Molecular neurobiology of bipolar disorder: a disease of 'mood-stabilizing neurons'?

Trends in Neurosciences

Volumn 31, Issue 10, 2008, Pages 495-503

  Kato, Tadafumi ^a  

^a RIKEN BRAIN SCIENCE INSTITUTE   (Japan)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CALCIUM CHANNEL; DOPAMINE; GLYCOGEN SYNTHASE KINASE 3BETA; LITHIUM; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; PSYCHOSTIMULANT AGENT; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; THAPSIGARGIN; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; TRIPHOSPHOINOSITIDE;

ARTICLE; BIPOLAR DISORDER; BRAIN NERVE CELL; CALCIUM SIGNALING; DISEASE COURSE; DISORDERS OF MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTIONS; DRUG EFFICACY; ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM STRESS; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; GENETIC ASSOCIATION; GENETIC RISK; HUMAN; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL;

ANIMALS; BIPOLAR DISORDER; CALCIUM; HUMANS; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; NEUROBIOLOGY; NEURONS;

EID: 52049115624     PISSN: 01662236     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2008.07.007     Document Type: Article

References (137)

1. Goodwin F.K., and Jamison K.R. Manic-Depressive Illness. 2nd edn (2007), Oxford University Press
2. Kato T. Molecular genetics of bipolar disorder and depression. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 61 (2007) 3-19
3. WTCCC. Genome-wide association study of 14,000 cases of seven common diseases and 3,000 shared controls. Nature 447 (2007) 661-678
4. Sklar P., et al. Whole-genome association study of bipolar disorder. Mol. Psychiatry 13 (2008) 558-569
5. Videbech P. MRI findings in patients with affective disorder: a meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 96 (1997) 157-168
6. Lyoo I.K., et al. Advances in magnetic resonance imaging methods for the evaluation of bipolar disorder. CNS Spectr. 11 (2006) 269-280
7. Moore G.J., et al. Lithium-induced increase in human brain grey matter. Lancet 356 (2000) 1241-1242
8. Kato T. Role of mitochondrial DNA in calcium signaling abnormality in bipolar disorder. Cell Calcium 44 (2008) 92-102
9. Ranjekar P.K., et al. Decreased antioxidant enzymes and membrane essential polyunsaturated fatty acids in schizophrenic and bipolar mood disorder patients. Psychiatry Res. 121 (2003) 109-122
10. Stahl L.A., et al. The role of omega-3 fatty acids in mood disorders. Curr. Opin. Investig. Drugs 9 (2008) 57-64
11. Sublette M.E., et al. Plasma free polyunsaturated fatty acid levels are associated with symptom severity in acute mania. Bipolar Disord. 9 (2007) 759-765
12. Elashoff M., et al. Meta-analysis of 12 genomic studies in bipolar disorder. J. Mol. Neurosci. 31 (2007) 221-243
13. Kato T., et al. Comprehensive gene expression analysis in bipolar disorder. Can. J. Psychiatry 52 (2007) 763-771
14. Peet M. Induction of mania with selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants. Br. J. Psychiatry 164 (1994) 549-550
15. Valentini V., et al. Noradrenaline transporter blockers raise extracellular dopamine in medial prefrontal but not parietal and occipital cortex: differences with mianserin and clozapine. J. Neurochem. 88 (2004) 917-927
16. Zhou Q.Y., and Palmiter R.D. Dopamine-deficient mice are severely hypoactive, adipsic, and aphagic. Cell 83 (1995) 1197-1209
17. Nishii K., et al. Motor and learning dysfunction during postnatal development in mice defective in dopamine neuronal transmission. J. Neurosci. Res. 54 (1998) 450-464
18. Torack R.M., and Morris J.C. The association of ventral tegmental area histopathology with adult dementia. Arch. Neurol. 45 (1988) 497-501
19. Mahmood T., and Silverstone T. Serotonin and bipolar disorder. J. Affect. Disord. 66 (2001) 1-11
20. Harwood A.J. Lithium and bipolar mood disorder: the inositol-depletion hypothesis revisited. Mol. Psychiatry 10 (2005) 117-126
21. Nonaka S., et al. Chronic lithium treatment robustly protects neurons in the central nervous system against excitotoxicity by inhibiting N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-mediated calcium influx. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 95 (1998) 2642-2647
22. Chen G., et al. The mood-stabilizing agents lithium and valproate robustly increase the levels of the neuroprotective protein bcl-2 in the CNS. J. Neurochem. 72 (1999) 879-882
23. Williams R.S., et al. A common mechanism of action for three mood-stabilizing drugs. Nature 417 (2002) 292-295
24. Chen G., et al. Enhancement of hippocampal neurogenesis by lithium. J. Neurochem. 75 (2000) 1729-1734
25. Hao Y., et al. Mood stabilizer valproate promotes ERK pathway-dependent cortical neuronal growth and neurogenesis. J. Neurosci. 24 (2004) 6590-6599
26. Laeng P., et al. The mood stabilizer valproic acid stimulates GABA neurogenesis from rat forebrain stem cells. J. Neurochem. 91 (2004) 238-251
27. Klein P.S., and Melton D.A. A molecular mechanism for the effect of lithium on development. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 93 (1996) 8455-8459
28. Chen G., et al. The mood-stabilizing agent valproate inhibits the activity of glycogen synthase kinase-3. J. Neurochem. 72 (1999) 1327-1330
29. Du J., et al. Structurally dissimilar antimanic agents modulate synaptic plasticity by regulating AMPA glutamate receptor subunit GluR1 synaptic expression. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1003 (2003) 378-380
30. Zhou R., et al. The anti-apoptotic, glucocorticoid receptor cochaperone protein BAG-1 is a long-term target for the actions of mood stabilizers. J. Neurosci. 25 (2005) 4493-4502
31. Basta-Kaim A., et al. Mood stabilizers inhibit glucocorticoid receptor function in LMCAT cells. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 495 (2004) 103-110
32. Cui J., et al. Role of glutathione in neuroprotective effects of mood stabilizing drugs lithium and valproate. Neuroscience 144 (2007) 1447-1453
33. Higashi M., et al. Mood stabilizing drugs expand the neural stem cell pool in the adult brain through activation of notch signaling. Stem Cells 26 (2008) 1758-1767
34. Leng Y., et al. Synergistic neuroprotective effects of lithium and valproic acid or other histone deacetylase inhibitors in neurons: roles of glycogen synthase kinase-3 inhibition. J. Neurosci. 28 (2008) 2576-2588
35. Regenold W.T., et al. Myelin staining of deep white matter in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and unipolar major depression. Psychiatry Res. 151 (2007) 179-188
36. Tkachev D., et al. Oligodendrocyte dysfunction in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Lancet 362 (2003) 798-805
37. Manji H.K., and Duman R.S. Impairments of neuroplasticity and cellular resilience in severe mood disorders: implications for the development of novel therapeutics. Psychopharmacol. Bull. 35 (2001) 5-49
38. McCurdy R.D., et al. Cell cycle alterations in biopsied olfactory neuroepithelium in schizophrenia and bipolar I disorder using cell culture and gene expression analyses. Schizophr. Res. 82 (2006) 163-173
39. Benes F.M., et al. The density of pyramidal and nonpyramidal neurons in anterior cingulate cortex of schizophrenic and bipolar subjects. Biol. Psychiatry 50 (2001) 395-406
40. Bouras C., et al. Anterior cingulate cortex pathology in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Acta Neuropathol. 102 (2001) 373-379
41. Cotter D., et al. The density and spatial distribution of GABAergic neurons, labelled using calcium binding proteins, in the anterior cingulate cortex in major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 51 (2002) 377-386
42. Rajkowska G., et al. Reductions in neuronal and glial density characterize the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in bipolar disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 49 (2001) 741-752
43. Beasley C.L., et al. Selective deficits in prefrontal cortical GABAergic neurons in schizophrenia defined by the presence of calcium-binding proteins. Biol. Psychiatry 52 (2002) 708-715
44. Benes F.M., et al. A reduction of nonpyramidal cells in sector CA2 of schizophrenics and manic depressives. Biol. Psychiatry 44 (1998) 88-97
45. Kromkamp M., et al. Decreased thalamic expression of the homeobox gene DLX1 in psychosis. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 60 (2003) 869-874
46. Manaye K.F., et al. Selective neuron loss in the paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus in patients suffering from major depression and bipolar disorder. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 64 (2005) 224-229
47. Baumann B., et al. Circumscribed numerical deficit of dorsal raphe neurons in mood disorders. Psychol. Med. 32 (2002) 93-103
48. Konradi C., et al. Molecular evidence for mitochondrial dysfunction in bipolar disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61 (2004) 300-308
49. Warsh J.J., et al. Role of intracellular calcium signaling in the pathophysiology and pharmacotherapy of bipolar disorder: current status. Clin. Neurosci. Res. 4 (2004) 201-213
50. Hough C., et al. Elevated basal and thapsigargin-stimulated intracellular calcium of platelets and lymphocytes from bipolar affective disorder patients measured by a fluorometric microassay. Biol. Psychiatry 46 (1999) 247-255
51. 2+ signalling in transformed lymphoblastoid cells from patients with bipolar disorder. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 6 (2003) 379-389
52. Perova T., et al. Hyperactive intracellular calcium dynamics in B lymphoblasts from patients with bipolar I disorder. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 11 (2008) 185-196
53. Belmaker R.H., et al. Reduced inositol content in lymphocyte-derived cell lines from bipolar patients. Bipolar Disord. 4 (2002) 67-69
54. Nemanov L., et al. Effect of bipolar disorder on lymphocyte inositol monophosphatase mRNA levels. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2 (1999) 25-29
55. Yoon I.S., et al. Altered IMPA2 gene expression and calcium homeostasis in bipolar disorder. Mol. Psychiatry 6 (2001) 678-683
56. Shamir A., et al. Inositol monophosphatase in immortalized lymphoblastoid cell lines indicates susceptibility to bipolar disorder and response to lithium therapy. Mol. Psychiatry 3 (1998) 481-482
57. Ohnishi T., et al. A promoter haplotype of the inositol monophosphatase 2 gene (IMPA2) at 18p11.2 confers a possible risk for bipolar disorder by enhancing transcription. Neuropsychopharmacology 32 (2007) 1727-1737
58. Friedman E., et al. Altered platelet protein kinase C activity in bipolar affective disorder, manic episode. Biol. Psychiatry 33 (1993) 520-525
59. Wang H.Y., et al. Increased membrane-associated protein kinase C activity and translocation in blood platelets from bipolar affective disorder patients. J. Psychiatr. Res. 33 (1999) 171-179
60. Hahn C.G., et al. Lithium and valproic acid treatments reduce PKC activation and receptor-G protein coupling in platelets of bipolar manic patients. J. Psychiatr. Res. 39 (2005) 355-363
61. Pandey G.N., et al. Protein kinase C and phospholipase C activity and expression of their specific isozymes is decreased and expression of MARCKS is increased in platelets of bipolar but not in unipolar patients. Neuropsychopharmacology 26 (2002) 216-228
62. Pandey G.N., et al. Decreased protein kinase C (PKC) in platelets of pediatric bipolar patients: effect of treatment with mood stabilizing drugs. J. Psychiatr. Res. 42 (2008) 106-116
63. Young L.T., et al. Platelet protein kinase C α levels in drug-free and lithium-treated subjects with bipolar disorder. Neuropsychobiology 40 (1999) 63-66
64. Prickaerts J., et al. Transgenic mice overexpressing glycogen synthase kinase 3β: a putative model of hyperactivity and mania. J. Neurosci. 26 (2006) 9022-9029
65. Dokucu M.E., et al. Lithium- and valproate-induced alterations in circadian locomotor behavior in Drosophila. Neuropsychopharmacology 30 (2005) 2216-2224
66. Yin L., et al. Nuclear receptor Rev-erbα is a critical lithium-sensitive component of the circadian clock. Science 311 (2006) 1002-1005
67. Yang, S. et al. (2008) Assessment of circadian function in fibroblasts of patients with bipolar disorder. Mol Psychiatry 10.1038/mp.2008.10
68. Lachman H.M., et al. Increase in GSK3β gene copy number variation in bipolar disorder. Am. J. Med. Genet. B Neuropsychiatr. Genet. 144 (2007) 259-265
69. Kato T., et al. Reduction of brain phosphocreatine in bipolar II disorder detected by phosphorus-31 magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J. Affect. Disord. 31 (1994) 125-133
70. 7Li magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J. Affect. Disord. 27 (1993) 53-59
71. Dager S.R., et al. Brain metabolic alterations in medication-free patients with bipolar disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61 (2004) 450-458
72. Hamakawa H., et al. Quantitative proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the bilateral frontal lobes in patients with bipolar disorder. Psychol. Med. 29 (1999) 639-644
73. Port J.D., et al. Metabolic alterations in medication-free patients with bipolar disorder: a 3T CSF-corrected magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging study. Psychiatry Res. 162 (2008) 113-121
74. Frey B.N., et al. Abnormal cellular energy and phospholipid metabolism in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of medication-free individuals with bipolar disorder: an in vivo 1H MRS study. Bipolar Disord. 9 Suppl. 1 (2007) 119-127
75. Suomalainen A., et al. Multiple deletions of mitochondrial DNA in several tissues of a patient with severe retarded depression and familial progressive external ophthalmoplegia. J. Clin. Invest. 90 (1992) 61-66
76. Siciliano G., et al. Autosomal dominant external ophthalmoplegia and bipolar affective disorder associated with a mutation in the ANT1 gene. Neuromuscul. Disord. 13 (2003) 162-165
77. Fattal O., et al. Psychiatric comorbidity in 36 adults with mitochondrial cytopathies. CNS Spectr. 12 (2007) 429-438
78. Kato T., and Kato N. Mitochondrial dysfunction in bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord. 2 (2000) 180-190
79. Kato T., et al. Increased levels of a mitochondrial DNA deletion in the brain of patients with bipolar disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 42 (1997) 871-875
80. Fuke S., et al. Quantitative analysis of the 4977-bp common deletion of mitochondrial DNA in postmortem frontal cortex from patients with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Neurosci. Lett. 439 (2008) 173-177
81. Sabunciyan S., et al. Quantification of total mitochondrial DNA and mitochondrial common deletion in the frontal cortex of patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. J. Neural Transm. 114 (2007) 665-674
82. Munakata K., et al. Mitochondrial DNA 3243A>G mutation and increased expression of LARS2 gene in the brains of patients with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 57 (2005) 525-532
83. Iwamoto K., et al. Altered expression of mitochondria-related genes in postmortem brains of patients with bipolar disorder or schizophrenia, as revealed by large-scale DNA microarray analysis. Hum. Mol. Genet. 14 (2005) 241-253
84. Sun X., et al. Downregulation in components of the mitochondrial electron transport chain in the postmortem frontal cortex of subjects with bipolar disorder. J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 31 (2006) 189-196
85. Vawter M.P., et al. Mitochondrial-related gene expression changes are sensitive to agonal-pH state: implications for brain disorders. Mol. Psychiatry 11 (2006) 663-679
86. Naydenov A.V., et al. Differences in lymphocyte electron transport gene expression levels between subjects with bipolar disorder and normal controls in response to glucose deprivation stress. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 64 (2007) 555-564
87. Van Goethem G., et al. Mutation of POLG is associated with progressive external ophthalmoplegia characterized by mtDNA deletions. Nat. Genet. 28 (2001) 211-212
88. Kasahara T., et al. Mice with neuron-specific accumulation of mitochondrial DNA mutations show mood disorder-like phenotypes. Mol. Psychiatry 11 (2006) 577-593
89. Kasahara T., et al. A marked effect of electroconvulsive stimulation on behavioral aberration of mice with neuron-specific mitochondrial DNA defects. PLoS ONE 3 (2008) e1877
90. 2+ dynamics in transgenic mice with neuron-specific mitochondrial DNA defects. J. Neurosci. 26 (2006) 12314-12324
91. Andreazza A.C., et al. Oxidative stress markers in bipolar disorder: a meta-analysis. J. Affect. Disord. (2008) 10.1016/j.jad.2008.04.013
92. Kakiuchi C., et al. Impaired feedback regulation of XBP1 as a genetic risk factor for bipolar disorder. Nat. Genet. 35 (2003) 171-175
93. Reimold A.M., et al. An essential role in liver development for transcription factor XBP-1. Genes Dev. 14 (2000) 152-157
94. Reimold A.M., et al. Plasma cell differentiation requires the transcription factor XBP-1. Nature 412 (2001) 300-307
95. Yoshida H., et al. XBP1 mRNA is induced by ATF6 and spliced by IRE1 in response to ER stress to produce a highly active transcription factor. Cell 107 (2001) 881-891
96. Yoshida H., et al. pXBP1(U) encoded in XBP1 pre-mRNA negatively regulates unfolded protein response activator pXBP1(S) in mammalian ER stress response. J. Cell Biol. 172 (2006) 565-575
97. Cichon S., et al. Lack of support for a genetic association of the XBP1 promoter polymorphism with bipolar disorder in probands of European origin. Nat. Genet. 36 (2004) 783-784
98. So J., et al. Impaired endoplasmic reticulum stress response in B-lymphoblasts from patients with bipolar-I disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 62 (2007) 141-147
99. Hayashi, A. et al. Aberrant endoplasmic reticulum stress response in lymphoblastoid cells from patients with bipolar disorder. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. (in press)
100. Hayashi A., et al. The role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)-induced XBP1 splicing during brain development. J. Biol. Chem. 282 (2007) 34525-34534
101. Shim J., et al. The unfolded protein response regulates glutamate receptor export from the endoplasmic reticulum. Mol. Biol. Cell 15 (2004) 4818-4828
102. Kakiuchi C., et al. XBP1 induces WFS1 through an endoplasmic reticulum stress response element-like motif in SH-SY5Y cells. J. Neurochem. 97 (2006) 545-555
103. Swift R.G., et al. Psychiatric disorders in 36 families with Wolfram syndrome. Am. J. Psychiatry 148 (1991) 775-779
104. Kato T., et al. Behavioral and gene expression analyses of Wfs1 knockout mice as a possible animal model of mood disorder. Neurosci. Res. 61 (2008) 143-158
105. Kuratomi G., et al. Aberrant DNA methylation associated with bipolar disorder identified from discordant monozygotic twins. Mol. Psychiatry 13 (2008) 429-441
106. Wang H.Q., and Takahashi R. Expanding insights on the involvement of endoplasmic reticulum stress in Parkinson's disease. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 9 (2007) 553-561
107. Marchetti P., et al. The endoplasmic reticulum in pancreatic β cells of type 2 diabetes patients. Diabetologia 50 (2007) 2486-2494
108. Luoma P., et al. Parkinsonism, premature menopause, and mitochondrial DNA polymerase γ mutations: clinical and molecular genetic study. Lancet 364 (2004) 875-882
109. Ozcan U., et al. Endoplasmic reticulum stress links obesity, insulin action, and type 2 diabetes. Science 306 (2004) 457-461
110. Post R.M., and Weiss S.R. A speculative model of affective illness cyclicity based on patterns of drug tolerance observed in amygdala-kindled seizures. Mol. Neurobiol. 13 (1996) 33-60
111. Levinson A.J., et al. Cortical inhibitory dysfunction in bipolar disorder: a study using transcranial magnetic stimulation. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 27 (2007) 493-497
112. Benes F.M., et al. Regulation of the GABA cell phenotype in hippocampus of schizophrenics and bipolars. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 104 (2007) 10164-10169
113. Lewy A.J., et al. Manic-depressive patients may be supersensitive to light. Lancet 1 (1981) 383-384
114. Kato T. Mitochondrial dysfunction as the molecular basis of bipolar disorder: therapeutic implications. CNS Drugs 21 (2007) 1-11
115. Frank E., et al. Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy: an intervention addressing rhythm dysregulation in bipolar disorder. Dialogues Clin. Neurosci. 9 (2007) 325-332
116. Faraone S.V., and Tsuang M.T. Heterogeneity and the genetics of bipolar disorder. Am. J. Med. Genet. C Semin. Med. Genet. 123C (2003) 1-9
117. Ongur D., et al. Glial reduction in the subgenual prefrontal cortex in mood disorders. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 95 (1998) 13290-13295
118. Cotter D., et al. Reduced glial cell density and neuronal size in the anterior cingulate cortex in major depressive disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 58 (2001) 545-553
119. Chana G., et al. Two-dimensional assessment of cytoarchitecture in the anterior cingulate cortex in major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia: evidence for decreased neuronal somal size and increased neuronal density. Biol. Psychiatry 53 (2003) 1086-1098
120. Cotter D., et al. Reduced neuronal size and glial cell density in area 9 of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in subjects with major depressive disorder. Cereb. Cortex 12 (2002) 386-394
121. Uranova N.A., et al. Oligodendroglial density in the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia and mood disorders: a study from the Stanley Neuropathology Consortium. Schizophr. Res. 67 (2004) 269-275
122. Vostrikov V.M., et al. Deficit of perineuronal oligodendrocytes in the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia and mood disorders. Schizophr. Res. 94 (2007) 273-280
123. Uranova N., et al. Electron microscopy of oligodendroglia in severe mental illness. Brain Res. Bull. 55 (2001) 597-610
124. Beasley C.L., et al. Density and distribution of white matter neurons in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder: no evidence for abnormalities of neuronal migration. Mol. Psychiatry 7 (2002) 564-570
125. Cotter D., et al. Evidence for orbitofrontal pathology in bipolar disorder and major depression, but not in schizophrenia. Bipolar Disord. 7 (2005) 358-369
126. Beckmann H., and Jakob H. Prenatal disturbances of nerve cell migration in the entorhinal region: a common vulnerability factor in functional psychoses?. J. Neural Transm. 84 (1991) 155-164
127. Damadzic R., et al. Neuritic pathology is lacking in the entorhinal cortex, subiculum and hippocampus in middle-aged adults with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder or unipolar depression. Acta Neuropathol. 103 (2002) 488-494
128. Cotter D., et al. Cell density and cortical thickness in Heschl's gyrus in schizophrenia, major depression and bipolar disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry 185 (2004) 258-259
129. Brauch R.A., et al. Glial cell number and neuron/glial cell ratios in postmortem brains of bipolar individuals. J. Affect. Disord. 91 (2006) 87-90
130. Dowlatshahi D., et al. Increased hippocampal supragranular Timm staining in subjects with bipolar disorder. Neuroreport 11 (2000) 3775-3778
131. Reif A., et al. Neural stem cell proliferation is decreased in schizophrenia, but not in depression. Mol. Psychiatry 11 (2006) 514-522
132. Young K.A., et al. Elevated neuron number in the limbic thalamus in major depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 161 (2004) 1270-1277
133. Baumann B., et al. Reduced volume of limbic system-affiliated basal ganglia in mood disorders: preliminary data from a postmortem study. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 11 (1999) 71-78
134. Bielau H., et al. Volume deficits of subcortical nuclei in mood disorders: a postmortem study. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 255 (2005) 401-412
135. Baumann B., et al. Tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity in the locus coeruleus is reduced in depressed non-suicidal patients but normal in depressed suicide patients. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 249 (1999) 212-219
136. Helmkamp C.E., et al. Evaluation of superior vermal Purkinje cell placement in mental illness. Biol. Psychiatry 45 (1999) 1370-1375
137. Gilmore J.H., and Bouldin T.W. Analysis of ependymal abnormalities in subjects with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depression. Schizophr. Res. 57 (2002) 267-271