Metabolic links between diabetes and Alzheimer's disease

Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics

Volumn 9, Issue 5, 2009, Pages 617-630

  Maher, Pamela A ^a   Schubert, David R ^a  

^a SALK INSTITUTE FOR BIOLOGICAL STUDIES   (United States)

Author keywords

Alzheimer's disease; Diabetes; Drugs; Epidemiology; Fatty acid; Glycation; Lifestyle; Molecular pathway

Indexed keywords

AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN; GLUCOSE; INSULIN;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ANIMAL CELL CULTURE; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIET; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE COURSE; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; FATTY ACID METABOLISM; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HUMAN; INSULIN RESISTANCE; LIFESTYLE; METABOLISM; NONHUMAN; PROTEIN GLYCOSYLATION; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; AMYLOID BETA-PROTEIN; ANIMALS; DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 2; HUMANS; HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 66249126971     PISSN: 14737175     EISSN: 17448360     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/ern.09.18     Document Type: Review

References (151)

1. Arvanitakis Z, Wilson RS, Bienias JL, Evans DA, Bennett DA. Diabetes mellitus and risk of Alzheimer disease and decline in cognitive function. Arch. Neurol. 61(5), 661-666 (2004).
2. Biessels GJ, Staekenborg S, Brunner E, Brayne C, Scheltens P. Risk of dementia in diabetes mellitus: a systemic review. Lancet Neurol. 5, 64-74 (2006).
3. Excellent review and summary of the relationship between Alzheimer's disease (AD) and diabetes.
4. Cali AM, CAβrio S. Prediabetes and Type 2 diabetes in youth: an emerging epidemic disease? Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes. 15(2), 123-127 (2008).
5. Craft S. Insulin resistance and Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis: potential mechanisms and implications for treatment. Curr. Alzheimer Res. 4(2), 147-152 (2007).
6. Ott A, Stolk RP, van Harskamp F, Pols HA, Hofman A, Breteler MM. Diabetes mellitus and the risk of dementia: the Rotterdam Study. Neurology 53, 1937-1942 (1999).
7. Katzman R, Aronson M, Fuld P et al. Development of dementing illnesses in an 80-year-old volunteer cohort. Ann. Neurol. 25, 317-324 (1989).
8. Hassing LB, Johansson B, Nilsson SE et al. Diabetes mellitus is a risk factor for vascular dementia, but not Alzheimer's disease: a population-based study of the oldest old. Int. Psychogeriatr. 14, 239-248 (2002).
9. Bruce DG, Davis WA, Casey GP et al. Predictors of cognitive impairment and dementia in older people with diabetes. Diabetologia 51, 241-248 (2008).
10. Akomolafe A, Beiser A, Meigs JB et al. Diabetes mellitus and risk of developing Alzheimer disease. Arch. Neurol. 63, 1551-1555 (2006).
11. Xu W, Qiu C, Winblad B, Fratriglioni L. The effect of borderline diabetes on the risk of dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Diabetes 56, 211-216 (2007).
12. Peila R, Rodriguez BL, Launer LJ. Type 2 diabetes, AβOE gene, and the risk for dementia and related pathologies. Diabetes 51, 1256-1262 (2002).
13. Luchsinger JA, Tang M-X, Shea S, Mayeux R. Hyperinsulinemia and risk of Alzheimer disease. Neurology 63, 1187-1192 (2004).
14. Young SE, Mainous AG, Carnemolla M. Hyperinsulinemia and cognitive decline in a middle-aged cohort. Diabetes Care 29, 2688-2693 (2006).
15. Yaffe K, Blackwell T, Kanaya AM, Davidowitz N, Barrett-Connor E, Krueger K. Diabetes, impaired fasting glucose, and development of cognitive impairment in older women. Neurology 63, 658-663 (2004).
16. Luchsinger JA, Tang M-X, Stern Y, Shea S, Mayeux R. Diabetes mellitus and risk of Alzheimer's disease and dementia with stroke in a multiethnic cohort. Am. J. Epidemiol. 154, 635-641 (2001).
17. XuW, QiuCX,WahlinA, Winblad B, Fratriglioni L. Diabetes mellitus and risk of dementia in the Kungsholmen project. Neurology 63, 1181-1186 (2004).
18. Ronnemaa E, Zethelius B, Sundelof J et al. Impaired insulin secretion increases the risk of Alzheimer disease. Neurology 71, 1065-1071 (2008).
19. Youngren JF. Regulation of insulin receptor function. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 64, 873-891 (2007).
20. Stumvoll M, Goldstein BJ, van Haeften TW. Type 2 diabetes: principles of pathogenesis and therAβy. Lancet 365, 1333-1346 (2005).
21. Cole AR, Astell A, Green C, Sutherland C. Molecular connections between dementia and diabetes. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 31, 1046-1063 (2007).
22. Excellent discussion of insulin metabolism and how alterations in insulin metabolism can impact on cognitive function.
23. Neumann KF, Rojo L, Navarrete LP, Farias G, Reyes P, Maccioni RB. Insulin resistance and Alzheimer's disease: molecular links & clinical implications. Curr. Alzheimer Res. 5, 438-447 (2008).
24. Sweatt JD. Mitogen-activated protein kinases in synAβtic plasticity and memory. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 14, 311-317 (2004).
25. Tully T, Bourtchouladze R, Scott R, Tallman J. Targeting the CREB pathway for memory enhancers. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2, 267-277 (2003).
26. Carlezon WA, Duman RS, Nestler EJ. The many faces of CREB. Trends Neurosci. 28, 436-445 (2005).
27. Horwood JM, Dufour F, Laroche S, Davis S. Signalling mechanisms mediated by the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt cascade in synAβtic plasticity and memory in the rat. Eur.J. Neurosci. 23, 3375-3384 (2006).
28. Phiel CJ, Wilson CA, Lee VM-Y, Klein PS. GSK-3a regulates production of Alzheimer's disease amyloid-βeptides. Nature 423, 435-439 (2003).
29. Alafuzoff I, Aho L, Helisalmi S, MannermaaA, Soininen H. β-amyloid deposition in brains of subjects with diabetes. Neuropathol. Aβpl. Neurobiol. 35(1), 60-68 (2009).
30. Arvanitakis Z, Schneider JA, Wilson RS et al. Diabetes is related to cerebral infarction but not to AD pathology in older persons. Neurology 67(11), 1960-1965 (2006).
31. Harrington LS, Findlay GM, Lamb RF. Restraining PI3K: mTOR signalling goes back to the membrane. Trends Biochem. Sci. 30, 35-42 (2005).
32. Higuchi M, Onishi K, Kikuchi C, Gotoh Y. Scaffolding function of PAK in the PDKl-Akt pathway. Nat. Cell Biol. 10, 1356-1364 (2008).
33. Zhao L, Ma Q-L, Calon F et al. Role of p21-activated kinase pathway defects in the cognitive deficits of Alzheimer disease. Nat. Neurosci. 9, 234-242 (2006).
34. Schubert M, Gautam D, Surjo D et al. Role for neuronal insulin resistance in neurodegenerative diseases. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101, 3100-3105 (2004).
35. Mielke JG, Taghibiglou C, Liu L et al. A biochemical and functional characterization of diet-induced brain insulin resistance.J. Neurochem. 93, 1568-1578 (2005).
36. Stranahan AM, Norman ED, Lee K et al. Diet-induced insulin resistance impairs hippocampal synAβtic plasticity and cognition in middle-aged rats. Hippocampus 18, 1085-1088 (2008).
37. Some of the best experiments showing a relationship between bad diet and brain structure and function.
38. Ho L, Qin W, Pompl PN et al. Diet-induced insulin resistance promotes amyloidosis in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. FASEBJ. 18, 902-904 (2004).
39. Farris W, Mansourian S, Chang Y et al. Insulin-degrading enzyme regulates the levels of insulin, amyloid β-protein, and the β-amyloid precursor protein intracellular domain in vivo. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 100, 4162-4167 (2003).
40. Burdo JR, Chen Q, Calcutt NA, Schubert D. The pathological interaction between diabetes and presymptomatic Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol. Aging (2008) (Epub ahead of print). DOI:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2008.02.010
41. A clear demonstration of the effect of diabetes on animals predisposed to AD. A warning of the potential result of the increasing amount of diabetes and prediabetes in our youth.
42. Jenkins AJ, Best JD, Klein RL, Lyons TJ. 'Lipoproteins, glycoxidation and diabetic angiopathy'. Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. 20(5), 349-368 (2004).
43. Eckel RH, Grundy SM, Zimmet PZ. The metabolic syndrome. Lancet 365(9468), 1415-1428 (2005).
44. Hillered L, Chan PH. Role of arachidonic acid and other free fatty acids in mitochondrial dysfunction in brain ischemia.J. Neurosci. Res. 20(4), 451-456 (1988).
45. Hamel FG, Upward JL, Bennett RG. In vitro inhibition of insulin-degrading enzyme by long-chain fatty acids and their coenzyme A thioesters. Endocrinology 144(6), 2404-2408 (2003).
46. Dahlen SE, Bjork J, Hedqvist P et al. Leukotrienes promote plasma leakage and leukocyte adhesion in postcAβillary venules: in vivo effects with relevance to the acute inflammatory response. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 78(6), 3887-3891 (1981).
47. Wilson DM, Binder LI. Free fatty acids stimulate the polymerization of tau and amyloid P peptides. In vitro evidence for a common effector of pathogenesis in Alzheimer's disease. Am. J. Pathol. 150(6), 2181-2195 (1997).
48. Gamblin TC, King ME, Kuret J, Berry RW, Binder LI. Oxidative regulation of fatty acid-induced tau polymerization. Biochemistry 39(46), 14203-14210 (2000).
49. Craft S. Insulin resistance syndrome and Alzheimer's disease: age- and obesity-related effects on memory, amyloid, and inflammation. Neurobiol. Aging 26(Suppl. 1), 65-69 (2005).
50. RAβoport SI. Brain arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acid cascades are selectively altered by drugs, diet and disease. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 79(3-5), 153-156 (2008).
51. Firuzi O, Zhuo J, Chinnici CM, Wisniewski T, Pratico D. 5-lipoxygenase gene disruption reduces amyloid-β pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. FASEBJ. 22(4), 1169-1178 (2008).
52. Sanchez-Mejia RO, Newman JW, Toh S et al. Phospholipase A2 reduction ameliorates cognitive deficits in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Nat. Neurosci. 11(11), 1311-1318 (2008).
53. Lim GP, Calon F, Morihara T et al. A diet enriched with the omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid reduces amyloid burden in an aged Alzheimer mouse model.J. Neurosci. 25(12), 3032-3040 (2005).
54. This publication is the most direct demonstration of the influence of dietary fatty acid intake on AD pathology, defining a potential AD therAβy.
55. Roland I, De Leval X, Evrard B, Pirotte B, Dogne JM, Delattre L. Modulation of the arachidonic cascade with omega3 fatty acids or analogues: potential therAβeutic benefits. Mini Rev. Med. Chem. 4(6), 659-668 (2004).
56. Great review on how fatty acid consumption and metabolism can have profound influences on many aspects of brain physiology.
57. Williams JH, Errington ML, Lynch MA, Bliss TV. Arachidonic acid induces a long-term activity-dependent enhancement of synAβtic transmission in the hippocampus. Nature 341(6244), 739-742 (1989).
58. Massicotte G. Modification of glutamate receptors by phospholipase A2: its role in adAβtive neural plasticity. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 57(11), 1542-1550 (2000).
59. Scorrano L, Penzo D, Petronilli V, Pagano F, Bernardi P. Arachidonic acid causes cell death through the mitochondrial permeability transition. Implications for tumor necrosis factor-a aopototic signaling.J. Biol. Chem. 276(15), 12035-12040 (2001).
60. Penzo D, Petronilli V, Angelin A et al. Arachidonic acid released by phospholipase A(2) activation triggers Ca2*-dependent Aβoptosis through the mitochondrial pathway.J. Biol. Chem. 279(24), 25219-25225 (2004).
61. Tanaka E, Niiyama S, Sato S, Yamada A, Higashi H. Arachidonic acid metabolites contribute to the irreversible depolarization induced by in vitro ischemia. J. Neurophysiol. 90(5), 3213-3223 (2003).
62. ChernyVV, Henderson LM,XuW, Thomas LL, DeCoursey TE. Activation of NADPH oxidase-related proton and electron currents in human eosinophils by arachidonic acid.J. Physiol. 535(Pt 3), 783-794 (2001).
63. Zhu D, Lai Y, Shelat PB, Hu C, Sun GY, Lee JC. Phospholipases A2 mediate amyloid-β peptide-induced mitochondrial dysfunction./ Neurosci. 26(43), 11111-11119 (2006).
64. Bianca VD, Dusi S, Bianchini E, Dal Pra I, Rossi F. β-amyloid activates the O-2 forming NADPH oxidase in microglia, monocytes, and neutrophils. A possible inflammatory mechanism of neuronal damage in Alzheimer's disease. J. Biol. Chem. 274(22), 15493-15499 (1999).
65. Schubert D, Soucek T, Blouw B. HIF-1 protects astrocytes from activation by amyloid P peptide. Eur. J. Neurosci. 29, 1323-1334 (2009).
66. Takeuchi M, Yamagishi S. Possible involvement of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Curr. Pharmaceut. Des. 14(10), 973-978 (2008).
67. Sun GY, Horrocks LA, Farooqui AA. The roles of NADPH oxidase and phospholipases A2 in oxidative and inflammatory responses in neurodegenerative diseases. J. Neurochem. 103(1), 1-16(2007).
68. Sun GY, Xu J, Jensen MD, Simonyi A. Phospholipase A2 in the central nervous system: implications for neurodegenerative diseases.J. LipidRes. 45(2), 205-213 (2004).
69. Uz T, Pesold C, Longone P, Manev H. Aging-associated up-regulation of neuronal 5-lipoxygenase expression: putative role in neuronal vulnerability. FASEBJ. 12(6), 439-449 (1998).
70. Wyss-Coray T. Inflammation in Alzheimer disease: driving force, bystander or beneficial response? Nat. Med. 12(9), 1005-1015 (2006).
71. Tan S, Sagara Y, Liu Y, Maher P, Schubert D. The regulation of reactive oxygen species production during programmed cell death. J. Cell Biol. 141(6), 1423-1432 (1998).
72. Mitchell DC, Gawrisch K, Litman BJ, Salem N Jr. Why is docosahexaenoic acid essential for nervous system function? Biochem. Soc. Trans. 26(3), 365-370 (1998).
73. Soderberg M, Edlund C, Kristensson K, Dallner G. Fatty acid composition of brain phospholipids in aging and in Alzheimer's disease. Lipids 26(6), 421-425 (1991).
74. Prasad MR, Lovell MA, Yatin M, Dhillon H, Markesbery WR. Regional membrane phospholipid alterations in Alzheimer's disease. Neurochem. Res. 23(1), 81-88 (1998).
75. Kalmijn S, Launer LJ, Ott A, Witteman JC, Hofman A, Breteler MM. Dietary fat intake and the risk of incident dementia in the Rotterdam Study. Ann. Neurol. 42(5), 776-782 (1997).
76. Hooijmans CR, Rutters F, Dederen PJ et al. Changes in cerebral blood volume and amyloid pathology in aged Alzheimer AβP/PS1 mice on a docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) diet or cholesterol enriched typical Western diet (TWD). Neurobiol. Dis. 28(1), 16-29 (2007).
77. Wakil SJ, Abu-Elheiga LA. Fatty acid metabolism: target for metabolic syndrome.J. Lipid Res. (2008) (Epub ahead of print) DOI:10.1194/jlr. R800079-JLR200.
78. Parks EJ, Skokan LE, Timlin MT, Dingfelder CS. Dietary sugars stimulate fatty acid synthesis in adults. J. Nutr. 138(6), 1039-1046 (2008).
79. Cumming RC, Dargusch R, Fischer WH, Schubert D. Increase in expression levels and resistance to sulfhydryl oxidation of peroxiredoxin isoforms in amyloid P-resistant nerve cells. J. Biol. Chem. 282(42), 30523-30534 (2007).
80. Thornalley PJ. Pharmacology of methylglyoxal: formation, modification of proteins and nucleic acids, and enzymatic detoxification - a role in pathogenesis and antiproliferative chemotherAβy. Gen. Pharmacol. 27(4), 565-573 (1996).
81. Brownlee M. Biochemistry and molecular cell biology of diabetic complications. Nature 414(6865), 813-820 (2001).
82. An excellent review of the role of glycation in diabetic complications.
83. Kuhla B, Luth HJ, Haferburg D, Boeck K, Arendt T, Munch G. Methylglyoxal, glyoxal, and their detoxification in Alzheimer's disease. Ann. NYAcad. Sci. 1043, 211-216 (2005).
84. Chen F, Wollmer MA, Hoerndli F et al. Role for glyoxalase I in Alzheimer's disease. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101(20), 7687-7692 (2004).
85. Fukunaga M, Miyata S, Higo S, Hamada Y, Ueyama S, Kasuga M. Methylglyoxal induces Aβoptosis through oxidative stress-mediated activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase in rat Schwann cells. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1043, 151-157 (2005).
86. Hipkiss AR. On the mechanisms of ageing suppression by dietary restriction-is persistent glycolysis the problem? Mec. AgeingDev. 127(1), 8-15 (2006).
87. Morcos M, Du X, Pfisterer F et al. Glyoxalase-1 prevents mitochondrial protein modification and enhances lifespan in Caenorhabditis elegans. Aging Cell 7 (2), 260-269 (2008).
88. Schubert D. Glucose metabolism and Alzheimer's disease. Ageing Res. Rev. 4, 240-257 (2005).
89. Soucek T, Cumming R, Dargusch R, Maher P, Schubert D. The regulation of glucose metabolism by HIF-1 mediates a neuroprotective response to amyloid P peptide. Neuron 39(1), 43-56 (2003).
90. Ishige K, Schubert D, Sagara Y. Flavonoids protect neuronal cells from oxidative stress by three distinct mechanisms. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 30, 433-446 (2001).
91. Thornalley PJ. Glycation in diabetic neuropathy: characteristics, consequences, causes, and therAβeutic options. Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 50, 37-57 (2002).
92. Important review by the leading chemist studying glycation.
93. Thurston JH, McDougal DB Jr, Hauhart RE, Schulz DW. Effects of acute, subacute, and chronic diabetes on carbohydrate and energy metabolism in rat sciatic nerve. Relation to mechanisms of peripheral neuropathy. Diabetes 44(2), 190-195 (1995).
94. Williamson JR, Chang K, Frangos M et al. Hyperglycemic pseudohypoxia and diabetic complications. Diabetes 42(6), 801-813 (1993).
95. Munch G, Kuhla B, Luth HJ, Arendt T, Robinson SR. Anti-AGEing defences against Alzheimer's disease. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 31(Pt6), 1397-1399 (2003).
96. Smith MA, Taneda S, Richey PL et al. Advanced Maillard reaction end products are associated with Alzheimer disease pathology. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 91(12), 5710-5714 (1994).
97. Yan SD, Yan SF, Chen X et al. Non-enzymatically glycated tau in Alzheimer's disease induces neuronal oxidant stress resulting in cytokine gene expression and release of amyloid β-peptide. Nat. Med. 1(7), 693-699 (1995).
98. Choei H, Sasaki N, Takeuchi M et al. Glyceraldehyde-derived advanced glycation end products in Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neuropathol. 108(3), 189-193 (2004).
99. Li ZG, Zhang W, Sima AA. Alzheimer-like changes in rat models of spontaneous diabetes. Diabetes 56(7), 1817-1824 (2007).
100. Vitek MP, Bhattacharya K, Glendening JM et al. Advanced glycation end products contribute to amyloidosis in Alzheimer disease. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 91(11), 4766-4770 (1994).
101. Ledesma MD, Bonay P, Colaco C, Avila J. Analysis of microtubule- associated protein tau glycation in paired helical filaments. J. Biol. Chem. 269(34), 21614-21619 (1994).
102. Yan SD, Chen X, Schmidt AM et al. Glycated tau protein in Alzheimer disease: a mechanism for induction of oxidant stress. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 91(16), 7787-7791 (1994).
103. Takeuchi M, Bucala R, Suzuki T et al. Neurotoxicity of advanced glycation end-products for cultured cortical neurons. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 59(12), 1094-1105 (2000).
104. Dyck PJ, Hansen S, Karnes J et al. CAβillary number and percentage closed in human diabetic sural nerve. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 82(8), 2513-2517 (1985).
105. Huber JD. Diabetes, cognitive function, and the blood-brain barrier. Curr. Pharmaceut. Des. 14(16), 1594-1600 (2008).
106. Ristow M. Neurodegenerative disorders associated with diabetes mellitus. J. Mol. Med. 82(8), 510-529 (2004).
107. Zlokovic BV. The blood-brain barrier in health and chronic neurodegenerative disorders. Neuron 57(2), 178-201 (2008).
108. Excellent review on the BBB.
109. Biessels GJ, De Leeuw FE, Lindeboom J, Barkhof F, Scheltens P. Increased cortical atrophy in patients with Alzheimer's disease and Type 2 diabetes mellitus. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 77'(3), 304-307 (2006).
110. Sato T, Shimogaito N, Wu X, Kikuchi S, Yamagishi S, Takeuchi M. Toxic advanced glycation end products (TAGE) theory in Alzheimer's disease. Am. J. Alzheimers Dis. OtherDemen. 21(3), 197-208 (2006).
111. Good review by the leading proponent for the role of advanced glycation end products in AD.
112. Huber JD, VanGilder RL, Houser KA. Streptozotocin-induced diabetes progressively increases blood-brain barrier permeability in specific brain regions in rats. Am. J. Physiol. 291(6), H2660-H2668 (2006).
113. Banks WA, Jaspan JB, Kastin AJ. Effect of diabetes mellitus on the permeability of the blood-brain barrier to insulin. Peptides 18(10), 1577-1584(1997).
114. Seaquist ER, Tkac I, Damberg G, Thomas W, Gruetter R. Brain glucose concentrations in poorly controlled diabetes mellitus as measured by high-field magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Metabolism 54(8), 1008-1013 (2005).
115. Clodfelder-Miller B, De Sarno P, Zmijewska AA, Song L, Jope RS. Physiological and pathological changes in glucose regulate brain Akt and glycogen synthasekinase-3. J. Biol. Chem. 280(48), 39723-39731 (2005).
116. Girouard H, Iadecola C. Neurovascular coupling in the normal brain and in hypertension, stroke, and Alzheimer disease. J. Aβpl. Physiol. 100(1), 328-335 (2006).
117. Koehler RC, Gebremedhin D, Harder DR. Role of astrocytes in cerebrovascular regulation. J. Aβpl. Physiol. 100(1), 307-317 (2006).
118. Rosengarten B, Huwendiek O, KAβs M. Neurovascular coupling and cerebral autoregulation can be described in terms of a control system. Ultrasound Med. Biol. 27(2), 189-193 (2001).
119. Orozco LJ, Buchleitner AM, Gimenez-Perez G, Roque IFM, Richter B, Mauricio D. Exercise or exercise and diet for preventing Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (3), CD003054 (2008).
120. Taubes G. Good Calories, Bad Calories. AA Knopf, NY, USA (2008).
121. Must read book by anyone interested in the role of diet in disease and health.
122. Critser G. Fat Land: How Americans Became the Fattest People in the World. Houghton Mifflin Co., MA, USA (2004).
123. This book details how US politicians and the agricultural industry initiated the diabetes epidemic.
124. Nielsen SJ, Siega-Riz AM, Popkin BM. Trends in energy intake in U.S. between 1977 and 1996: similar shifts seen across age groups. Obes. Res. 10(5), 370-378 (2002).
125. Bray GA, Nielsen SJ, Popkin BM. Consumption of high-fructose corn syrup in beverages may play a role in the epidemic of obesity. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 79(4), 537-543 (2004).
126. Wolf A, Bray GA, Popkin BM. A short history of beverages and how our body treats them. Obes. Rev. 9, 151-164 (2007).
127. Johnson RJ, Segal MS, Sautin Y et al. Potential role of sugar (fructose) in the epidemic of hypertension, obesity and the metabolic syndrome, diabetes, kidney disease, and cardiovascular disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 86(4), 899-906 (2007).
128. Oates PJ. Polyol pathway and diabetic peripheral neuropathy. Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 50, 325-392 (2002).
129. Cassese A, Esposito I, Fiory F et al. In skeletal muscle advanced glycation end products (AGEs) inhibit insulin action and induce the formation of multimolecular complexes including the receptor for AGEs. J. Biol. Chem. 283(52), 36088-36099 (2008).
130. Stirban A, Negrean M, GottingC et al. Dietary advanced glycation endproducts and oxidative stress: in vivo effects on endothelial function and adipokines. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1126, 276-279 (2008).
131. TanD, Wang Y,LoCY, Sang S, Ho CT. Methylglyoxal: its presence in beverages and potential scavengers. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1126, 72-75 (2008).
132. Koschinsky T, He CJ, Mitsuhashi T et al. Orally absorbed reactive glycation products (glycotoxins): an environmental risk factor in diabetic nephropathy. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 94(12), 6474-6479 (1997).
133. He C, Sabol J, Mitsuhashi T, Vlassara H. Dietary glycotoxins: inhibition of reactive products by aminoguanidine facilitates renal clearance and reduces tissue sequestration. Diabetes48(6), 1308-1315 (1999).
134. Vlassara H. Advanced glycation in health and disease: role of the modern environment. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1043, 452-460 (2005).
135. Hightower JM. Diagnosis: Mercury: Money, Politics, and Poison. Island Press, London, UK (2008).
136. Orgogozo JM, Dartigues JF, Lafont S et al. Wine consumption and dementia in the elderly: a prospective community study in the Bordeaux area. Rev. Neurol. (Paris) 153(3), 185-192 (1997).
137. Collins MA, Neafsey EJ, Mukamal KJ et al. Alcohol in moderation, cardioprotection, and neuroprotection: epidemiological considerations and mechanistic studies. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 33(2), 206-219 (2008).
138. Wang Z, Barker TH, Fuller GM. Alcohol at moderate levels decreases fibrinogen expression in vivo and in vitro. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 23(12), 1927-1932 (1999).
139. Wang J, Ho L, Qin W et al. Caloric restriction attenuates β-amyloid neuropathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. FASEBJ. 19(6), 659-661 (2005).
140. Lim GP, Chu T, Yang F, Beech W, Frautschy SA, Cole GM. The curry spice curcumin reduces oxidative damage and amyloid pathology in an Alzheimer transgenic mouse. J. Neurosci. 21, 8370-8377 (2001).
141. Garcia-Alloza M, Borrelli LA, Rozkalne A, Hyman BT, Bacskai BJ. Curcumin labels amyloid pathology in vivo, disrupts existing plaques, and partially restores distorted neurites in an Alzheimer mouse model. J. Neurochem. 102(4), 1095-1104 (2007).
142. Maher P, Akaishi T, Abe K. Flavonoid fisetin promotes ERK-dependent long-term potentiation and enhances memory. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 103(44), 16568-16573 (2006).
143. Hu G, Lakka TA, Kilpelainen TO, Tuomilehto J. Epidemiological studies of exercise in diabetes prevention. Aβpl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 32(3), 583-595 (2007).
144. Balogun E, Hoque M, Gong P et al. Curcumin activates the haem oxygenase-1 gene via regulation of Nrf2 and the antioxidant-responsive element. Biochem. J. 371 (Pt 3), 887-895 (2003).
145. Liu Y, Dargusch R, Maher P, Schubert D. A broadly neuroprotective derivative of curcumin.J. Neurochem. 105 1336-1345 (2008).
146. Maher P, Akaishi T, Schubert D, Abe K. A pyrazole derivative of curcumin enhances memory. Neurobiol. Aging (2008) (Epub ahead of print).
147. Peyroux J, Sternberg M. Advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs): pharmacological inhibition in diabetes. Pathol. Biol. (Paris) 54(7), 405-419 (2006).
148. Wu CH, Yen GC. Inhibitory effect of naturally occurring flavonoids on the formation of advanced glycation endproducts. J. Agric. Food. Chem. 53(8), 3167-3173 (2005).
149. Akaishi T, Morimoto T, Shibao M et al. Structural requirements for the flavonoid fisetin in inhibiting fibril formation of amyloid β protein. Neurosci. Lett. 444(3), 280-285 (2008).
150. Van Acker SA, van den Berg DJ, Tromp MN et al. Structural aspects of antioxidant activity of flavonoids. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 20(3), 331-342 (1996).
151. Sagara Y, Vanhnasy J, Maher P. Induction of PC12 cell differentiation by flavonoids is dependent upon extracellular signal-regulated kinase activation. J. Neurochem. 90(5), 1144-1155 (2004).