Stable isotope-labeled tracers for the investigation of fatty acid and triglyceride metabolism in humans in vivo

Future Lipidology

Volumn 4, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 215-230

  Magkos, Faidon ^a,b   Mittendorfer, Bettina ^b  

^a HAROKOPIO UNIVERSITY   (Greece)

^b WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Adipose tissue; Lipid metabolism; Lipolysis; Lipoprotein; Liver; Mass spectrometry; Oxidation

Indexed keywords

ACETIC ACID; APOLIPOPROTEIN B100; CARBON 13; GLYCEROL; RADIOISOTOPE; RADIUM; VERY LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN;

ADIPOSE TISSUE; FATTY ACID BLOOD LEVEL; FATTY ACID METABOLISM; FATTY ACID OXIDATION; FATTY ACID TRANSPORT; GLYCEROL BLOOD LEVEL; GLYCOLYSIS; HUMAN; IN VIVO STUDY; ISOTOPE LABELING; LIPID METABOLISM; LIPOGENESIS; LIPOLYSIS; LIVER; POSTPRANDIAL STATE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS; REVIEW; TRIACYLGLYCEROL BLOOD LEVEL;

EID: 66149188094     PISSN: 17460875     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2217/CLP.09.9     Document Type: Review

References (128)

1. Nolan CJ, Madiraju MS, Delghingaro-Augusto V, Peyot ML, Prentki M: Fatty acid signaling in the β-cell and insulin secretion. Diabetes 55(Suppl. 2), S16-S23 (2006).
2. Eyster KM: The membrane and lipids as integral participants in signal transduction: lipid signal transduction for the non-lipid biochemist. Adv. Physiol. Educ. 31, 5-16 (2007).
3. Savage DB, Petersen KF, Shulman GI: Disordered lipid metabolism and the pathogenesis of insulin resistance. Physiol. Rev. 87, 507-520 (2007).
4. Korenblat KM, Fabbrini E, Mohammed BS, Klein S: Liver, muscle, and adipose tissue insulin action is directly related to intrahepatic triglyceride content in obese subjects. Gastroenterology 134, 1369-1375 (2008).
5. Kiens B: Skeletal muscle lipid metabolism in exercise and insulin resistance. Physiol. Rev. 86, 205-243 (2006).
6. Ludke SM, Flenker U, Schanzer W, Schomburg D: Stable carbon isotope discrimination by human 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase. J. Lipid Res. 49, 2620-2626 (2008).
7. Patterson BW: Use of stable isotopically labeled tracers for studies of metabolic kinetics: an overview. Metabolism 46, 322-329 (1997).
8. Coggan AR, Mittendorfer B, Klein S: Evaluating substrate metabolism. In: Translational and Experimental Clinical Research. Schuster DP, Powers WJ (Eds). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, PA, USA 435-449 (2005).
9. Wolfe RR: Radioactive and stable isotope tracers in biomedicine. In: Principles and Practice of Kinetic Analysis. Wiley-Liss, NY, USA (1992).
10. Beylot M, Martin C, Beaufrere B, Riou JP, Mornex R: Determination of steady state and nonsteady-state glycerol kinetics in humans using deuterium-labeled tracer. J. Lipid Res. 28, 414-422 (1987).
11. Burnett JR, Barrett PH: Apolipoprotein B metabolism: tracer kinetics, models, and metabolic studies. Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci. 39, 89-137 (2002).
12. Magkos F, Sidossis LS: Measuring very low density lipoprotein-triglyceride kinetics in man in vivo: how different the various methods really are. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 7, 547-555 (2004).
13. Jensen MD, Heiling VJ: Heated hand vein blood is satisfactory for measurements during free fatty acid kinetic studies. Metabolism 40, 406-409 (1991).
14. Mittendorfer B, Sidossis LS, Walser E, Chinkes DL, Wolfe RR: Regional acetate kinetics and oxidation in human volunteers. Am. J. Physiol. 274, E978-E983 (1998).
15. Sidossis LS, Mittendorfer B, Walser E, Chinkes D, Wolfe RR: Hyperglycemia-induced inhibition of splanchnic fatty acid oxidation increases hepatic triacylglycerol secretion. Am. J. Physiol. 275, E798-E805 (1998).
16. Sidossis LS, Mittendorfer B, Chinkes D, Walser E, Wolfe RR: Effect of hyperglycemia-hyperinsulinemia on whole body and regional fatty acid metabolism. Am. J. Physiol. 276, E427-E434 (1999).
17. Evans K, Burdge GC, Wootton SA, Clark ML, Frayn KN: Regulation of dietary fatty acid entrapment in subcutaneous adipose tissue and skeletal muscle. Diabetes 51, 2684-2690 (2002).
18. Roberts R, Bickerton AS, Fielding BA et al.: Reduced oxidation of dietary fat after a short term high-carbohydrate diet. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 87, 824-831 (2008).
19. Frayn KN: Macronutrient metabolism of adipose tissue at rest and during exercise: a methodological viewpoint. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 58, 877-886 (1999).
20. Burdge GC: Metabolism of α-linolenic acid in humans. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 75, 161-168 (2006).
21. Emken EA: Stable isotope approaches, applications, and issues related to polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism studies. Lipids 36, 965-973 (2001).
22. Arner P: Human fat cell lipolysis: biochemistry, regulation and clinical role. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 19, 471-482 (2005).
23. Coppack SW, Persson M, Judd RL, Miles JM: Glycerol and nonesterified fatty acid metabolism in human muscle and adipose tissue in vivo. Am. J. Physiol. 276, E233-E240 (1999).
24. Wolfe RR, Peters EJ: Lipolytic response to glucose infusion in human subjects. Am. J. Physiol. 252, E218-E223 (1987).
25. Reshef L, Olswang Y, Cassuto H et al.: Glyceroneogenesis and the triglyceride/fatty acid cycle. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 30413-30416 (2003).
26. Klein S, Wolfe RR: The use of isotopic tracers in studying lipid metabolism in human subjects. Baillieres Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1, 797-816 (1987).
27. Van Hall G, Bulow J, Sacchetti M, Al Mulla N, Lyngso D, Simonsen L: Regional fat metabolism in human splanchnic and adipose tissues; the effect of exercise. J. Physiol. 543, 1033-1046 (2002).
28. Jensen MD: Regional glycerol and free fatty acid metabolism before and after meal ingestion. Am. J. Physiol. 276, E863-E869 (1999).
29. Van Hall G, Sacchetti M, Radegran G, Saltin B: Human skeletal muscle fatty acid and glycerol metabolism during rest, exercise and recovery. J. Physiol. 543, 1047-1058 (2002).
30. Hagstrom-Toft E, Qvisth V, Nennesmo I et al.: Marked heterogeneity of human skeletal muscle lipolysis at rest. Diabetes 51, 3376-3383 (2002).
31. Coppack SW, Chinkes DL, Miles JM, Patterson BW, Klein S: A multicompartmental model of in vivo adipose tissue glycerol kinetics and capillary permeability in lean and obese humans. Diabetes 54, 1934-1941 (2005).
32. Havel RJ, Kane JP, Balasse EO, Segel N, Basso LV: Splanchnic metabolism of free fatty acids and production of triglycerides of very low density lipoproteins in normotriglyceridemic and hypertriglyceridemic humans. J. Clin. Invest. 49, 2017-2035 (1970).
33. Himms-Hagen J: The turnover of glycerol in plasma. Life Sci. 2, 170-174 (1963).
34. Kallai-Sanfacon MA, Norwich KH, Steiner G: A new approach to the measurement of glycerol turnover. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 56, 934-939 (1978).
35. Bortz WM, Paul P, Haff AC, Holmes WL: Glycerol turnover and oxidation in man. J. Clin. Invest. 51, 1537-1546 (1972).
36. Klein S, Young VR, Blackburn GL, Bistrian BR, Wolfe RR: Palmitate and glycerol kinetics during brief starvation in normal weight young adult and elderly subjects. J. Clin. Invest. 78, 928-933 (1986).
37. Hickner RC, Racette SB, Binder EF, Fisher JS, Kohrt WM: Effects of 10 days of endurance exercise training on the suppression of whole body and regional lipolysis by insulin. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 85, 1498-1504 (2000).
38. Miles JM, Nelson RH: Lipid kinetics. In: Clinical Diabetes Research. Methods and Techniques. Roden M (Ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK 151-168 (2007).
39. Wolfe RR, Klein S, Carraro F, Weber JM: Role of triglyceride-fatty acid cycle in controlling fat metabolism in humans during and after exercise. Am. J. Physiol. 258, E382-E389 (1990).
40. Koutsari C, Jensen MD: Free fatty acid metabolism in human obesity. J. Lipid Res. 47, 1643-1650 (2006).
41. Mittendorfer B, Liem O, Patterson BW, Miles JM, Klein S: What does the measurement of whole-body fatty acid rate of appearance in plasma by using a fatty acid tracer really mean? Diabetes 52, 1641-1648 (2003).
42. Teusink B, Voshol PJ, Dahlmans VE et al.: Contribution of fatty acids released from lipolysis of plasma triglycerides to total plasma fatty acid flux and tissue-specific fatty acid uptake. Diabetes 52, 614-620 (2003).
43. Evans K, Clark ML, Frayn KN: Effects of an oral and intravenous fat load on adipose tissue and forearm lipid metabolism. Am. J. Physiol. 276, E241-E248 (1999).
44. Gormsen LC, Jensen MD, Nielsen S: Measuring VLDL-triglyceride turnover in humans using ex vivo-prepared VLDL tracer. J. Lipid Res. 47, 99-106 (2006).
45. Wolfe RR, Shaw JH, Durkot MJ: Effect of sepsis on VLDL kinetics: responses in basal state and during glucose infusion. Am. J. Physiol. 248, E732-E740 (1985).
46. Miles JM, Park YS, Walewicz D et al.: Systemic and forearm triglyceride metabolism: fate of lipoprotein lipase-generated glycerol and free fatty acids. Diabetes 53, 521-527 (2004).
47. Armstrong DT, Steele R, Altszuler N, Dunn A, Bishop JS, De Bodo RC: Regulation of plasma free fatty acid turnover. Am. J. Physiol. 201, 9-15 (1961).
48. Barter PJ, Nestel PJ: Plasma free fatty acid transport during prolonged glucose consumption and its relationship to plasma triglyceride fatty acids in man. J. Lipid Res. 13, 483-490 (1972).
49. 13C] palmitic acid. Biomed. Mass Spectrom. 7, 168-171 (1980).
50. 14-labeled unesterified fatty acids in normal human subjects. J. Clin. Invest. 37, 1504-1515 (1958).
51. Eaton RP, Berman M, Steinberg D: Kinetic studies of plasma free fatty acid and triglyceride metabolism in man. J. Clin. Invest. 48, 1560-1579 (1969).
52. Nikkila EA: Transport of free fatty acids. Prog. Biochem. Pharmacol. 6, 102-129 (1971).
53. Spector A: Metabolism of free fatty acids. Prog. Biochem. Pharmacol. 6, 130-176 (1971).
54. Miles JM, Ellman MG, McClean KL, Jensen MD: Validation of a new method for determination of free fatty acid turnover. Am. J. Physiol. 252, E431-E438 (1987).
55. 13C]palmitate. J. Lipid Res. 38, 1888-1895 (1997).
56. Patterson BW, Zhao G, Elias N, Hachey DL, Klein S: Validation of a new procedure to determine plasma fatty acid concentration and isotopic enrichment. J. Lipid Res. 40, 2118-2124 (1999).
57. Hagenfeldt L: Turnover of individual free fatty acids in man. Fed. Proc. 34, 2246-2249 (1975).
58. Hannukainen JC, Nuutila P, Kaprio J et al.: Relationship between local perfusion and FFA uptake in human skeletal muscle - no effect of increased physical activity and aerobic fitness. J. Appl. Physiol. 101, 1303-1311 (2006).
59. Kalliokoski KK, Scheede-Bergdahl C, Kjaer M, Boushel R: Muscle perfusion and metabolic heterogeneity: insights from noninvasive imaging techniques. Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. 34, 164-170 (2006).
60. Getty L, Panteleon AE, Mittelman SD, Dea MK, Bergman RN: Rapid oscillations in omental lipolysis are independent of changing insulin levels in vivo. J. Clin. Invest. 106, 421-430 (2000).
61. Karpe F, Fielding BA, Coppack SW, Lawrence VJ, Macdonald IA, Frayn KN: Oscillations of fatty acid and glycerol release from human subcutaneous adipose tissue in vivo. Diabetes 54, 1297-1303 (2005).
62. Magkos F, Patterson BW, Mittendorfer B: Reproducibility of stable isotope-labeled tracer measures of VLDL-triglyceride and VLDL-apolipoprotein B-100 kinetics. J. Lipid Res. 48, 1204-1211 (2007).
63. Jensen MD, Caruso M, Heiling V, Miles JM: Insulin regulation of lipolysis in nondiabetic and IDDM subjects. Diabetes 38, 1595-1601 (1989).
64. Nielsen S, Guo Z, Albu JB, Klein S, O'Brien PC, Jensen MD: Energy expenditure, sex, and endogenous fuel availability in humans. J. Clin. Invest. 111, 981-988 (2003).
65. DeLany JP, Windhauser MM, Champagne CM, Bray GA: Differential oxidation of individual dietary fatty acids in humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 72, 905-911 (2000).
66. Schmidt DE, Allred JB, Kien CL: Fractional oxidation of chylomicron-derived oleate is greater than that of palmitate in healthy adults fed frequent small meals. J. Lipid Res. 40, 2322-2332 (1999).
67. Jones PJ, Pencharz PB, Clandinin MT: Whole body oxidation of dietary fatty acids: implications for energy utilization. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 42, 769-777 (1985).
68. Issekutz B Jr, Paul P, Miller HI, Bortz WM: Oxidation of plasma FFA in lean and obese humans. Metabolism 17, 62-73 (1968).
69. 2 in human bicarbonate studies: a critical review with original data. Clin. Sci. (Lond.) 91, 665-677 (1996).
70. Allsop JR, Wolfe RR, Burke JF: Tracer priming the bicarbonate pool. J. Appl. Physiol. 45, 137-139 (1978).
71. Yki-Jarvinen H, Puhakainen I, Saloranta C, Groop L, Taskinen MR: Demonstration of a novel feedback mechanism between FFA oxidation from intracellular and intravascular sources. Am. J. Physiol. 260, E680-E689 (1991).
72. Sidossis LS, Coggan AR, Gastaldelli A, Wolfe RR: Pathway of free fatty acid oxidation in human subjects. Implications for tracer studies. J. Clin. Invest. 95, 278-284 (1995).
73. Sidossis LS, Coggan AR, Gastaldelli A, Wolfe RR: A new correction factor for use in tracer estimations of plasma fatty acid oxidation. Am. J. Physiol. 269, E649-E656 (1995).
74. 13C] palmitate oxidation rates in humans. J. Physiol. 513, 215-223 (1998).
75. 13C]substrate oxidation. Clin. Sci. (Lond.) 98, 587-592 (2000).
76. 13C]acetate recovery factor in metabolic research. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 89, 377-383 (2003).
77. 2 during the infusion of C-1- vs C-2-labeled acetate: implications for tracer studies of substrate oxidation. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 51, 248-252 (1990).
78. Votruba SB, Zeddun SM, Schoeller DA: Validation of deuterium labeled fatty acids for the measurement of dietary fat oxidation: a method for measuring fat-oxidation in free-living subjects. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 25, 1240-1245 (2001).
79. Raman A, Blanc S, Adams A, Schoeller DA: Validation of deuterium-labeled fatty acids for the measurement of dietary fat oxidation during physical activity. J. Lipid Res. 45, 2339-2344 (2004).
80. Westerterp KR, Smeets A, Lejeune MP, Wouters-Adriaens MP, Westerterp-Plantenga MS: Dietary fat oxidation as a function of body fat. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 87,132-135 (2008).
81. Gibbons GF, Wiggins D, Brown AM, Hebbachi AM: Synthesis and function of hepatic very-low-density lipoprotein. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 32, 59-64 (2004).
82. Shelness GS, Sellers JA: Very-low-density lipoprotein assembly and secretion. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 12, 151-157 (2001).
83. Elovson J, Chatterton JE, Bell GT et al.: Plasma very low density lipoproteins contain a single molecule of apolipoprotein B. J. Lipid Res. 29, 1461-1473 (1988).
84. Packard CJ: Understanding coronary heart disease as a consequence of defective regulation of apolipoprotein B metabolism. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 10, 237-244 (1999).
85. Gibbons GF, Islam K, Pease RJ: Mobilisation of triacylglycerol stores. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1483, 37-57 (2000).
86. Lewis GF: Fatty acid regulation of very low density lipoprotein production. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 8, 146-153 (1997).
87. Parhofer KG, Barrett PH: What we have learned about VLDL and LDL metabolism from human kinetics studies. J. Lipid Res. 47, 1620-1630 (2006).
88. Magkos F, Patterson BW, Mohammed BS, Klein S, Mittendorfer B: Women produce fewer but triglyceride-richer very low-density lipoproteins than men. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 92, 1311-1318 (2007).
89. Melish J, Le NA, Ginsberg H, Steinberg D, Brown WV: Dissociation of apoprotein B and triglyceride production in very-low-density lipoproteins. Am. J. Physiol. 239, E354-E362 (1980).
90. Mittendorfer B, Patterson BW, Klein S: Effect of weight loss on VLDL-triglyceride and ApoB-100 kinetics in women with abdominal obesity. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 284, E549-E556 (2003).
91. Boberg J, Carlson LA, Freyschuss U: Studies on the total and splanchnic turnover of plasma free fatty acids and plasma triglycerides in man by means of isotopic and chemical methods. Prog. Biochem. Pharmacol. 5, 149-159 (1969).
92. Parks EJ, Krauss RM, Christiansen MP, Neese RA, Hellerstein MK: Effects of a low-fat, high-carbohydrate diet on VLDL-triglyceride assembly, production, and clearance. J. Clin. Invest. 104, 1087-1096 (1999).
93. 1] glycerol. J. Lipid Res. 39, 2319-2328 (1998).
94. Wang W, Basinger A, Neese RA et al.: Effect of nicotinic acid administration on hepatic very low density lipoprotein-triglyceride production. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 280, E540-E547 (2001).
95. Vedala A, Wang W, Neese RA, Christiansen MP, Hellerstein MK: Delayed secretory pathway contributions to VLDL-triglycerides from plasma NEFA, diet, and de novo lipogenesis in humans. J. Lipid Res. 47, 2562-2574 (2006).
96. Patterson BW, Mittendorfer B, Elias N, Satyanarayana R, Klein S: Use of stable isotopically labeled tracers to measure very low density lipoprotein-triglyceride turnover. J. Lipid Res. 43, 223-233 (2002).
97. Kekki M: Plasma triglyceride turnover in 92 adult normolipaemic and 30 hypertriglyceridaemic subjects-the effect of age, synthesis rate and removal capacity on plasma triglyceride concentration. Ann. Clin. Res. 12, 64-76 (1980).
98. Sane T, Nikkila EA: Very low density lipoprotein triglyceride metabolism in relatives of hypertriglyceridemic probands - evidence for genetic control of triglyceride removal. Arteriosclerosis 8, 217-226 (1988).
99. Farquhar JW, Gross RC, Wagner RM, Reaven GM: Validation of an incompletely coupled two-compartment nonrecycling catenary model for turnover of liver and plasma triglyceride in man. J. Lipid Res. 6, 119-134 (1965).
100. Reaven GM, Hill DB, Gross RC, Farquhar JW: Kinetics of triglyceride turnover of very low density lipoproteins of human plasma. J. Clin. Invest. 44, 1826-1833 (1965).
101. Nikkila EA, Kekki M: Polymorphism of plasma triglyceride kinetics in normal human adult subjects. Acta Med. Scand. 190, 49-59 (1971).
102. 5]glycerol bolus to measure very low density lipoprotein triglyceride kinetics in humans. J. Lipid Res. 40, 2111-2117 (1999).
103. Magkos F, Tsekouras YE, Prentzas KI et al.: Acute exercise-induced changes in basal VLDL-triglyceride kinetics leading to hypotriglyceridemia manifest more readily after resistance than endurance exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 105, 1228-1236 (2008).
104. Adiels M, Packard C, Caslake MJ et al.: A new combined multicompartmental model for apolipoprotein B-100 and triglyceride metabolism in VLDL subfractions. J. Lipid Res. 46, 58-67 (2005).
105. 2 is related to insulin resistance in normoglycaemic middle-aged subjects. Atherosclerosis 176, 49-56 (2004).
106. Adiels M, Westerbacka J, Soro-Paavonen A et al.: Acute suppression of VLDL1 secretion rate by insulin is associated with hepatic fat content and insulin resistance. Diabetologia 50, 2356-2365 (2007).
107. Watts GF, Moroz P, Barrett PH: Kinetics of very-low-density lipoprotein apolipoprotein B-100 in normolipidemic subjects: pooled analysis of stable-isotope studies. Metabolism 49, 1204-1210 (2000).
108. Fabbrini E, Mohammed BS, Magkos F, Korenblat KM, Patterson BW, Klein S: Alterations in adipose tissue and hepatic lipid kinetics in obese men and women with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Gastroenterology 134, 424-431 (2008).
109. Magkos F, Patterson BW, Mittendorfer B: No effect of menstrual cycle phase on basal very-low-density lipoprotein triglyceride and apolipoprotein B-100 kinetics. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 291, E1243-E1249 (2006).
110. Magkos F, Patterson BW, Mohammed BS, Mittendorfer B: A single 1-h bout of evening exercise increases basal FFA flux without affecting VLDL-triglyceride and VLDL-apolipoprotein B-100 kinetics in untrained lean men. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 292, E1568-E1574 (2007).
111. Magkos F, Wright DC, Patterson BW, Mohammed BS, Mittendorfer B: Lipid metabolism response to a single, prolonged bout of endurance exercise in healthy young men. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 290, E355-E362 (2006).
112. Hellerstein MK, Christiansen M, Kaempfer S et al.: Measurement of de novo hepatic lipogenesis in humans using stable isotopes. J. Clin. Invest. 87, 1841-1852 (1991).
113. Aarsland A, Chinkes D, Wolfe RR: Contributions of de novo synthesis of fatty acids to total VLDL-triglyceride secretion during prolonged hyperglycemia/hyperinsulinemia in normal man. J. Clin. Invest. 98, 2008-2017 (1996).
114. Barrows BR, Parks EJ: Contributions of different fatty acid sources to very low-density lipoprotein-triacylglycerol in the fasted and fed states. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 91, 1446-1452 (2006).
115. Hellerstein MK, Schwarz JM, Neese RA: Regulation of hepatic de novo lipogenesis in humans. Ann. Rev. Nutr. 16, 523-557 (1996).
116. Diraison F, Moulin P, Beylot M: Contribution of hepatic de novo lipogenesis and reesterification of plasma non esterified fatty acids to plasma triglyceride synthesis during non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Diabetes Metab. 29, 478-485 (2003).
117. Donnelly KL, Smith CI, Schwarzenberg SJ, Jessurun J, Boldt MD, Parks EJ: Sources of fatty acids stored in liver and secreted via lipoproteins in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. J. Clin. Invest. 115, 1343-1351 (2005).
118. Sidossis LS, Magkos F, Mittendorfer B, Wolfe RR: Stable isotope tracer dilution for quantifying very low-density lipoprotein-triacylglycerol kinetics in man. Clin. Nutr. 23, 457-466 (2004).
119. Bjorkegren J, Packard CJ, Hamsten A et al.: Accumulation of large very low density lipoprotein in plasma during intravenous infusion of a chylomicron-like triglyceride emulsion reflects competition for a common lipolytic pathway. J. Lipid Res. 37, 76-86 (1996).
120. Karpe F, Bickerton AS, Hodson L, Fielding BA, Tan GD, Frayn KN: Removal of triacylglycerols from chylomicrons and VLDL by capillary beds: the basis of lipoprotein remnant formation. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 35, 472-476 (2007).
121. Al-Shayji IA, Gill JM, Cooney J, Siddiqui S, Caslake MJ: Development of a novel method to determine very low density lipoprotein kinetics. J. Lipid Res. 48, 2086-2095 (2007).
122. Bickerton AS, Roberts R, Fielding BA et al.: Preferential uptake of dietary fatty acids in adipose tissue and muscle in the postprandial period. Diabetes 56, 168-176 (2007).
123. Hodson L, Bickerton AS, McQuaid SE et al.: The contribution of splanchnic fat to VLDL triglyceride is greater in insulin-resistant than insulin-sensitive men and women: studies in the postprandial state. Diabetes 56, 2433-2441 (2007).
124. Fisher RM, Coppack SW, Humphreys SM, Gibbons GF, Frayn KN: Human triacylglycerol-rich lipoprotein subfractions as substrates for lipoprotein lipase. Clin. Chim. Acta 236, 7-17 (1995).
125. Hodson L, McQuaid SE, Karpe F, Frayn KN, Fielding BA: Differences in partitioning of meal fatty acids into blood lipid fractions: a comparison of linoleate, oleate and palmitate. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 296(1), E64-E71 (2008).
126. Cree MG, Wolfe RR: Postburn trauma insulin resistance and fat metabolism. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 294, E1-E9 (2008).
127. Betteridge DJ, Illingworth DR, Shepherd J: Lipoproteins in Health and Disease. Arnold Publishers, London, UK (1999).
128. Magkos F, Sidossis LS: Methodological approaches to the study of metabolism across individual tissues in man. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 8, 501-510 (2005).