosclerosis: The Vitamin E Atherosclerosis Prevention Study (VEAPS). Circulation 2002 106 : 1453 1459.
13. Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, Simonetti RG, Gluud C. Mortality in randomized trials of antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention: Systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2007 297 : 842 857.
14. Miller ER, 3rd., Pastor-Barriuso R, Dalal D, Riemersma RA, Appel LJ, Guallar E. Meta-analysis: High-dosage vitamin E supplementation may increase all-cause mortality. Ann Intern Med 2005 142 : 37 46.
15. Cook NR, Albert CM, Gaziano JM, et al. A randomized factorial trial of vitamins C and E and beta carotene in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular events in women: Results from the Women's Antioxidant Cardiovascular Study. Arch Intern Med 2007 167 : 1610 1618.
16. Lee IM, Cook NR, Gaziano JM, et al. Vitamin E in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer. The women's health study: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2005 294 : 56 65.
17. Salonen RM, Nyyssonen K, Kaikkonen J, et al. Six-year effect of combined vitamin C and E supplementation on atherosclerotic progression: The Antioxidant Supplementation in Atherosclerosis Prevention (ASAP) Study. Circulation 2003 107 : 947 953.
18. Sesso HD, Buring JE, Christen WG, et al. Vitamins E and C in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in men: The Physicians' Health Study II randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2008 300 : 2123 2133.
19. Kuller LH. A time to stop prescribing antioxidant vitamins to prevent and treat heart disease? Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2001 21 : 1253.
20. Cheung MC, Zhao XQ, Chait A, Albers JJ, Brown BG. Antioxidant supplements block the response of HDL to simvastatin-niacin therapy in patients with coronary artery disease and low HDL. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2001 21 : 1320 1326.
21. Brown BG, Cheung MC, Lee AC, Zhao XQ, Chait A. Antioxidant vitamins and lipid therapy: End of a long romance? Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002 22 : 1535 1546.
22. van Leeuwen R, Boekhoorn S, Vingerling JR, et al. Dietary intake of antioxidants and risk of age-related macular degeneration. JAMA 2005 294 : 3101 3107.
23. Wikipedia. Ayurveda. 2008 [updated 2008; cited]; Available from : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurveda.
24. Saper RB, Phillips RS, Sehgal A, et al. Lead, mercury, and arsenic in US- and Indian-manufactured Ayurvedic medicines sold via the Internet. JAMA 2008 300 : 915 923.
25. Lonn E, Yusuf S, Arnold MJ, et al. Homocysteine lowering with folic acid and B vitamins in vascular disease. N Engl J Med 2006 354 : 1567 1577.
26. Bazzano LA, Reynolds K, Holder KN, He J. Effect of folic acid supplementation on risk of cardiovascular diseases: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA 2006 296 : 2720 2726.
27. Bonaa KH, Njolstad I, Ueland PM, et al. Homocysteine lowering and cardiovascular events after acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2006 354 : 1578 1588.
28. Albert CM, Cook NR, Gaziano JM, Zaharris E, MacFadyen J, Danielson E, et al. Effect of folic acid and B vitamins on risk of cardiovascular events and total mortality among women at high risk for cardiovascular disease: A randomized trial. JAMA 2008 299 : 2027 2036.
29. Loscalzo J. Homocysteine trials - Clear outcomes for complex reasons. N Engl J Med 2006 354 : 1629 1632.
30. SEARCH: Folic acid and B12 supplementation for homocysteine lowering did not lower cardiovascular events. [updated November 1, 2008; cited]; Available from : http://www.cardiologytoday.com/view.aspx?rid=32656.
31. Knudtson ML, Wyse DG, Galbraith PD, et al. Chelation therapy for ischemic heart disease: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2002 287 : 481 486.
32. Anderson TJ, Hubacek J, Wyse DG, Knudtson ML. Effect of chelation therapy on endothelial function in patients with coronary artery disease: PATCH substudy. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003 41 : 420 425.
33. American Heart Association. Questions and answers about chelation therapy. 2008 [updated 2008; cited]; Available from : http://www.americanheart. org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3000843.
34. Trial to Assess Chelation Therapy (TACT): NCT00044213 (Clinical Trials.gov Identifier). [September 25, 2007; Estimated completion 2009; cited]; Available from : http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00044213?term= Chelation+therapy&rank=2.
35. Mang B, Wolters M, Schmitt B, et al. Effects of a cinnamon extract on plasma glucose, HbA, and serum lipids in diabetes mellitus type 2. Eur J Clin Invest 2006 36 : 340 344.
36. Dugoua JJ, Seely D, Perri D, et al. From type 2 diabetes to antioxidant activity: A systematic review of the safety and efficacy of common and cassia cinnamon bark. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2007 85 : 837 847.
37. Caso G, Kelly P, McNurlan MA, Lawson WE. Effect of coenzyme q10 on myopathic symptoms in patients treated with statins. Am J Cardiol 2007 99 : 1409 1412.
38. Marcoff L, Thompson PD. The role of coenzyme Q10 in statin-associated myopathy: a systematic review. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007 49 : 2231 2237.
39. Prueksaritanont T, Tang C, Qiu Y, Mu L, Subramanian R, Lin JH. Effects of fibrates on metabolism of statins in human hepatocytes. Drug Metab Dispos 2002 30 : 1280 1287.
40. Parcell AC, Smith JM, Schulthies SS, Myrer JW, Fellingham G. Cordyceps Sinensis (CordyMax Cs-4) supplementation does not improve endurance exercise performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2004 14 : 236 242.
41. Colson SN, Wyatt FB, Johnston DL, Autrey LD, FitzGerald YL, Earnest CP. Cordyceps sinensis- and Rhodiola rosea-based supplementation in male cyclists and its effect on muscle tissue oxygen saturation. J Strength Cond Res / National Strength and Conditioning Association 2005 19 : 358 363.
42. Gardner CD, Lawson LD, Block E, et al. Effect of raw garlic versus commercial garlic supplements on plasma lipid concentrations in adults with moderate hypercholesterolemia: A randomized clinical trial. Arch Inter Med 2007 167 : 346 353.
43. Kanowski S, Hoerr R. Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761 in dementia: Intent-to-treat analyses of a 24-week, multi-center, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial. Pharmacopsychiatry 2003 36 : 297 303.
44. Peters H, Kieser M, Holscher U. Demonstration of the efficacy of ginkgo biloba special extract EGb 761 on intermittent claudication - A placebo-controlled, double-blind multicenter trial. VASA Zeitschrift Fur Gefasskrankheiten 1998 27 : 106 110. (Pubitemid 28232161)
45. Gertsch JH, Seto TB, Mor J, Onopa J. Ginkgo biloba for the prevention of severe acute mountain sickness (AMS) starting one day before rapid ascent. High Altitude Med Biol 2002 3 : 29 37.
46. DeKosky ST, Williamson JD, Fitzpatrick AL, et al. Ginkgo biloba for prevention of dementia: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2008 300 : 2253 2262.
47. Szapary PO, Wolfe ML, Bloedon LT, et al. Guggulipid for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2003 290 : 765 772.
48. Ulbricht C, Basch E, Szapary P, et al. Guggul for hyperlipidemia: A review by the Natural Standard Research Collaboration. Complement Ther Med 2005 13 : 279 290. (Pubitemid 43024873)
49. Thompson R, Ruch W, Hasenohrl RU. Enhanced cognitive performance and cheerful mood by standardized extracts of Piper methysticum (Kava-kava). Hum Psychopharmacol 2004 19 : 243 250.
50. Lehrl S. Clinical efficacy of kava extract WS 1490 in sleep disturbances associated with anxiety disorders. Results of a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial. J Affect Disord 2004 78 : 101 110.
51. Connor KM, Payne V, Davidson JR. Kava in generalized anxiety disorder: Three placebo-controlled trials. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2006 21 : 249 253.
52. Gurley BJ, Swain A, Hubbard MA, et al. Supplementation with goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis), but not kava kava (Piper methysticum), inhibits human CYP3A activity in vivo. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2008 83 : 61 69.
53. Watkins LL, Connor KM, Davidson JR. Effect of kava extract on vagal cardiac control in generalized anxiety disorder: Preliminary findings. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford, England) 2001 15 : 283 286.
54. Gurley BJ, Swain A, Barone GW, et al. Effect of goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) and kava kava (Piper methysticum) supplementation on digoxin pharmacokinetics in humans. Drug Metab Dispos 2007 35 : 240 245.
55. Oosthuizen W, Vorster HH, Vermaak WJ, et al. Lecithin has no effect on serum lipoprotein, plasma fibrinogen and macro molecular protein complex levels in hyperlipidaemic men in a double-blind controlled study. Eur J Clin Nutr 1998 52 : 419 424.
56. Simons LA, Hickie JB, Ruys J. Treatment of hypercholesterolaemia with oral lecithin. Aust NZ J Med 1977 7 : 262 266.
57. Spilburg CA, Goldberg AC, McGill JB, et al. Fat-free foods supplemented with soy stanol-lecithin powder reduce cholesterol absorption and LDL cholesterol. J Am Diet Assoc 2003 103 : 577 581.
58. Ostlund RE, Jr., Spilburg CA, Stenson WF. Sitostanol administered in lecithin micelles potently reduces cholesterol absorption in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1999 70 : 826 831.
59. Heyman A, Schmechel D, Wilkinson W, et al. Failure of long term high-dose lecithin to retard progression of early-onset alzheimer's disease. J Neural Transm 1987 24 : 279 286.
60. Cohen MB, Fitten LJ, Lake RR, Perryman KM, Graham LS, Sevrin R. SPECT brain imaging in Alzheimer's disease during treatment with oral tetrahydroaminoacridine and lecithin. Clin Nucl Med 1992 17 : 312 315.
61. Abbey M, Noakes M, Belling GB, Nestel PJ. Partial replacement of saturated fatty acids with almonds or walnuts lowers total plasma cholesterol and low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol. Am J Clin Nutr 1994 59 : 995 999.
62. Sabate J, Fraser GE, Burke K, Knutsen SF, Bennett H, Lindsted KD. Effects of walnuts on serum lipid levels and blood pressure in normal men. N Engl J Med 1993 328 : 603 607.
63. Zambon D, Sabate J, Munoz S, et al. Substituting walnuts for monounsaturated fat improves the serum lipid profile of hypercholesterolemic men and women. A randomized crossover trial. Ann Intern Med 2000 132 : 538 546.
64. Segura R, Javierre C, Lizarraga MA, Ros E. Other relevant components of nuts: Phytosterols, folate and minerals. Br J Nutr 2006 96 (Suppl 2 S36 S44.
65. Visioli F, Galli C. Biological properties of olive oil phytochemicals. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2002 42 : 209 221.
66. Visioli F, Poli A, Gall C. Antioxidant and other biological activities of phenols from olives and olive oil. Med Res Rev 2002 22 : 65 75. (Pubitemid 34023573)
67. Ruano J, Lopez-Miranda J, Fuentes F, et al. Phenolic content of virgin olive oil improves ischemic reactive hyperemia in hypercholesterolemic patients. JAm Coll Cardiol 2005 46 : 1864 1868.
68. Kontogianni MD, Panagiotakos DB, Chrysohoou C, Pitsavos C, Zampelas A, Stefanadis C. The impact of olive oil consumption pattern on the risk of acute coronary syndromes: The CARDIO2000 case-control study. Clin Cardiol 2007 30 : 125 129.
69. Hansen SN, Harris WS. New evidence for the cardiovascular benefits of long chain omega-3 fatty acids. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2007 9 : 434 440.
70. Tanaka K, Ishikawa Y, Yokoyama M, et al. Reduction in the recurrence of stroke by eicosapentaenoic acid for hypercholesterolemic patients: Subanalysis of the JELIS trial. Stroke 2008 39 : 2052 2058.
71. Yokoyama M, Origasa H, Matsuzaki M, et al. Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on major coronary events in hypercholesterolaemic patients (JELIS): A randomised open-label, blinded endpoint analysis. Lancet 2007 369 : 1090 1098.
72. Yamagishi K, Iso H, Date C, et al. Fish, omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and mortality from cardiovascular diseases in a nationwide community-based cohort of Japanese men and women the JACC (Japan Collaborative Cohort Study for Evaluation of Cancer Risk) Study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008 52 : 988 996.
73. Harris WS, Von Schacky C. The Omega-3 Index: A new risk factor for death from coronary heart disease? Prev Med 2004 39 : 212 220.
74. Erkkila AT, Lichtenstein AH, Mozaffarian D, Herrington DM. Fish intake is associated with a reduced progression of coronary artery atherosclerosis in postmenopausal women with coronary artery disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2004 80 : 626 632.
75. Patade A, Devareddy L, Lucas EA, Korlagunta K, Daggy BP, Arjmandi BH. Flaxseed reduces total and LDL cholesterol concentrations in Native American postmenopausal women. J Women Health 2008 17 : 355 366.
76. Bloedon LT, Balikai S, Chittams J, et al. Flaxseed and cardiovascular risk factors: Results from a double blind, randomized, controlled clinical trial. J Am Coll Nutr 2008 27 : 65 74.
77. McKenney JM, Sica D. Prescription omega-3 fatty acids for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2007 64 : 595 605. (Pubitemid 46481860)
78. Verboom CN. Highly purified omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are effective as adjunct therapy for secondary prevention of myocardial infarction. Herz 2006 31 (Suppl 3 49 59.
79. Patel JV, Lee KW, Tomson J, Dubb K, Hughes EA, Lip GY. Effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on metabolically active hormones in patients post-myocardial infarction. Int J Cardiol 2007 115 : 42 45.
80. Davidson MH, Stein EA, Bays HE, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of adding prescription omega-3 fatty acids 4 g/d to simvastatin 40 mg/d in hypertriglyceridemic patients: An 8-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Clin Ther 2007 29 : 1354 1367.
81. Mita T, Watada H, Ogihara T, et al. Eicosapentaenoic acid reduces the progression of carotid intima-media thickness in patients with type 2 diabetes. Atherosclerosis 2007 191 : 162 167.
82. Hjerkinn EM, Abdelnoor M, Breivik L, et al. Effect of diet or very long chain omega-3 fatty acids on progression of atherosclerosis, evaluated by carotid plaques, intima-media thickness and by pulse wave propagation in elderly men with hypercholesterolaemia. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2006 13 : 325 333.
83. Schiano V, Laurenzano E, Brevetti G, et al. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid in peripheral arterial disease: Effect on lipid pattern, disease severity, inflammation profile, and endothelial function. Clin Nutr (Edinburgh, Scotland) 2008 27 : 241 247.
84. Madsen T, Christensen JH, Schmidt EB. C-reactive protein and n-3 fatty acids in patients with a previous myocardial infarction: A placebo-controlled randomized study. Eur J Nutr 2007 46 : 428 430.
85. Mehra MR, Lavie CJ, Ventura HO, Milani RV. Fish oils produce anti-inflammatory effects and improve body weight in severe heart failure. J Heart Lung Transplant 2006 25 : 834 838.
86. Dokholyan RS, Albert CM, Appel LJ, Cook NR, Whelton P, Hennekens CH. A trial of omega-3 fatty acids for prevention of hypertension. Am J Cardiol 2004 93 : 1041 1043.
87. Rasmussen BM, Vessby B, Uusitupa M, et al. Effects of dietary saturated, monounsaturated, and n-3 fatty acids on blood pressure in healthy subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 2006 83 : 221 226.
88. Kelley DS, Siegel D, Vemuri M, Chung GH, Mackey BE. Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation decreases remnant-like particle-cholesterol and increases the (n-3) index in hypertriglyceridemic men. J Nutr 2008 138 : 30 35.
89. Brouwer IA, Zock PL, Camm AJ, et al. Effect of fish oil on ventricular tachyarrhythmia and death in patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillators: The Study on Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Ventricular Arrhythmia (SOFA) randomized trial. JAMA 2006 295 : 2613 2619.
90. Leaf A, Albert CM, Josephson M, et al. Prevention of fatal arrhythmias in high-risk subjects by fish oil n-3 fatty acid intake. Circulation 2005 112 : 2762 2768. (Pubitemid 41641669)
91. Calo L, Bianconi L, Colivicchi F, et al. N-3 Fatty acids for the prevention of atrial fibrillation after coronary artery bypass surgery: A randomized, controlled trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005 45 : 1723 1728.
92. Hernandez F, Illnait J, Mas R, et al. Effect of policosanol on serum lipids and lipoproteins in healthy volunteers. Curr Ther Res 1992 51 : 568 575.
93. Berthold HK, Unverdorben S, Degenhardt R, Bulitta M, Gouni-Berthold I. Effect of policosanol on lipid levels among patients with hypercholesterolemia or combined hyperlipidemia: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2006 295 : 2262 2269.
94. Wright C, Zielke J, Whayne TF. Policosanol, an aliphatic alcohol sugarcane derivative: Use in patients intolerant of or inadequately responsive to statin therapy. Int J Angiol 2005 13 : 173 175.
95. Fernandez J. Eficacia y tolerabilidad del policosanol en pacientes argentinos con hipercolesterolemia tipo II. Revista CNIC Cienc Biol 1999 30 : 127 132.
96. Castano G, Mas R, Fernandez L, Illnait J, Gamez R, Alvarez E. Effects of policosanol 20 versus 40 mg/day in the treatment of patients with type II hypercholesterolemia: A 6-month double-blind study. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res 2001 21 : 43 57. (Pubitemid 33009872)
97. Howard AA, Arnsten JH, Gourevitch MN. Effect of alcohol consumption on diabetes mellitus: A systematic review. Ann Intern Med 2004 140 : 211 219.
98. Wallerath T, Poleo D, Li H, Forstermann U. Red wine increases the expression of human endothelial nitric oxide synthase: A mechanism that may contribute to its beneficial cardiovascular effects. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003 41 : 471 478.
99. Maron DJ. Flavonoids for reduction of atherosclerotic risk. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2004 6 : 73 78.
100. de Lorgeril M, Salen P, Martin JL, Boucher F, de Leiris J. Interactions of wine drinking with omega-3 fatty acids in patients with coronary heart disease: A fish-like effect of moderate wine drinking. Am Heart J 2008 155 : 175 181.
101. Baur JA, Sinclair DA. Therapeutic potential of resveratrol: The in vivo evidence. Nat Rev 2006 5 : 493 506.
102. Heber D, Yip I, Ashley JM, Elashoff DA, Elashoff RM, Go VL. Cholesterol-lowering effects of a proprietary Chinese red-yeast-rice dietary supplement. Am J Clin Nutr 1999 69 : 231 236.
103. Kimpel P. Cholestin: Natural or not? [cited 2000]; Available from : http://iml.jou.ufk.edu/projects/Spring2000/Kimpel/cholestin.html/.
104. Snow W. Blurry line between supplements and drugs. [cited 2000]; Available from : http://www.supplementquality.com/news/goodbye-cholestin.html/.
105. ® cholesterol health. [cited 2008]; Available from : http://www.pharmanex.com/corp/product/ solutions/cholestin.shtml/.
106. Liu J, Zhang J, Shi Y, Grimsgaard S, Alraek T, Fonnebo V. Chinese red yeast rice (Monascus purpureus) for primary hyperlipidemia: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Chin Med 2006 1 : 4.
107. Anderson RG. Joe goldstein and mike brown: From cholesterol homeostasis to new paradigms in membrane biology. Trends Cell Biol 2003 13 : 534 539.
108. Goldstein JL, Brown MS. Binding and degradation of low density lipoproteins by cultured human fibroblasts. Comparison of cells from a normal subject and from a patient with homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. J Biol Chem 1974 249 : 5153 5162.
109. Heber D, Lembertas A, Lu QY, Bowerman S, Go VL. An analysis of nine proprietary Chinese red yeast rice dietary supplements: Implications of variability in chemical profile and contents. J Altern Complement Med (New York, NY) 2001 7 : 133 139.
110. Polsani V, Jones PH, Ballantyne CM, Nambi V. A case report of myopathy from consumption of red yeast. J Clin Lipidol 2008 2 : 60 62.
111. Becker D, Gordon RY, Morris PB, Yorko J, Gordon, YJ, Li M, Iqbal N. Simvastatin vs therapeutic lifestyle changes and supplements: Randomized primary prevention trial. Mayo Clin Proc 2008 83 : 758 764.
112. Sacks FM, Lichtenstein A, Van Horn L, Harris W, Kris-Etherton P, Winston M. Soy protein, isoflavones, and cardiovascular health: An American Heart Association Science Advisory for professionals from the Nutrition Committee. Circulation 2006 113 : 1034 1044. (Pubitemid 43879479)
113. Lecrubier Y, Clerc G, Didi R, Kieser M. Efficacy of St. John's wort extract WS 5570 in major depression: A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry 2002 159 : 1361 1366.
114. Sugimoto K, Ohmori M, Tsuruoka S, et al. Different effects of St John's wort on the pharmacokinetics of simvastatin and pravastatin. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2001 70 : 518 524.
115. Mukherjee D, Kline-Rogers E, Fang J, Munir K, Eagle KA. Lack of clopidogrel-CYP3A4 statin interaction in patients with acute coronary syndrome. Heart (British Cardiac Society) 2005 91 : 23 26. (Pubitemid 39664985)
116. Farid NA, Payne CD, Small DS, Winters KJ, Ernest CS, 2nd., Brandt JT, et al. Cytochrome P450 3A inhibition by ketoconazole affects prasugrel and clopidogrel pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics differently. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2007 81 : 735 741.
117. Zhou SF, Lai X. An update on clinical drug interactions with the herbal antidepressant St. John's wort. Curr Drug Metab 2008 9 : 394 409.
118. Katan MB, Grundy SM, Jones P, Law M, Miettinen T, Paoletti R. Efficacy and safety of plant stanols and sterols in the management of blood cholesterol levels. Mayo Clin Proc 2003 78 : 965 978.
119. Arad Y, Spadaro LA, Roth M, Newstein D, Guerci AD. Treatment of asymptomatic adults with elevated coronary calcium scores with atorvastatin, vitamin C, and vitamin E: The St. Francis Heart Study randomized clinical trial. J Am Coll of Cardiol 2005 46 : 166 172.
120. Hercberg S, Bertrais S, Czernichow S, et al. Alterations of the lipid profile after 7.5 years of low-dose antioxidant supplementation in the SU.VI.MAX Study. Lipids 2005 40 : 335 342.
121. Sasazuki S, Sasaki S, Tsubono Y, Okubo S, Hayashi M, Tsugane S. Effect of vitamin C on common cold: Randomized controlled trial. Eur J Clin Nutr 2006 60 : 9 17.